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 The Scientist
He is… INSPIRE AWARDS

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The philosopher of present who thinks about future
Inspire is a National level programme to strengthen the
A tireless traveler travels to reveal the secrets of the nature roots of our traditional and technological development.

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His hands… The major aims of Innovations in Science Pursuit for
Inspired Research (INSPIRE) programme are...
Reaches to hug beyond the horizon
• Attract intelligent students towards sciences
Tries to reach even the other side of the endless sky • Identifying intelligent students and encourage them to study

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His looks… science from early age

Penetrate through the deep oceans • Develop complex human resources to promote scientific, technological
development and research
And breaks through the invisible nucleus of an atom Inspire is a competitive examination. It is an innovative programme to make
younger generation learn science interestingly. In 11th five year plan nearly Ten
His foot…

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Lakhs of students were selected during 12th five year plan (2012-17) Twenty
Thought to spread over nautical miles just within a short period Lakhs of students will be selected under this programme.
Two students from each high school (One student from 6 - 8 classes and
It shrinks to a nanometer and travels as fast as light one from 9 - 10 classes) and one student from each upper primary school are

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His heart… selected for this award.
Each selected student is awarded with Rs. 5000/-. One should utilize 50%
While vibrates rhythmically on violin strings one side of amount for making project or model remaining for display at district level
The other side explores the wonders of virus Inspire programme. Selected students will be sent to State level as well as
National level.
Leading to discover the biodiversity T Participate in Inspire programme - Develop our country.
His soul…
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Wondering with you and me at the same time
It creates the novelty in relationship
He is an ideal servant of nature since ancient ages
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And inspires of all the time

Sacrifice the life for the welfare of the human kind
Through his inventions and discoveries
Enlightens the lives through science
His is nothing but…
The Kepler… The Jenner… The Raman…
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

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CLASS IX

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Editors

Prof. Kamal Mahendroo, Dr.B. Krishnarajulu Naidu,

Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre, Retd., Professor of Physics
Udaipur, Rajastan. Osmania University, Hyderabad.

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Dr.M. Adinarayana, Dr. NannuruUpendar Reddy,
Retd., Professor of Chemistry Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
Osmania University, Hyderabad. SCERT., Hyderabad.

Academic Support
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Prof. V. Sudhakar
Dept of Education, EFLU, Hyderabad.
Miss. Preeti Misra, Mr Kishore Darak,
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Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre, Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre,
Udaipur, Rajastan. Udaipur, Rajastan.

Co-ordinators
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Sri M. Ramabrahmam, Lecturer, Dr. P. Shankar, Asst. Professor,

Govt. IASE, Masabtank, Hyderabad. IASE, O.U., Hyderabad.
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Dr. TVS Ramesh,

Co-ordinator, C&T Dept.,
SCERT, Hyderabad.
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Published by Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

Respect the Law Grow by Education
Get the Rights Behave Humbly

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 i

 A
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© Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

First Published 2013

New Impressions 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019

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All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means without the prior permission in writing of the
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publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published
and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copy right holder of this book is the Director
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of School Education, Hyderabad, Telangana.

We have used some photographs which are under
creative common licence. They are acknowledge at
the end of the book.

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Map litho,

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Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

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Free Distribution by Government of Telangana 2019-20

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Printed in India
at the Telangana Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Telangana.

ii
 A
Text Book Development Committee

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Sri A. Satyanarayana Reddy, Director, Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,
S.C.E.R.T., Hyderabad. Govt. Textbook printing press,
Hyderabad.
Dr. Nannuru Upendar Reddy,
Professor & Head C&T Dept.,

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S.C.E.R.T., Hyderabad.

Writers

Sri M. Ramabrahmam, Lecturer,

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Govt. IASE, Masabtank, Hyderabad.
Dr. P. Shankar, Asst. Professor, Sri R. Ananda Kumar, SA,
IASE, O.U., Hyderabad. ZPHS Laxmipuram, Visakhapatnam.
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Dr.K. Suresh, SA, Sri K.V.K. Srikanth, SA,

ZPHS Pasaragonda, Warangal. GTWAHS S.L.Puram, Srikakulam.
Sri V. Gurunadha Rao, SA, Sri M. Eswara Rao, SA,
ZPPSS Parvathagiri, Warangal. GHS Sompeta, Srikakulam
Sri Dandala Madhusudhana Reddy, SA,
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Sri S. Naushad Ali, SA,

ZPHS Munagala, Nalgonda. ZPHS G.D. Nellore, Chittoor.
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Sri Y. Venkat Reddy, SA, Sri A. Nagaraja Sekhar, SA,

ZPHS Chivemla, Nalgonda. ZPHS, Chathakonda, Khammam.

Cover page, Graphics & Designing

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Sri K. Sudhakara Chary, SGT, Sri Kishan Thatoju, Computer Operator,

UPS Neelikurthy, Warangal. C&T Dept.,SCERT, Hyderabad.

Sri Kurra Suresh Babu, B.Tech., MA., MPhill Sri Md. Ayyub Ahmed, S.A.,
Mana Media Graphics, Hyderabad. Z.P. H.S U/M, Atmakur, Mahbubnagar.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 iii

 Intro ...

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T he nature is life source for all living organisms. Rocks, water, hills and

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valleys, trees, animals etc. embedded in it… each of them are unique by
themselves. Everything has its own prominence. Human being is only a part of the
nature. The aspect which distinguishes the humans from all other organisms and
exclusive for them is their extraordinary thinking power. Thinking transforms a

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person as a unique entity from rest of the nature. Though it usually appears
simple and normal, the intricacies of the very nature often challenges us to untie
the tough knots of its hidden secrets, day in and day out.

The human being intuitionally contemplates and searches solutions for all the
critical challenges, all around,relentlessly. Curiously, the questions and answers are
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concealed in the nature itself. The role of science, in fact, is to find them out. For
this sake, some questions, some more thoughts, and some other investigations
are quite necessary. Scientific study is to move on systematically in different ways,
until discovering concrete solutions. Essence of the investigations lies in inquiring i.e.
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identifying questions, asking them and deriving adequate and apt answers. That is
why, Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer,emphasized that scientific learning is
nothing but improving the ability of questioning.

The teaching of science has to encourage children to think and work scientifically.
Also, it must enhance their love towards the nature. Even it should enable them to
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comprehend and appreciate the laws governing the nature in designing tremendous
diversity found around here and everywhere. Scientific learning is not just disclosing
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new things. It is also essential to go ahead with deep understanding of the nature’s
intrinsic principles;without interrupting the harmony of interrelation and
interdependence in the nature.

It is also necessary to step forward without interrupting the interrelationship

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and interdependency along with understanding of the nature’s intrinsic principles.High

School children possess cognitive capacity of comprehending the nature and
characteristics of the transforming world surrounding them. And they are able to
analyze abstract concepts.

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 At this level, we cannot quench their sharp thinking capability with the dry

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teaching of mere equations and theoretic principles. For that, we should create a
learning environment in the classroom which provides an opportunity for them to

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apply the scientific knowledge, explore multiple alternatives in solving problems and
establish new relations.

Scientific learning is not just confined to the four walls of classroom. It has a
definite connection to lab and field as well. Therefore, there is a lot of importance

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to field experience/ experiments in science teaching.

There is a great need for compulsory implementation of instructions of the

National Curriculum Framework- 2005 which emphasizes linking of the science teaching
with local environment. The Right to Education Act- 2009 also suggested that
priority should be given to the achievement of learning competencies among children.
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Likewise, science teaching should be in such a way that it would help cultivate a
new generation with scientific thinking.The key aspect of science teaching is to
make the children understand the thinking process of scientists and their efforts
behind each and every discovery. The State Curriculum Framework- 2011 stated
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that children should be able to express their own ideas and opinions on various
aspects.All the genuine concepts should culminate into efficacious science teaching,
make the teaching-learning interactions in the classroom, laboratory and field
veryeffective and really become useful for the children to face the life challenges
efficiently.
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We thank the VidyaBhavan Society, Rajasthan, Dr. Desh Panday Rtd Prof.
College of Engineering Osmania University and Sri D.R. Varaprasad former Lecturer
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ELTC Hyderabad for their cooperation in developing these new text books,the
writers for preparing the lessons, the editors for checking the textual matters and
the DTP group for cutely composing the text book.

Teachers play a pivotal role in children’s comprehensive use of the text book.
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We hope, teachers will exert their consistent efforts in proper utilization of the text
book so as to inculcate scientific thinking process and inspire scientific approach in
the children.
Director,
SCERT, Hyderabad

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 v

 Dear teachers...

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New Science Text Books are prepared in such a way that they develop children’s observation
power and research enthusiasm. It is a primary duty of teachers to devise teaching- learning
processes which arouse children’s natural interest of learning things. The official documents of

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National& State Curriculum Frameworks and Right to Education Act are aspiring to bring grass
root changes in science teaching. These textbooks are adopted in accordance with such an
aspiration. Hence, science teachers need to adapt to the new approach in their teaching. In view
of this, let us observe certain Dos and Don’ts:
• Read the whole text book and analyze each and every concept in it in depth.

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• In the text book, at the beginning and ending of an activity, a few questions are given.
Teacher need to initiate discussion while dealing with them in the classroom, attempt to
derive answers; irrespective of right or wrong responses, and so try to explain concept.
• Develop/Plan activities for children which help them to understand concepts presented in
text.
•
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Textual concepts are presented in two ways: one as the classroom teaching and the other
as the laboratory performance.
• Lab activities are part and parcel of a lesson. So, teachers must make the children conduct
all such activities during the lesson itself, but not separately.
• Children have to be instructed to follow scientific steps while performing lab activities and
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relevant reports can be prepared and displayed.

• In the text some special activities as boxed items- ‘think and discuss, let us do, conduct
interview, prepare report, display in wall magazine, participate in Theatre Day, do field
observation, organize special days’ are presented. To perform all of them is compulsory.
• ‘Ask your teacher, collect information from library or internet’- such items must also be
considered as compulsory.
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• If any concept from any other subject got into this text, the concerned subject teacher has
to be invited into the classroom to elucidate it.
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• Collect info of relevant website addresses and pass on to students so that they can utilize
internet services for learning science.
• Let there be science magazines and science books in the school library.
• Motivate every student to go through each lesson before it is being actually taught and
encourage everyone to understand and learn independently, with the help of activities such
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as Mind Mapping and exciting discussions.

• Plan and execute activities like science club, elocution, drawing, writing poetry on science,
making models etc.to develop positive attitude among children environment, biodiversity,
ecological balance etc.
• As a part of continuous comprehensive evaluation, observe and record children’s learning
abilities during various activities conducted in classroom, laboratory and field.

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 We believe, you must have realizedthat the learning of science and scientific thinking are
not mere drilling of the lessons but, in fact, a valuable exercise in motivating the children to

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explore solutions to problems all around by themselves systematically and preparing them to
meet life challenges properly.

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Dear Students...
Learning science does not mean scoring good marks in the subject. Competencies like
thinking logically and working systematically, learned through it,have to be practiced in daily
life. To achieve this, instead of memorizing the scientific theories by rote, one must be able to
study them analytically. That means, in order to understand the concepts of science, you need

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to proceed by discussing, describing, conducting experiments to verify, making observations,
confirming with your own ideas and drawing conclusions. This text helps you to learn in that
way.
What you need to do to achieve such things:
• Thoroughly go through each lesson before the teacher actually deals with it.
• Note down the points you came across so that you can grasp the lesson better.
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• Think of the principles in the lesson. Identify the concepts you need to know further,
to understand the lesson in depth.
• Do not hesitate to discuss analytically about the questions given under the sub-heading
‘Think and Discuss’ with your friends or teachers.
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• You may get some doubts while conducting an experiment or discussing about a lesson.
Express them freely and clearly.
• Plan to implement experiment/lab periods together with teachers, to understand the
concepts clearly. While learning through the experiments you may come to know
many more things.
• Find out alternatives based on your own thoughts.
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• Relate each lesson to daily life situations.

• Observe how each lesson is helpful to conserve nature. Try to do so.
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• Work as a group during interviews and field trips. Preparing reports and displaying
them is a must.
• List out the observations regarding each lesson to be carried through internet, school
library and laboratory.
• Whether in note book or exams, write analytically,expressing your own opinions.
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• Read books related to your text book, as many as you can.

• You organize yourself the Science Club programs in your school.
• Observe problems faced by the people in your locality and find out what solutions you
can suggest through your science classroom.
• Discuss the things you learned in your science class with farmers, artisans etc.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 vii

 ACADEMIC STANDARDS
ACADEMIC STANDARDS

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S.No. Academic Standard Explanation

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1. Conceptual understanding Children are able to explain, cite examples, give reasons,
and give comparison and differences, explain the process
of given concepts in the textbook. Children are able to
develop their own brain mappings.

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Children are able to ask questions to understand concepts,
2. Asking questions and to clarify doubts about the concepts and to participate in
making hypothesis discussions. They are able to guess the results of on issue
with proper reasoning, able to predict the results of
experiments.
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3. Experimentation and field Children are able to do the experiments given in the text
investigation. book and developed on their own. Able to arrange the
apparatus, record the observational findings, suggest
alternative apparatus, takes necessary precautions while
doing the experiments, able to do to alternate
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experiments by changing variables. They are able to

participate in field investigation and prepare reports.

4. Information skills and Children are able to collect information related to the
Projects concepts given in the text book by using various methods
(interviews, checklist questionnaire) analyse the
information and interpret it. Able to conduct project works.
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5. Communication through Children are able to communicate their conceptual

drawing, model making understanding by the way of drawing pictures labelling
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the parts of the diagram by drawing graphs, flow charts

and making models.

6. Appreciation and Children are able to appreciate the nature and efforts
aesthetic sense, values of scientists and human beings in the development of s
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ience and have aesthetic sense towards nature. They

are also able to follow constitutional values
.

7. Application to daily life, Children are able to apply the knowlegde of scientific
concern to bio diversity. concept they learned, to solve the problem faced in daily
life situations. Recognise the importance of biodiversity
and takes measures to protect the biodiversity.

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 INDEX

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Periods Month Page No.

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1 Matter around us 10 June 1

1234567 N
2 Motion 11 June/July 11

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3 Laws of motion 10 July 31

4 Refraction of light at plane surfaces 10 August 49

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5 Gravitation 10 Aug/Sept 68
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6 Is matter pure 10 September 83

Atoms and molecules and 12 Oct/Nov 101

7 chemical reactions
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10 November 130
8 Floating bodies
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08 November 150
9 What is inside atom

11 December 166
10 Work and energy
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11 Heat 10 January 191

12 Sound 10 February 210

Revision March
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 ix
 OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM

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- Rabindranath Tagore

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Jana gana mana adhinayaka Jaya he
Bharatha bhagya-vidhata
Punjab Sindh Gujaratha Maratha

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Dravida Utkala Banga.

Vindhya Himachala Yamuna Ganga

Uchchala Jaladhi taranga,
Tava shubha name jage
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Tava shubha asisha mage
Gahe tava jaya gatha

Jana gana mangala-dayaka jaya he,

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Bharatha bhagya –vidhatha,

Jaya he, jaha he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya jaya he
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PLEDGE
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- Paydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

“India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters.

I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
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I shall always strive to be worthy of it.

I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”
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 Chapter
MATTER AROUND US
1

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AN
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You may have heard the phrases like
• Is there any substance which can be
‘what is the matter?', 'the Matter was
found in three states like water?
closed'. Have you ever wondered what this
‘matter’ is? Meaning of this term is very Now look carefully at different objects
different for scientists that of from a around you. You can classify them, into
common man.
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For example, you can say that wood and
You had read about metals, non-metals;
coal are solids and petrol is a liquid.
synthetic and natural fibres, acids and bases
etc., in previous classes. All the things Milk also is a liquid like petrol. But the
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around us which exist in a variety of shapes, properties of petrol and milk are quite
sizes and texture are also examples of different from each other.
‘matter’. • What are the properties that lead us to
The water we drink, our food, clothes consider petrol or milk as liquids?
and various things that we use in our day to Let us do some activities to understand
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day life, the air we breathe, even our body the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
etc., are examples of matter.
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Properties of solids, liquids and gases

What do you mean by the term 'matter? shape and volume
Anything in this world that occupies space
• Do solids have definite shape and
and has mass is considered as matter.
fixed volume?
States of matter
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Take two solid objects, say a pen and a

In previous classes, you had learnt that book, and put them in different containers.
water can exist as a solid (ice), a liquid or Do you find any change in their shape or
as a gas (water vapour).We say that solids volume?
liquid and gas are three different states of You might have seen a wide range of
matter. Water can be found in all these solids in your surroundings.
states.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 1
 Imagine dropping a book or a pen on • What is the shape of the water in
the floor. It does not flow but remains rigid different containers?

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with a definite shape, distinct boundaries
• Is it same in all cases or different?
and a fixed volume. This shows that solids
have a definite shape and a fixed volume. • What shape does water take if it spills

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on the floor?
Take 50ml of water with the measuring
Activity-1
jar and pour it in a tumbler. Mark the level
Identifying the shape and volume of water on the tumbler and remove water

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of liquids from it.
For doing this activity, we need a Now measure 50 ml of the milk with
measuring jar (cylinder) and containers of the measuring jar and pour it in the same
different shapes as shown in figure 1.
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• Are the levels of water and milk same?
Remove the milk from the tumbler. Now
pour oil into it up to the level marked for water.
• Can you guess the volume of oil?
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This activity may seem very simple but

we observe two important properties of
Fig -1: Different shaped containers having liquids from this activity.
liquid of same volume
Note: It is not compulsory to collect 1) The shape of the liquid depends on the
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same containers as shown in figure 1. You shape of the container.

can collect the containers of different 2) Though liquid takes different shapes
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shapes available to you. depending on the shape of the container

its volume remains same.
You also need some liquids like water
oil and milk. 3) Liquids can flow easily. They are also
called fluids.
Take some water in one of the
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containers using the measuring jar. • What does a fluid mean?

Examine the shape of water in the Look up in a dictionary of science to
container. Pour the same water in another get its meaning.
container and have a look at the shape, again.
Repeat the process till you complete You may find that, liquids have no fixed
pouring of water in all containers. shape but have a fixed volume.

2 Matter Around Us
 Activity-2

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Do the gases have a definite shape
and a fixed volume ?

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You might have heard about CNG
(Compressed Natural Gas). Go to a CNG
pump and ask them where they store CNG.
Also see where CNG is stored in a CNG
Fig - 4: CNG tank at fuel filling station

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run vehicle. Lastly see how CNG from the
pump is transferred to vehicles. Compressibility
• Does CNG have a fixed volume?
Activity-3
• Does CNG have a definite shape?
Observing the compressibility of
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Take a 50ml syringe. Draw the piston
to suck in air. Place your finger on the
nozzle and press. Observe depth of piston
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moved into syringe. Is it easy or hard to

press?

Fig - 2: CNG cylinder in a car

From the observations in the above

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activity and with our daily life experiences,

we can find that CNG and all other gases
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neither have a fixed shape nor fixed volume.

Fig - 5
• Do you find any change in the volume
of air in the syringe?
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Now fill water in the syringe and press

the piston.
• When is it easier to press the syringe
with water or air?
Now take a piece of wood and press it
with your thumb.
Fig - 3: CNG gas filling station
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 3
 • What do you observe when you press Then you go and stand in the other corner.
the wood?
• Can you smell anything?
• Is there any change in its volume?

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Now ask your friend to light the
From the above observations, you find incense stick.
that gases are highly compressible as

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• Can you smell anything now?
compared to liquids and solids. When your friend lights the incense
In our houses liquefied petroleum gas stick, the scent in the vapour form and
(LPG) is used for cooking. Now a days smoke mixes with air and moves across the
CNG is used in many auotmobiles. For all room and reach our nose.

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these purposes, large volume of gas is The movement of air, vapours of scent
compressed into cylinders of small and smoke from one place to other is known
volume to make it portable. as diffusion. In this case, smoke, vapour of
Think and discuss scent and air are gases and are highly mobile.
If you spray a perfume or deodorant in
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• Let us stretch a rubber band. Is there a one corner of the room, it spreads soon to
change in its shape? all directions.
• Is rubber band solid or liquid? Why? • Does the smell from burning incense
(What will happen if the stretching is stick and deodorant spray reach
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stopped ? What will happen if the someone on the other end at the same
stretching is too much?) time?
Take some finely powdered salt (not
Activity-5
crystals) and keep it in two different jars.
• Which shape does the powdered salt take? Observing the diffusion of
• Can you say that salt is a liquid on the basis liquids
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of change in its shape? Justify your answer. Take 250 ml round bottomed flask with
Take a sponge. Observe its shape.
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2/3 water in it. Use a dropper and put a few

• Can you compress it? Is it a soild? Why? drops of blue or red ink or Potassium
Think. Is anything coming out from the
sponge when it is compressed.
• Why can't you able to compress a
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wooden block?
Diffusion
Activity-4
Observing the diffusion of gases
Ask your friend to hold an unlit incense Fig - 6: Diffusion of potassium
stick and stand in one corner of the room. permanganate in water
4 Matter Around Us
 permanganate solution slowly along the Diffusion of two gases
side of flask.
• What do you observe after adding the Lab Activity

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drop of ink or Potassium
permanganate ? Aim: To observe the speed of diffusion

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• Can you observe that liquids also of two gases.
diffuse into each other like gases? Material required: Long glass tube with
• How much time does it take the colour scale, liquid Ammonia, Hydrochloric acid,
to spread evenly throughout water? pieces of cotton, two rubber corks and pair
of tongs.

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• What do you conclude from this
activity?
Activity-6 HCl NH3
Fig - 7
Observing the diffusion of
Note: Teacher should take care of
particles of solids into liquids
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Take a beaker full of water and add a
the children from touching the acid.
few crystals of potassium permanganate
Procedure: Take a one meter long narrow
to it and observe the changes.
Repeat the experiment with crystals glass tube.
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of copper sulphate. Take two pieces of cotton. Soak one in

• Do you observe diffusion? hydrochloric acid solution and another in
• Is it faster or slower than that observed ammonia solution.
in other two activities? Insert them separately at the two ends
From activities 4, 5, and 6 it is clear of the tube with the help of tongs. At the
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that solids and liquids diffuse into liquids same time close the ends of the glass tube
and gases diffuse in to gases. with rubber cork and observe.
Certain gases from atmosphere
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The hydrochloric acid gives off

particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide,
hydrogen chloride gas and ammonia
diffuse and dissolve in water and support
solution gives off ammonia gas.
the survival of aquatic animals and plants,
Diffusion therefore is a very important Both gases react together to form a
process for living things. white fumes of ammonium chloride.
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During respiration oxygen diffuses Observe the white ring in the tube due
from lungs into blood. Carbon dioxide to formation of ammonium chloride.
diffuses from blood into lungs. Explain.
Solids, liquids and gases diffuse into • How did the two gases travel along the
liquids and rate of diffusion of gases is tube?
higher than that of liquids or solids. • Which gas travelled faster?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 5
 Do this • When does water change into ice and
So far you have studied some then into vapour?
properties that can be used to distinguish

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• Why do gases diffuse faster than solids
between solids, liquids and gases. Fill the
or liquids?
following table based on your knowledge.
Scientists have tried to explain these facts

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Property Solid Liquid Gas by examining the physical nature of matter.
Shape fixed What is matter made up of ?
Volume fixed All matter is made of very tiny
Compressibilty particles. This looks as a simple statement

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but it is very difficult to explain and
Diffusion
understand about matter.
Can matter change its state? For this we need more details about the
We started our discussion by recalling particles and their arrangement inside
that water exists in three states. various forms of matter.
You must have seen many other
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materials that can exist in different states. Activity - 7
For example, coconut oil is usually
How small are the particles of
liquid. But on cooling it becomes solid.
matter?
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Camphor is a solid but if we leave it in

Take a beaker with water and add 1 or
the open air for some time it directly
2 crystals of potassium permanganate and
changes to gas.
dissolve them in water.
You may have seen moth (naphthalene)
balls being placed in clothes. The smell • What colour do you observe ?
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remains for some time even when the balls

Now take out approximately 10ml of
disappear. This is because the moth balls have
this solution and add it to 90ml of clear
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changed from solid state to gaseous state.

water in another beaker.
But there are some substances that
change directly from solid state to gaseous • What does happen to the colour of water
state and vice versa without passing in second beaker ?
through the liquid state. We have read
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about sublimation which is one such

change.
Solids, liquids and gases are states
of matter but you need to think about, why
are the properties of same matter different
in different states?
Fig - 8
6 Matter Around Us
 Again take out 10ml of this solution Add some salt and stir it thoroughly
and add to another 90ml of clear water. with a glass rod. Observe if there is any

A
Carryout this process 4, 5 times as shown change in water level. Add some more salt
in figure 8 and observe changes in intensity and stir it again.
of colour of the solution. Observe the change in the level of

AN
• Is the water in the last beaker still coloured? water.
• How is it possible for two small
crystals of potassium permanganate to
colour a large volume of water?

NG
• What do you understand from this activity?
Repeat the activity by taking a few
crystals of copper sulphate instead of
potassium permanganate. Fig - 9
Several interesting conclusions can be
drawn from the above activity.
LA • Does the level of water change?
• Where did the salt go?
We can conclude that there must be
• Can you see it in the water?
several tiny particles in just one crystal of
From the activities 7 & 8 we can
potassium permanganate, which are
TE

conclude that liquid particles in a liquid

uniformly distributed in water to change
have some space between them and the
its colour.
solid particles enter in to the space
Similarly a few crystals of copper between the liquid particles on dissolving
sulphate too has several tiny particles which solid in liquid.
are distributed in large quantity of water to Recall the incense stick activity. Do
T

give colour. you agree that gas is also made up of

So both solid and liquids (including particles and they have large space between
ER

water) are made up of tiny particles. them.

• How do the particles of the solid
Particles of matter attract each
distribute in the liquid?
other
Let us find
Activity - 9
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Activity - 8
Observing the force of
There exists space between
attraction between the particles
particles
of matter
Take a graduated beaker and fill it
Open a water tap and allow the water
with some water and mark the water level.
to reach the ground. Now try to break the
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 7
 stream of water with your finger. 1. Speed of gas particles is very high.
• Can you break the stream permanently 2. The space between gas particles is very

A
or momentarily? high.
• Are you able to break the stream of Similarly the greater diffusion rate in
water any where from the tap to ground?

AN
liquids compared to solids is because
• What is the reason behind the stream particles in liquids move freely and have
of water remaining together? greater space between them when
Now try to break a piece of iron nail compared to particles of solids.
with a hammer. Observe the following diagram which

NG
shows the difference in arrangement of
• Are you able to do it? If yes, does it rejoin?
particles in solids, liquids and gases.
• What about a piece of chalk?
From the above observations we can say Solid
that particles of the matter have forces
acting between them that keeps the
LA
particles together.
Liquid
It is also clear that this force is not
equally strong and different in different
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forms of matter. Gas

How diffusion takes place? Fig - 10
We have already carried out several
In a gas the particles are not as close
activities to explain diffusion of particles
together as in a liquid. If a coloured gas is
of solids, liquids and gases. Diffusion can
T

mixed with a colourless gas, the colour

be possible only when the particles of
spreads evenly in it. This happens faster in
matter move continuously.
gas than in a liquid, because of large gaps
ER

In the incense stick activity, the between the partcicles of gas. Fewer
particles responsible for scent move and particles of gas obstruct in the way of
enter the space between the air particles. spreading.
The scent particles quickly spread across You can see the diffusion of bromine
SC

the room. when it diffuses through air. Bromine is a

Particles of solids, liquids and gases can brownish coloured gas. Hence its diffusion
diffuse into liquids and gases. Rate of in colourless air can be seen clearly. If we
diffusion of gases is higher than the liquids, allow Bromine to diffuse in vaccum, it
while the rate of diffusion of liquids is diffuses faster into vaccum, because there
higher than solids. There are two reasons are no particles to obstruct in its way.
for higher rate of diffusion of gases.
8 Matter Around Us
 Key words

A
Matter, states of matter, solid, liquid, gas, particles, diffusion, compressibility,
forces of attraction, compressed natural gas.

AN
What we have learnt

• Matter is made up of particles

NG
• The particles of matter are very small-they are small beyond our imagination
• Particles of matter have space between them
• Particles of matter move continuously in liquids and gases.
• Matter exists in three states i.e., solid, liquid and gas
LA
• The force of attraction between the particles are maximum in solids, intermediate in
liquids and minimum in gases.
• The particles are arranged orderly in the case of solids while particles move randomly
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in gases.
• Diffusion is possible only when particles of matter move continously.
• Rate of diffusion of gases is higher than that of liquids (or) solids.
T

Let us Improve our learning

ER

Reflections on Concepts
1. Explian diffusion phenomenona based on the states of matter. (AS1)
2. Mention the properties of solids (AS1)
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3. Mention the properties of liquids (AS1)

4. What is fluid? (AS1)
5. Mention the properties of gases (AS1)
6. Give two daily life situation where you observe the diffusion (AS1)

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 9

 Application of Concepts

1. Mention works where we use compressibility in our daily life? (AS1)

A
2. Mention the situtions where we use diffusion in our day-to-day life (AS1)
3. How can we smell perfume sitting several meters away from the source?(AS1)

AN
4. How do you prove that the speed of diffusion of ammonia is more than that of the
speed of diffusion of hydrochloric acid? (AS3)
5. Give examples that the matter which will be available in different states. (AS1)
6. Draw the diagram showing the expermental arrangement to verify the speed of diffusion

NG
of two gases (AS1)
Higher Order Thinking questions
1. We can't rejoin the broken chalk easily. Give reason. (AS1)
2. Is the space between the particles in the matter influence the speed of diffusion?
Explain. (AS2)
Multiple choice questions
LA
1. Which of the following is available in three states in our daily life (at normal conditions)
(a) Petrol (b) Water (c) Milk (d) Kerosine [ ]
2. Which of the following can be compressed [ ]
TE

(a) Iron (b) Water (c) Air (d) Wooden piece

3. In which of the following substance speed of diffusion is more [ ]
(a) Smell of Petrol (b) Smell from flowers
(c) Smell from Napthaline balls (d) Gas leaked from gas cylinder
Suggested experiments
T

1. Conduct an experiment to observe the speed of diffusion of two substances.

ER

2. Conduct an experiment to show the space between the particles of matter and
write the report.
Suggested projects
1. Make a model to explain the structure of particles in solids, liquids and gases.
2. What are the factors influencing diffusion, whether the arrangement of atoms in
SC

the substance that diffuse or the arrangement of atoms of the medium in which
the substance is kept.
3. Some solids diffuse in liquids but not in gasses, some solids diffuse in gasses but
not in liquids. Why?

10 Matter Around Us
 Chapter
MOTION
2

A
AN
v
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NG
We are familiar with the idea
What is relative ?
of motion. We see several examples of We use many statements in our daily
motion around us like motion of people, life to express our views. The meaning of
vehicles, trains, aeroplanes, birds, rain a statement depends on the context in
drops, objects thrown into air, etc. We which it is made.
know that it is due to the motion of the
LA
Does every statement have a meaning?
earth that phenomena like sunrise,
sunset, changes in the seasons etc occur. Evidently the answer is ‘no’. Even if
you choose perfectly sensible words and
If earth is in motion, why don’t we
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put them together according to all the rules

directly perceive the motion of the of grammar, you may still get complete
earth? non- sense. For instance the statement
Are the walls of your class room at “This water is triangular’’ can hardly be
rest or in motion? Why? given any meaning.
A statement has a meaning only when
T

Have you ever experienced that the

there is a relation between words.
train in which you sit appears to move
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when it is at rest? Why? Similarly there may exist other

situations in our daily life where we use
To give answers to these questions
statements having meaning depending
we need to understand the terms ‘relative’
upon the situation. Let us observe the
and 'motion'.
following example.
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Great progress in understanding

Right and Left
motion occurred when Galileo undertook
his study of rolling balls on inclined As shown in the figure 1, two persons
planes. To understand motion, we need say A and B are moving opposite to each
to understand the meaning of the word other on a road.
'relative', which plays an important role
in explaining motion.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 11

 down but for the person standing at B it
appears exactly opposite. Similarly for the
B A

A
persons standing at the points C and D,
the directions of up and down are not
same. They change with the point of

AN
Fig-1 observation on the globe.Observe the fig-
Examine the meaning of the following 2 by inverting the book
sentence. Why do we observe these changes?
Question: On which side of the road

NG
is the house? Is it on the right side or on
A
the left side of the road?
There are two answers for the above
question. For person A, the house is on the
right and for the person B, the house is on D
C
LA
the left. Thus the position of the house is
relative to the observer i.e., clearly when
speaking of left and right by a person, he
has to assume a direction based on which
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he can decide his left and right sides. B

Is day or night just now ? Fig-2

The answer depends on where the We know that earth is a sphere, the
question is being asked. When it is upward direction of the vertical position on
its surface depends upon the place on the
T

daytime in Hyderabad, it is night in New-

York. The simple fact is that day and night earth’s surface, where the vertical is drawn.
Hence the notions 'up and down' have
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are relative notions and our question

cannot be answered without indicating the no meaning unless the point on the Earth’s
place on the globe where the question is surface, to which they refer, is defined.
being asked. Discuss the meaning of the terms
Up and down 'longer and shorter' with few examples.
SC

Can orientations like 'up' and 'down' Are these terms relative or not?
be the same for all persons at all places? Motion is relative
Observe the following figure 2.
Like the terms right and left, up and
For the person standing at A on the
down, larger and shorter etc., ‘motion’ is
globe, his position appears up and the
also relative to the observer.
orientation of person standing at B appears

12 Motion
 To understand the idea of motion, let us take the following hypothetical activity.
Observe the figure 3 and follow the conversation between Srinu and Somesh who

A
stand beside a road as shown in the figure3.

AN
East

Somesh

NG
Srinu
LA
Fig-3: Motion in view of Srinu and Somesh
Srinu : What is the state of Somesh : They are also moving like
motion of the tree? the car.
Somesh : It is at rest. Srinu : How do you decide that
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Srinu : What is the state of the car, the passenger and

motion of the car? the driver are moving?
Somesh : It is moving due east. Somesh : With respect to us, the
Srinu : What is the state of position of the car,the
motion of the driver and passenger and the driver
T

the passenger in the car? are changing with time.

So, they are in motion.
ER

West
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Passenger
Driver

Fig-4: Motion in view of Passenger

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 13
 Now follow the conversation of the Distance and displacement
driver and the passenger in moving car.
Activity-1

A
Driver : What is the state of
motion of the tree?
Drawing path and

AN
Passenger : It is moving due west distinguishing between distance
Driver : What is the state of and displacement
motions of both the Take a ball and throw it into the air
persons beside the road? with some angle to the horizontal. Observe
its path and draw it on paper.

NG
Passenger : They are also moving due
west. Figure 5 shows the path taken by the
Driver : What is my state of ball when it was thrown into air. “Distance”
motion? is the length of the path traversed by an
Passenger : You are at rest. object in a given time interval and

Driver
LA
: What is the state of
displacement is the shortest distance
covered by the object in a specified
motion of the car?
direction.
What answer may the passenger give
to the driver? Discuss with your
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friends. S
From the above discussion, it is clear
that the tree is at rest with respect to
Somesh and it is moving due west with
respect to passenger.
T

The 'motion' or 'rest' of an object

Fig-5:Distance - displacement
depends on the observer. So motion is a
ER

combined property of the observer and the Observe the difference between
body which is being observed. distance(S) and displacement(AB)from
figure 5.
Now we are able to define motion of
an object. So, Displacement is a vector. To
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A body is said to be in motion when describe a physical situation, some

its position is changing continuously with quantities are specified with magnitude as
time relative to an observer. well as direction. Such a physical quantity
is called a vector. The physical quantity
Note: Any object can be taken as a
which does not require any direction for
point of observation.
its specification is called scalar. So
How do we understand motion? distance is a scalar.
14 Motion
 A vector can be represented as a Generally, the distance covered and
directed line segment. It’s length displacement are time dependent
indicates magnitude and arrow indicates quantities.

A
it’s direction. Point ‘A’ is called tail and
point ‘B’ is called head Think and discuss

AN
B What is the displacement of the body
if it returns to the same point from
where it started? Give one example
A from daily life.

NG
In the above example (Fig-5) When do the distance and magnitude
ASB shows the actual distance covered of displacement become equal?
by an object and AB is a displacement
which is a straight line drawn from initial Average speed and average
position to final position of the velocity
object.AB is called displacement vector.
LA A train named Telangana express starts
The SI unit of distance or displacement at 2.00 pm from Sirpur Kaghaz Nagar and
is metre denoted by ‘m’. reaches Hyderabad at 8.00 pm the same
Other units like kilometre, centimetre day as shown in figure 7.
etc. are also used to express this
TE

quantity. Sirpur Kaghaz

1 km = 1000 m Nagar
1m = 100 cm

Activity-2
T

Drawing displacement vectors Kajipet

A car moves along different paths as
ER

shown in figures 6(a) and 6(b). The points Hyderabad

A and B are the initial and final positions
of the car. Fig-7
Draw displacement vectors from
Draw displacement vectors for two
Sirpur Kaghaz Nagar to Kajipet, Kajipet
situations given below.
SC

to Hyderabad and from Sirpur Kaghaz

Nagar to Hyderabad.
Let the distance of the entire trip from
Sirpur Kaghaz Nagar to Hyderabad be
300 km.
The journey time is 6 h. What is the
distance covered by the train in each hour?
Fig-6(a) Fig-6(b) It is equal to 300km/6h = 50km/h
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 15
 Can you say that the train has covered ♦ Can you measure the average speed and
exactly 60 km in each hour? average velocity?
Obviously the answer is “No”, because ♦ How can you differentiate speed and

A
there may be some variations in distance average velocity?
covered by the train each hour. So we take
Let us do some activities to undersand

AN
the average of distances covered by the train
about speed and velocity.
for each hour to decide its average speed.
The distance covered by an object in unit
Activity-3
time is called average speed.
Total distance Measuring the average speed
Average speed =

NG
Time taken Choose two points (say A & B) 50
Let the displacement of the trip in the meters apart in the school play ground.
above example be 120 km due South–West. Ask some students to stand at point A. Ask
What is the displacement in each hour? another group of students with stop
The displacement per hour watches to stand at B.
= 120 km/ 6h South - west
LA When you clap your hand, the
= 20km / h South - west students at A start running towards the
The displacement of an object per unit point B in any path. At the same time the
time is called average velocity. Average students at B start their stop watches.
Velocity is a vector and is along the
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See that for each runner there is a

direction of displacement. student at B to measure the time taken for
Total Displacement completing the race. Note the time taken
Average velocity =
Time taken by each student to cover the distance
The quantities average speed and between the points A and B in table.
average velocity explain the motion of a Table -1
T

body in a given time interval. They do Student Time taken average

not give any information about the motion to reach B (sec) speed (50/t) m/s
ER

of the body at a particular instant of time. A1 t1 -

A2 t2 -
Think and discuss
A3 t3 -
What is the average speed of the car The student who took the least time to
if it covers 200 km in 5 h?
SC

reach B (from A) is said to be the fastest runner,

When does the average velocity i.e., he/she has the greatest average speed.
become zero?
A man used his car. The initial and Measuring the average velocity
final odometer readings are 4849 and
5549 respectively. The journey time Repeat the whole activity after drawing
is 25h. What is his average speed a set of parallel straight lines from A to B
during the journey? and ask each student to run along a line (This

16 Motion
 ensures that each student is covering the
same distance along a straight line specified
for him/her from A to B) s2

A
Measure the time taken by each s3
student and note it in a table as shown

Distance

AN
above and calculate the average velocity s1
of each student. The student who took the
least time to reach B from A along the line
is said to have run with the greatest average t1 t3 t2
velocity. time

NG
What difference did you notice between
Fig-8:Distance vs time graph
the two activities?
Why are we calling the ratio of distance What is the speed of the car at the
and time as average speed in first activity instant of time ‘ t3’ for given motion?
and as average velocity in second activity? We know how to find average speed
Discuss with your teacher.
LA during the time interval from t1 to t2, which
includes the instant t3 is
Speed and velocity
S2–S1
Objects in motion often have Average speed =
t2–t1
TE

variations in their speeds. For example a

car which travels along a street at 50 km/ Then we calculate average speed for a
h, get slowed down to 0km/h at a red light very short time interval encompassing the
and then attain a speed of 30 km/h due to time at an instant t3– which is so short
traffic on the road. interval, that the value of average speed
Can you find the speed of the car at a would not change materially if it was made
T

particular instant of time? even shorter.The instantaneous speed is

You can tell the speed of the car at any represented by the slope of the curve at a
ER

instant by looking at its speedometer. The speed given instant of time. We can find the slope
at any instant is called instantaneous speed. of the curve at any point on it by drawing a
We can describe the motion of a car tangent to the curve at that point. The slope
moving along a straight road with varying of the curve gives speed of the car at that
speed using a distance – vs – time graph. instant. If the slope is large, speed is high
SC

and if the slope is small, speed is low.

Along the horizontal axis we plot the
time elapsed in seconds, and along the Speed gives the idea of how fast the
vertical axis the distance covered in body moves. In general, bodies move in a
metres. particular direction at an instant of interest
and this direction may not be constant
A general case of motion with varying
throughout the journey. So we need to
speed is shown in figure 8.
define another quantity called “Velocity”.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 17
 Velocity is the speed of an object in a km/h and another airplane travels
specified direction. due south at 300 km/h Are their
For Example : speeds the same? Are their velocities

A
A car moves with 15 m/s due east. Here the same? Explain.
15 m/s is speed and 15 m/s due east is velocity The speedometer of the car indicates

AN
v a constant reading. Is the car in
uniform motion? Explain.
N
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Observing the direction of

NG
Fig-9
Velocity gives the idea of how fast the motion of a body
body moves in specified direction. Velocity
Carefully whirl a small object tied at
is a vector. It can be represented by a directed
line segment. Its length indicates speed and the end of the string in the horizontal
arrow gives the direction of motion. plane. Release the object while it is
LA
If a body moves in a curved path, the whirling on the string.
tangent drawn at a point on the curve gives In what direction does it move?
direction of velocity at that instant. Try to release the object at different
Observe that following diagram and try points on the circle and observe the
TE

to draw tangents to the curve at different

direction of motion of object after it has
points. Does the direction of velocity of
been released from the string.
body remain constant or not?
You will notice that the object moves
on a straight-line along the tangent to the
circle at the point where you released it.
T

The direction of velocity is tangent to the

path at a point of interest.
ER

Fig-10:Direction of velocity at a point of path The SI unit of velocity is metre/sec.

In our daily life we must have
Think and discuss
observed many motions where, in some
Very often you must have seen traffic cases the velocity of an object which is in
SC

police stopping motorists or scooter motion is constant but in other cases it

drivers who drive fast and fine them. continuously changes.
Does fine for speeding depend on Which motion is called uniform?
average speed or instantaneous Why?
speed? Explain.
Let us find out.
One airplane travels due north at 300

18 Motion
 Uniform motion The straight line graph shows that the
Activity-5 cyclist covers equal distances in equal

A
intervals of time. From the graph you can
Understanding uniform motion understand that the instantaneous speed is

AN
Consider a cyclist moving on a straight equal to average speed. If the direction of
road. The distance covered by him with motion of the cyclist is assumed as
respect to time is given in the following constant then we conclude that velocity is
table. Draw distance vs time graph for the constant.
given values in the table2. The motion of the body is said to be

NG
Table -2 uniform when its velocity is constant.
Time Distance
(t in seconds) (s in metres) Non uniform motion
0 0
In our daily life in many situations
1 4
LA when a body is in motion, its velocity
2 8 changes with time. Let us observe the
3 12 following example.
4 16 Consider a cyclist moving on a straight
TE

-- -- road. The distance covered by him with

respect to time is given in the following
What is the shape of the graph? table. Draw distance vs time graph for the
You will get a graph which resembles values given in table 3.
the graph shown in fig-11.
T

Table-3
ER

Time Distance
s (t in seconds) (s in metres)
0 0
1 1
SC

2 4
3 9
4 16
t
-- --

Fig-11

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 19

 Set up an inclined plane as shown in
What is the shape of the graph? figure 13. Take a ball and push it with a

A
Is it a straight line or not? Why? speed from the bottom of the inclined
Activity-6 plane so that it moves up.

AN
What is the path of the ball?
Observing the motion of a ball
What happens to its speed?
on an inclined plane
Draw velocity vectors at times t = 0s, 1s, 2s
t=0s
t=1s
in figure-13.

NG
t=2s In above two situations of activity-6,
we observe that the speed changes but the
direction of motion remains constant.
Fig-12:Ball moving down
the inclined plane Activity-7
LA
Set up an inclined plane as shown in
figure 12. Take a ball and release it from Observing uniform circular
the top of the inclined plane. The positions motion
of the ball at various times are shown in
Whirl a stone which is tied to the end
TE

figure13.
of a string continuously. Draw its path of
What is the path of the ball on the
motion and velocity vectors at different
inclined plane?
positions as shown in the figure 14.
How does the velocity of the ball
change? Assume that the speed of the stone is
constant.
T

Draw velocity vectors in figure 12 at

times t=0s, 1s and 2s
ER

v
On close observation we find that v v
when the ball moves down the inclined
plane its speed increases gradually, and the
direction of motion remains constant. v
SC

t=2s v
t=1s
t=0s
v
v
v
Fig-13:Ball moving up
Fig-14
the inclined plane
20 Motion
 What is the path of the stone? remaining constant.
It is clear that the path is a circle and 2. Direction of motion changes with

A
the direction of velocity changes at every speed remaining constant.
instant of time but the speed is constant. 3. Both direction and speed change

AN
Hence in this activity we observe that simultaneously.
though speed remains constant, its velocity Motion of an object is said to be non-
changes. uniform when its velocity is changing.
Can you give few examples for motion
Think and discuss

NG
of an object where its speed remains
constant but velocity changes? An ant is moving on the surface of a
ball. Does it’s velocity change or not?
Activity-8
Explain.
Observing the motion of an Give an example of motion where
LA
object thrown into air there is a change only in speed but
no change in direction of motion.
Throw a stone into the air while making
some angle with the horizontal. Observe Acceleration
TE

the path taken by it. Draw a diagram to

We can change the velocity of an
show its path and velocity vectors.
object by changing its speed or its direction
Is the speed of the stone uniform?
of motion or both. In either case the body
Why?
is said to be accelerated. Acceleration
T

Is the direction of motion constant?

gives an idea how quickly the velocity of
How?
a body is changing.
ER

In the above activity you might have

What is acceleration? How can we
noticed that the speed and direction of
know that a body is accelerating?
motion both change continuously.
We experience acceleration many
Can you give some more examples
times in our day to day activities. For
SC

where speed and direction

example, if we are travelling in a bus or a
simultaneously change?
car, when the driver presses the
From the above three activities you accelerator, the passengers sitting in the
can conclude that the change in velocity bus experience acceleration. Our bodies
takes place in three ways. press against the seat due to the
1. Speed changes with direction acceleration.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 21
 Suppose we are driving a car. Let us is shown as a motion diagram. The length
steadily increase the velocity from 30 km/ of the vector at a particular point

A
h to 35 km/h in 1sec and then 35km/h to corresponds to the magnitude of velocity
40km/h in the next second and so on. (speed) at that point and arrow indicates

AN
In the above case the velocity of the direction of motion at every instant.
car is increasing 5 km/hr per second.
This rate of change of velocity of an

NG
object is called acceleration.
C
Acceleration is uniform when equal B

changes of velocity occur in equal

A
intervals of time. LA
Uniform acceleration is the ratio of Fig-15: Motion diagram
change in velocity to time taken.
The term acceleration not only applies At which point is the speed maximum?
TE

to increasing velocity but also to decreasing

Does the object in motion possess
velocity. For example when we apply
acceleration or not?
brakes to a car in motion, its velocity
We distinguish speed and velocity for
decreases continuously. We call this as
this reason and define 'acceleration' as the
deceleration. We can observe the
T

rate at which velocity changes, there by

deceleration of a stone thrown up vertically
encompassing changes both in speed and
into the air and similarly we can experience
ER

direction.
deceleration when a moving train comes
to rest. Acceleration is also a vector and is

Let us suppose that we are moving in directed along the direction of change in
velocity.
SC

a curved path in a bus. We experience

acceleration that pushes us towards the
outer part of the curve. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2
Observe fig-15. The motion of an
object in a curved path at different instants

22 Motion
 Think and discuss From the definition of uniform
acceleration,

A
What is the acceleration of a race car v–u
that moves at constant velocity of 300 Acceleration, a =
t

AN
km/h ? at = v – u
Which has the greater acceleration, an u+at = v .................
airplane, that goes from 1000 km/h to (1)
1005 km/h in 10s or a skateboard that Since the acceleration of the body is
constant.
goes from zero to 5km/h in 1 second?

NG
v+u
What is the deceleration of a vehicle Average velocity =
2
moving in a straight line that changes
But we know
its velocity from 100 km/h to a dead
stop in 10s? Displacement
Average velocity =
Correct your friend who says Time taken
LA
“Acceleration gives an idea of how fast
the position changes.” v + u s ................. (2)
=
2 t
Equations of uniform
TE

accelerated motion From here onwards we manipulate

the equations (1) and (2).
Consider the motion of object along
straight line with constant acceleration. Put v = u+at in equation (2), we have
(Uniform acceleration). u + at + u s
Then, =
2 t
T

Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken 2u + at s
=
ER

Δv 2 t
a = = constant
Δt
'Δ' - denotes changes ut + ½ a t2 = s ................. (3)
Let u be the velocity at the time t = 0
and v be the velocity at the time t and let s From equation v = u+at , we get
be the displacement covered by the body
SC

v–u
during time “ t” as shown in figure 16. t=
a
at t= 0s at 't'
v Substitute the value of 't' in equation
u
(2) , we have

Fig-16
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 23
 v+ u v– u
( (  Expressing the displacement with
( 2
( a
=s proper sign, is important.

A
v2 – u2 = 2as................. (4) Displacement is positive while
measured along the positive direction
The equations of uniform accelerated
and is negative while measured along

AN
motion are,
v  u+at the negative direction.
s  ut + ½ a t2
v2 – u2 = 2as Lab Activity

NOTE: Aim

NG
 To find the acceleration and velocity of
1. If the speed of an object increases, the
an object moving on an inclined track.
direction of velocity and acceleration
are one and the same.  To draw the graph between distance

and time.
2. If the speed of an object decreases, the
Materials required
direction of velocity and acceleration
LA Glass marbles, book, digital clock,
are in opposite directions. In such a
case, at a certain instant the speed long plastic tubes and steel plate.
becomes zero. Procedure
Take a long plastic tube of length
TE

3. If there exists an acceleration of a

nearly 200cm and cut it in half along the
body at a point where its speed
length of the tube. Use these tube parts as
becomes zero for an instant; then the
tracks. Mark the readings in cm along the
body 'returns' in the direction of
track. Place the one end of the tube on a
acceleration and moves continuously.
book and the other end on the floor, as
(like in the case of stone thrown
T

shown in figure-18.
vertically up into the air.)
Track
NOTE:Care must be taken to
ER

remember the following points while we

are using equations of motion. Steel plate
Books
– O + Fig-18
SC

Keep a steel plate on the floor at the

Fig-17 bottom of the track. Consider the reading
 Choose the origin on a straight line. The at the bottom of the track to be zero.
quantities measured to the right are Take a marble having adequate size to
taken as positive and these measured travel in the track freely. Now release the
marble freely from a certain distance say
to the left are taken as negative.
40cm. Start the digital clock when the
24 Motion
 marble is released. It moves down on the by the car in 10th second.
track and strikes the steel plate. Stop the

A
digital clock when a sound is produced. Solution
Repeat the same experiment for the same
n = 10 s
distance 2 to 3 times and note the values

AN
of times in table-4. a = 2 m/s2
Table-4 u = 0 m/s
Distance, Time Average 2S/t2 Substituting the values in the following
S (cm) t (s) time
t1 t2 t3 t equation

NG
sn= u + a [n - 1 ]
2
= 0 + 2 [10 - 1 ]
2
=2 21
Repeat the same experiment for various 2
= 21m
distances.
LA Distance traveled by the car in
Find average time and 2S/t2 for every
trail. Will it be constant and equal to 10ths =21m.
acceleration? Why?
Example 2
Draw distance vs time (S-t) graph for
TE

A car is moving with the initial velocity

the values in the table.
15 m/s. Car stoped after 5s by application
Do the same experiment for various of breaks. Find the retardation
slopes of the track and find accelerations (Decelaration).
in each case.
Solution
 Is there any relation between the slope
T

and acceleration? t=5s

 What do you notice from the distance v = 0 m/s
ER

time graphs for various slopes? u = 15 m/s

Do the same experiment with a small
a=?
iron block. Find the acceleration and draw
the S-t graph. Substituting the values in the following
Give your explanation for various equation.
SC

accelerations related to slopes.

v  u  at
The values found in this experiment
0  15   a  5
are approximate.
15
Example 1 a
5
A car is moving with the accelaration
2 m/s2 from rest. Find the distance traveled a  –3 m/s2

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 25

 Example 3 of brakes, it will come to rest in 't' sec .
A bus is moving with the initial velocity We know ,

A
of 'u' m/s. After applying the breaks, its v = u + at
retardation is 0.5 m/s2 and it stoped after Here u = 54 km/h = 54 x 5/18 =15 m/s
12s. Find the initial velocity (u) and

AN
Let v = 0 at time 't' and given
distance travel by the bus after applying the
a = -0.3 m/s2
breaks.
vu
Solution From v = u+at we get t 
a
a = 0.5 m/s2

NG
v = 0 m/s
We get, t  15 = 50 s
t = 12 s 0.3
u=?
During which it will cover a distance
v  u  at u2
s
0  u   0.5 12 
LA 2a
0 u6
u  6 m/s 152

Initial velocity of the bus 6 m/s. 2   0.3
TE

1
s  ut  at 2 225
2 
0.6
1
 12  6  
2
 0.5 122 
= 375 m
1 Thus in 1 min after the application of
 72   72 
2 brakes the locomotive will be at a distance
T

 36 m l = L – s = 400 – 375 = 25 m from the

Bus has stoped 36 m distance after signal light.
ER

applying the break 

Example 4 Example 5
At a distance L= 400m away from the What is the speed of the body moving
signal light,brakes are applied to a with uniform acceleration at the midpoint
locomotive moving with a velocity, u = of two points on a straight line, where the
SC

54 km/h.Determine the position of rest of speeds are u and v respectively?

the locomotive relative to the signal light Solution
after 1 min of the application of the brakes Let 'a' be the constant acceleration and
if its acceleration a = - 0.3 m/s2 s be the distance between the two points,
Solution From equation of motion
Since the locomotive moves with a v2 – u2 = 2as................. (1)
constant deceleration after the application
26 Motion
 u M v0 v Example 7
A particle moving with constant

A
s
acceleration of 2m/s2 due west has an initial
Fig-19 velocity of 9 m/s due east. Find the distance

AN
Let v0 be the speed of the body at covered in the fifth second of its motion.
midpoint ‘M’ of the given points.
Solution
Applying the same equation used above,
we get Initial velocity u = +9 m/s

2 2 s Acceleration a = -2 m/s2
v  u  2a a=2m/s2

NG
0
2 u=9m/s t=4.5s
From (1), we get rest

v 2  u2 t=5s t=4.5s
v 02  u 2 
2 s
2 2 Fig.20 :Motion of the particle
v u
v 02   u2
2
LA In this problem, acceleration’s direction
2 2 2
v  u  2u is opposite to the velocity’s direction.
v 02 
2
Let 't' be the time taken by the particle
to reach a point where it makes a turn along
TE

v2  u2
v0 
2 the straight line.
We have, v  u  at
Example 6 O=9–2t
A car travels from rest with a constant We get, t = 4.5s
acceleration 'a' for 't' seconds. What is the Now let us find the distance covered
T

average speed of the car for its journey if 1

in second i.e. from 4.5 to 5 second
the car moves along a straight road? 2
Let u = 0 at t = 4.5 sec.
ER

Solution 1
Then distance covered in s.
The car starts from rest, so u = 0 2
The distance covered in time t 1 2
s at
2
1 2 1
2
s at 1
SC

2 s  2 
2 2
Total distance
Average speed = 1
Time taken  m
  at  2 4
Total distance covered in fifth second
 2 
v  of its motion is given by
t
at S0 = 2s = 2 ( ¼ ) = ½ m.

2
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 27
 Key words
Relative, distance, displacement, average speed, average velocity,

A
instantaneous speed (speed), velocity, uniform motion, acceleration,uniform
acceleration, rectilinear motion

AN
What we have learnt

z Motion is relative. Motion of an object depends on the observer.

Distance is the path length traversed and displacement is the shortest distance in a

NG
z

specified direction.
z Average speed is distance covered per unit time and average velocity is displacement in
a specified direction per unit time.
z Speed at an instant is instantaneous speed which gives the idea of how fast the position
of the body changes.
LA
z Velocity is speed in specified direction.
z The motion is uniform when the velocity is constant.
z A body has acceleration when the velocity of the body changes.
TE

z Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

z The motion is said to be uniform accelerated motion if acceleration is constant.
z The equations of uniform acclerated motion are given by

v = u + at
1
T

s = ut + a t 2
2
v − u = 2as
2 2
ER

Let us Improve our learning

Reflections on concepts
1. Distinguish between speed and velocity. (AS1)
SC

2. Briefly explain about constant acceleration?

3. How can you say that a body is in motion? Is it a common property? (AS1)
4. Are average speed and average velocity are same? If not explain why? (AS1)
5. How do you measure instantaneous speed? (AS1)
6. Explain acceleration with an example ? (AS1)
7. What do you mean by acceleration ? (AS1)
28 Motion
 Application of concepts

A
1. In the above figure distance vs time graphs showing motion of two cars A and B are
given. Which car moves fast ? (AS1)

AN
2. A body leaving a certain point “ O” moves with a constant A
acceleration. At the end of the 5 th second its velocity is 1.5
m/s. At the end of the sixth second the body stops and then B
S
begins to move backwards. Find the distance traversed by the
body before it stops. Determine the velocity with which the

NG
body returns to point “ O “ ? (27m, -9 m/s)(AS1) t

3. A train of length 50m is moving with a constant speed of 10m/s. Calculate the time taken
by the train to cross an electric pole and a bridge of length 250 m. (5s , 30s) (AS1)
4. Draw the distance vs time graph when the speed of a body increases uniformly. (AS5)
LA
5. Draw the distance – time graph when its speed decreases uniformly.(AS5)
6. What is the average speed of a Cheetah that sprints 100m in 4sec. ? What if it sprints
50m in 2sec? (25 m/s)( AS7)
7. A car travels at a speed of 80 km/h during the first half of its running time and at
TE

40 km/h during the other half. Find the average speed of the car. (60 km/h) ( AS7)
8. A particle covers 10m in first 5s and 10m in next 3s. Assuming constant acceleration.
Find initial speed, acceleration and distance covered in next 2s. (AS7)
(7/6 m/s, 1/3 m /s2, 8.33m)
T

Higher Order Thinking questions

1. When the velocity is constant, can the average velocity over any time interval differ
ER

from instantaneous velocity at any instant? If so, give an example; if not explain why.
(AS2 )
2. You may have heard the story of the race between the rabbit and tortoise. They started
from same point simultaneously with constant speeds. During the journey, rabbit took
rest somewhere along the way for a while. But the tortoise moved steadily with lesser
SC

speed and reached the finishing point before rabbit. Rabbit wokeup and ran, but rabbit
realized that the tortoise had won the race. Draw distance vs time graph for this story.
(AS5)
3. A man is 48m behind a bus which is at rest. The bus starts accelerating at the rate of 1
m/s2, at the same time the man starts running with uniform velocity of 10 m/s.
What is the minimum time in which the man catches the bus? (8s)(AS7)
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 29
 Multiple choice questions
1. The distance travelled by an object in a specified direction is [ ]

A
(a) Speed (b) Displacement
(c) Velocity (d) Acceleration

AN
2. If an object is moving with constant velocity then the motion is [ ]
(a) Motion with Non uniform acceleration
(b) Motion with Uniform Acceleration

NG
(c) Uniform Motion (d) Non uniform Motion
3. If there is change in the velocity of the object then the state of object with respect
to motion is [ ]
(a) State of Constant SpeedLA (b) State of Constant velocity
(c) State of Uniform Motion (d) State of Non uniform Motion
4. If the acceleration of a moving object is constant then the motion is said
to be [ ]
(a) Motion with Constant Speed (b) Motion with Uniform Acceleration
TE

(c) Motion with Uniform Velocity (d) Motion with Non Uniform acceleration

Suggested experiments
1. Conduct an expermiment to find acceleration and velocity of an object moving on an
inclined plane and write a report.
T

Suggested projects
ER

1. Calculate the avarage speeds of students of your class we who have participated in
100 meters and 200 meters running race. Write a report.
2. Suppose that the three balls shown in figure below start simultaneously from the
tops of the hills. Which one reaches the bottom first ? Explain. (AS2)
SC

30 Motion
 Chapter
LAWS OF MOTION
3

A
AN
NG
We observe the changes in motion of inclined planes with smooth surfaces and
many objects around us. We discussed the observed that the smoother the surface, the
concepts of velocity and acceleration in farther the ball travelled. He extended this
the chapter ‘Motion’. argument and concluded that if the surface
Philosophers of the ancient world
LA was perfectly smooth, the ball will travel
were very much interested in the study of indefinitely, until encountered by another
motion. One question always popping up object. (In real world such a surface of
in their mind was, what is the natural state course does not exist).
TE

of an object if left to itself? Our common 1(a)

sense tells that every moving object on 1(b)
earth if it is left free for some time,
gradually comes to rest by itself. What
happens if you stop peddling your
bicycle? It slows down gradually and 1(c)
T

finally stops.
Fig-1: (a) downward motion (b) upward
We wonder to know that Aristotle, the motion (c) motion on a plane surface
ER

great philosopher of that time also

concluded that the natural state of an As shown in figure 1 (a) he observed
earthly object is to be at rest. He thought that when a marble rolls down a slope, it
that the object at rest requires no picks up speed due to the force of gravity
explanation as any moving body naturally of the earth.
SC

comes to rest. In figure 1 (b) when the object rolls

Galileo Galilee stated that an object up an inclined plane, its speed decreases.
in motion will remain in same motion as Now let us assume that a marble is moving
long as no external force is applied to it. on a level surface as shown in figure 1(c)
Galileo came up with two thoughtful it has no reason to speed up or slow down.
experiments. He did his experiments on So it will continue to move with constant
velocity.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 31
 By this experiment, Galileo came to a surface at constant velocity. He concluded
conclusion which was in contrast to that the natural state of a moving object,
Aristotle’s belief that the natural state of if it is free of external influences, is

A
an object is ‘rest’. uniform motion . What do you think of
these experiments? Is any external force

AN
required to stop a moving object? From
this experiment we can say that an object
2 (a)
will remain in uniform motion unless a
force acts on it.
2 (b)
Galileo imagined a world where there

NG
is no friction. But as we learnt in class
VIII this is not possible in reality because
friction, which affects the motion of an
object plays an important role in our lives.
2 (c)
For example, if there were no friction we
LA would not have been able to walk on
Fig-2: (a) (b) motion along inclined planes ground, we would not have been able to
with different slopes. (c) Motion from stop a fast moving car etc. It is very
inclined surface to plane surface
difficult to perform many physical
Galileo observed that, as shown in
activities without friction. Built upon
TE

figure 2 (a), the marble released from its

ideas primarily developed by Aristotle and
initial height rolled down due to the force
Galileo, Sir Isaac Newton proposed his
of gravity and then moves up the slope until
three fundamental laws which explain the
it reached its initial height. Then he reduced
connection between force and a change
the angle of the upward slope and did the
in motion. These three laws are popularly
same experiment as in figure 2 (b). The
T

known as Newton's laws of motion.

marble rolled up the same height, but it had
to go farther in this instance. That means First law of motion
ER

the distance travelled by it is greater. He

The first law of motion can be stated
made his observation by further reduction as follows: "Every object will remain at
in the angle of the upward slope, he got the
rest or in a state of uniform motion unless
same results. To reach the same height the
compelled to change its state by the action
ball had to go farther each time.
SC

of a net force".
Then a question arose in his mind,
"Newton’s first law explains what
“How far must it have to moved to reach happens to an object when no net force
the same height if it has no slope to go
acts on it."
up”? Since it has no slope to go up as
It either remains at rest or moves in a
shown in figure 2(c), obviously it should
straight line with constant speed (that is
keep on moving forever along the level
uniform motion). Let’s discuss.
32 Laws of Motion
 Do you know?
Galileo Galilei was born on 15 February

A
1564 in Pisa, Italy. Galileo has been called
the “father of modern science”.

AN
In 1589, in his series of essays, he
presented his theories about falling objects
using an inclined plane to slow down the
rate of descent.

NG
Galileo was also a remarkable
craftsman. He developed a series of
telescopes whose optical performance was
much better than that of other telescopes
available during those days.
Around 1640, he designed the first
LA
pendulum clock. In his book ‘Starry
Messenger’ on his astronomical discoveries, Galileo claimed to have seen mountains
on the moon, the Milky Way made up of tiny stars, and four small bodies orbiting
Jupiter. In his books ‘Discourse on Floating Bodies’ and ‘Letters on the Sunspots’,
TE

he disclosed his observations of sunspots.

Using his own telescopes and through his observations on Saturn and Venus,
Galileo argued that all the planets must orbit the Sun and not the earth, contrary
to what was believed at that time.
T

Activity-1
ER

Observing the motion of a coin

kept on thick paper
Take a thick paper. keep it on a glass
SC

tumbler. Now take a coin and keep it on

the centre of the paper. As shown in
figure 3. Push the paper with your finger
as fast as you can.
What do you observe?
Fig-3: Fast pushing of paper
What happens to the coin? kept on a glass tumbler
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 33
 Activity-2 in a bus, the sudden stop of the bus makes
you fall forward, due to dynamic inertia
Observing the motion of the

A
of the body.
coins hit by a striker
The body which is in motion

AN
always tries to move in same direction
until some net force act on it. This property
is known as dynamic inertia.

With our day to day experiences,

NG
Fig-4: Hitting the stack of coins we all know that we must exert some force
with a striker
on an object to keep it moving. As far as
Make a stack of carrom coins on the the object is concerned, the force applied
carrom board.Give a sharp hit at the by us is just one of the several forces acting
bottom of the stack with striker. You can on it. The other forces might be friction,
LA
find that the bottom coin will be removed air resistance or gravity. Thus it is clear
from the stack, and the others in the stack that it is the net force which determines
will slide down as shown in figure 4. the change in motion of an object.
What are your observations from Let us consider a football placed at
TE

the above activities? rest on the ground. The law of inertia tells
Why does the coin fall inside the us that the football will remain in the same
glass tumbler? state unless something moves it.
Why does the stack of carrom coins If you kick the ball, it will fly in the
fall down vertically? direction you kicked, with certain speed,
T

To understand this, we have to discuss until a force slows it down or stops it. If the
some more examples which we face in our ball goes high, the force of gravity slows it
ER

daily lives.
down. If the ball rolls on the ground, the
For example when the bus which force of friction makes the ball slow down
is at rest begins to move suddenly, the and stop.
person standing in the bus falls backward If the net force acting on an object is
SC

because of static inertia of the body. The zero, the object which is at rest remains at
object at rest will try to remain at rest. untill rest or if the object is already moving with
we apply an external force there will be a certain velocity it continues to move with
no change in the position of the object. the same velocity. Thus we can represent
This is known as static inertia. the first law of motion as:
If Fnet = 0 then the velocity of an object
Similarly when you are travelling
is either zero or constant.
34 Laws of Motion
 Thus when the net force acting on a
body is zero, we say that the body is in
equilibrium. Newton's first Law of motion

A
is also known as the Law of Inertia.
Inertia and mass

AN
We have learnt that inertia is the property Fig-5: pushing wooden boxes
of an object that resists changes in its state with same force
of motion. All objects have this tendency. Through your observations you can
Do all the bodies have the same inertia? tell that the greater the mass of an object,
the more it resists the changes in its state

NG
What factors can decide the inertia of
of motion.
a body?
Which is easy for you, to push a From the above examples, we can
bicycle or a car? You can observe that it is conclude that some objects have more
difficult to push the car. We say car has inertia than others. Mass is a property of
greater inertia than the bicycle. Why does an object that specifies how much inertia
LA
the car possess more inertia than a bicycle? the object has.
Inertia is a property of matter that
resists changes in its state of motion or Think and discuss
rest. It depends on the mass of the object.
TE

The car has more inertia than a bicycle You may have seen the trick where a
because of its mass. tablecloth is jerked from a table,
Mass of an object is considered as the leaving the dishes that were on the
measure of inertia. We know that SI unit cloth nearly in their original
of mass is ‘kg’. positions.
What do you need to perform this
T

Activity-3 successfully?
Pushing two wooden blocks Which cloth should we use? Is it
ER

with same force cloth made of thick cotton or thin

silk?
Take two rectangular wooden blocks Should the dishes possess large
with different masses and place them on a mass or small mass?
straight line drawn on a floor as shown in
SC

Is it better to pull the cloth with a

figure-5. Give the same push at the same large force or pull it with a gentle
time to both the blocks with the help of a and steady force?
wooden scale. What is the velocity of a small object
What do you find? that has separated from a rocket
Which one goes farther? Why? moving in free space with velocity
Which block accelerates more? 10km/s?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 35
 Example 1 Thus, we can say that force is an action
which produces acceleration.
A body of mass ‘m’ is kept on the
A non zero net force acting on a body

A
horizontal floor and it is pushed in the
horizontal direction with a force of 10N disturbs the state of equilibrium.
continuously, so that it moves steadily. Now we are going to discuss how the

AN
a) Draw FBD(a diagram showing all the acceleration of an object depends on the force
applied on it and how we measure a force.
forces acting on the body at a point of
time) Linear momentum
b) What is the value of friction? Let us recall our observations from our

NG
Solution everyday life. If a badminton ball and a
cricket ball hit you with same speed, which
one hurts you more? A small bullet fired
from gun damages the wall, only due to
its high speed. We all know that a heavy
LA truck causes more damage than a bicycle
if both hit a wall. These can be explained
by a concept called 'momentum' which is
usually denoted by the symbol ‘p’.
Fig-6: Free body diagram
TE

From the above examples, we can say

Given that the body is moving steadily, that the momentum depends on two factors:
Hence the net force on the body is zero one is mass of an object and the other is its
both in horizontal and vertical directions. velocity. Newton used the phrase “mass in
Forces acting on it along horizontal motion” to represent the meaning of
direction are force of friction (f), force of momentum. The momentum (p) of a body
T

push (F) is simply defined as the product of its mass

We know that Fnet, x = 0 (m) and its velocity (v) : i.e.
ER

F+ (-f) = 0 Momentum = (mass) x (velocity)

F=f p = mv
Hence the value of force of friction is It can be stated as mass in motion. As
10N. all objects have mass, if an object is in
motion, then it acquires momentum.
SC

Second law of motion

Momentum is a vector because
Newton’s second law explains what velocity is a vector. Hence, the direction
happens to an object when non-zero net of momentum is in the direction of
force acts on it. velocity.
Place a ball on the verandah and push The SI unit of momentum is kg – m/s
it gently. The ball accelerates from rest. or N-s

36 Laws of Motion
 Activity-4 In both the cases, the object
accelerates. But we can observe in the
Larger the net force greater second case, it does not speed up as quickly

A
the acceleration as before.
From the above examples what have

AN
Gently push a block of ice on a smooth you noticed?
surface and observe how the object speeds The larger the net force the greater the
up, in other words how it accelerates. Now acceleration, if the mass of the body is
increase the net force and observe change constant, and also larger the mass lesser
in its speed. the acceleration, if a constant net force is

NG
• Is the acceleration increased? applied.
According to Newton's 'Princpia'
second law states that the rate of change
F of momentum of an object is proportional
to the net force applied on the object, in
F
LA the direction of net force.
Thus net force F net α change in
momentum / time
Fig-7: Different forces applied on same Δp
object Fnet ∝
Δt
TE

Δp is the change in momentum of a

Activity-5 particle or a system of particles brought
about by the net force in a time interval Δt.
Larger the mass smaller the When the symbol of proportionality is
acceleration removed, a constant is inserted in the
equation.
T

Apply a force on an ice block. It

Δp
undergoes some acceleration. Fnet = k
Δt
ER

Now take a block of ice with greater The SI units of momentum and time
mass, but apply almost the same force on are ‘kg- m/s’ and‘s’ respectively. The unit
this ice block and observe the acceleration. of force is so chosen that the value of
constant ‘k’ becomes 1. So that,
Δp
Fnet =
SC

Δt
We know p=mv
F F so that,
Δp = Δ(mv)
If the mass of the body is constant
during its motion then,
Fig-8: Same forces applied on abjects of
different masses Δp = mΔv
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 37
 Now we have,
Think and discuss
Δv
Fnet = m
Δt

A
Observe the following diagram.
We know that Δv/Δt = a, is called
uniform acceleration.

AN
Then Fnet = ma
The above formula says that the net
force produces acceleration in a body in
the direction of force.
SI units of force are kg.m/s2. This unit

NG
has been named as Newton (N) and
1N=1kg.m/s2.
Note:
Fnet= Δp/Δt is a universal formula that Fig- 9
can be applied for any system whereas What is the upper limit of weight that
LA
Fnet= ma can be applied only for a a strong man of mass 80kg can lift as
system with constant mass. shown in figure?
To solve problems by using Newton’s What is the momentum of a ceiling
second law, the weight of the body is fan when it is rotating?
TE

taken as ‘mg’ vertically down. (You Is it possible to move in a curved path

learn more about this in the chapter in the absence of a net force?
‘Gravitation’) Prove that the tension throughout the
string is uniform when the mass of
Example 2 string is considered to be zero.
T

A mat of mass 1kg and length 1m is placed on the floor. One end of the mat is pulled
ER

with a constant speed of 1m/s towards the other end till the other end comes in to motion(till
the mat is reversed). How much force is required to do this?
Solution As shown in figure, a mat is being
pulled with a constant speed of v = 1m/
s, so that the mass of the part of the mat
is continuously increasing. Hence here
SC

the mass is a variable.

The time required for bringing the
entire mat in motion is given by
distance covered by the end
Δt =
speed
Fig-10 2m
= = 2s
1m / s
38 Laws of Motion
 (Distance covered by the Solution
end=1m+1m=2m) From figure 12 we know that tension
From Newton’s second law of motion, of string always tries to pull the bodies up.

A
Δp Δ(mv)
Fnet = =
Δt Δt

AN
Here v is constant, so we get
Δm
Fnet = v
Δt
Where, Δm is the change of mass in
Δt time.

NG
The change of mass in 2s is equal to
entire mass of mat. Fig-12
(1m/s) x (1kg)
Fnet =
2s From the FBD of the mass m1, there
1 exist two forces on the load of mass m1,
= N
LA
2 one is tension of the string acting in
In the horizontal direction only one upward direction and weight of the load
force is acting. Hence the required force (m1g) acting in downward direction.
is 1/2 N
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The net force on m1 Fnet = m1a

Example 3
⇒ m1g – T = m1a ------------ (1)
Atwood machine
Thus the net force (Fnet) acting on mass
m1 produces an acceleration ‘a’ in it.
T

When m1 moves down, m2 moves up.

So the magnitudes of acceleration are
ER

same.

Fig-11
SC

Atwood used the system to prove

Newtons laws of motion. Atwood machine
consists of two loads of masses m1 and m2
attached to the ends of a limp of
inextensible string as shown in the figure Fig-13
11. The string runs over a pulley. Find the
acceleration of each load and tension in
the string (m1>m2)
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 39
 From the FBD of mass m2 force on the first one which is equal in
Fnet = T- m2g = m2a ------------ (2) magnitude but opposite in direction.
The two opposing forces are known

A
Solving (1) and (2) equations, we get as action and reaction pair.
(m1 − m2 ) g Newton’s third law explains what

AN
a= happens when one object exerts a force
m1 + m2
on another object.
2m1m2 g If you are walking on the ground, at
T=
m1 + m2 each step, you know that your feet exert
some force on the ground. Are you

NG
thinking that the ground also exerts some
Third law of motion force in the opposite direction on you?
Activity- 6 Is it not surprising to hear that when
you push a wall then the wall pushes you
back!
Pulling two spring balances
LA
Let’s take two spring balances of equal B
calibrations. Connect the two spring
balances as shown in figure 14. Pull the
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spring balances in opposite directions as

shown in figure 14.
A

Fig-15: Action and reaction forces

Fig-14: Forces applied in opposite
T

direction
If two objects interact, the force FBA
What do you notice from the
ER

exerted by the object ‘A’ on the object ‘B’

readings in the spring balances? is equal in magnitude and opposite in
Are the readings of two spring direction to the force FAB exerted by object
balances the same? ‘B’ on the object ‘A’.
Are we able to make the spring FAB = -FBA
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balances show different readings The negative sign indicates that the
by pulling them simultaneously in reaction force is acting in a direction
opposite directions? Why not? opposite to that of action force. This states
According to third law of motion, that no single isolated force exists.
when an object exerts a force on an other Newton’s first and second laws of
object, the second object also exerts a motion apply to a single body, whereas
Newton’s third law of motion applies to
40 Laws of Motion
 an interaction between the two bodies. Activity-7
Note that the two forces in Newton’s third
law never act on the same body. Balloon rocket

A
The action-reaction pair in Newton’s
Inflate a balloon and press its neck
third law always represents forces acting

AN
with fingers to prevent air escaping
on two different bodies simultaneously.
from it.
Let us consider the following
examples. Pass a thread through a straw and tape
When birds fly, they push the air the balloon on the straw as shown in
downwards with their wings, and the air the figure 17.

NG
pushes back the bird in opposite upward Hold one end of the thread and ask
direction. Thus the force applied by the your friend to hold the other end of
wings of bird on air and an opposite force the thread.
applied by the air on wings are equal in Now remove your fingers from the
magnitude and opposite in direction. balloon’s neck so as to release the air
When a fish swims in water, the fish
LA from the balloon.
pushes the water back and the water What happens now ?
pushes the fish with equal force but in
opposite direction. The force applied by
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the water makes the fish to move forward.

A rocket accelerates by expelling gas
at high velocity. The reaction force of the
gas on the rocket accelerates the rocket in
a direction opposite to the expelled gases.
It is shown in figure-16 Fig-17: Balloon rocket
T

Inflate a balloon and tie its neck. The

air within the balloon exerts force on the
ER

walls of the balloon equally in all the

directions as shown in figure.18
This is balanced by the elastic forces
of the balloon.
SC

Fig-16 : Motion of rocket

Does the rocket exert a force on the Fig-18: The forces on the inside wall of a
balloon
gas expelled from it?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 41
 When you release the neck of the balloon Observe the movement of the test tube
to allow air to escape from the balloon, what when rubber cork cap blows out.Compare
happens? The balloon moves in a direction

A
the directions of movement of test tube as
opposite to that of escaping air. The well as rubber cork cap. Observe the
momentum of the balloon and air is zero difference in the velocity of rubber cork

AN
begin with, when the air escapes with same cap and that of recoiling test tube.
velocity, the balloon moves in the opposite
What do you infer from above
direction to balance the momentum of the
experiment?
escaping air.
Think and discuss

NG
Lab Activity
The force exerted by the earth on the
Aim: To show the action and reaction ball is 8N. What is the force on the
forces acting on two different objects. earth by the ball?
Material required: Test tube, rubber cork A block is placed on the horizontal
LA
cap, Bunsen burner, laboratory stand and surface. There are two forces acting
on the block. One, the downward pull
thread.
of gravity and other a normal force
Procedure acting on it. Are these forces equal
Take a test tube of good quality glass and opposite? Do they form action –
TE

and put small amount of water in it. reaction pair? Discuss with your
Place a cork cap at its mouth to close friends.
Why is it difficult for a fire fighter to
it.
hold a hose that ejects large amount
Now suspend the test tube horizontally
of water at high speed?
with the help of two strings as shown
T

in the figure 19. Conservation of momentum and

Heat the test tube with a Bunsen burner impulse
ER

until water vaporizes and cork cap Let two objects with masses m1 and
blows out. m2 are traveling with different velocities
u1 and u2 respectively in the same direction
String along a straight line. If u1>u2 they collide
Test tube with each other and the collision lasts for
SC

cork cap time ‘t’, which is very small.During the

Water collision the first marble exerts a force on
the second marble F21 and the second
marble exerts a force on the first marble
F12. Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the
Fig-19 marbles respectively after collision.

42 Laws of Motion
 m1u1+m2u2 is the total momentum of
the two marbles before collision and
m1v1+m2v2 is the total momentum of the

A
two marbles after collision.
From the above equation, we observe

AN
Fig-20: Conservation of momentum that the total momentum is unchanged
before and after collisions. We can say that
What are the momenta of the marbles the momentum is conserved. Law of
before and after collision? Let’s know conservation of momentum states that "in
from the table. the absence of a net external force on the

NG
system, the momentum of the system
Marble 1 Marble 2 remains unchanged".
A system is said to be isolated when
Momentum m1u1 m2u2 net external force acting on it is zero.
before collision It will be surprising if anybody says that
Momentum m1v1 m2v2
LA the fall doesn’t hurt, but it is the sudden
after collision stop at the end that hurts you. Is it true?
Change in m1v1-m1u1 m2v2-m2u2 Why does a pole vault jumper land on
momentum,Δp thick mats of foam?
TE

Rate of change (m1v1-m1u1) (m2v2-m2u2) Is it safe to jump on sand rather than a

in momentum t t cement floor? Why?
Δp A softer and more cushioned landing
Δt surface provides a greater stopping
distance because of the longer time taken
T

to stop. That’s why the fielder pulls back

According to Newton’s third law of
his hands while catching a fast moving
motion, the force exerted by first marble
cricket ball. In this situation, the fielder is
ER

on the second is equal to the force exerted

trying to increase the time to decrease its
by the second marble on the first one.
velocity.
Hence F12 = -F21
Thus, the rate of change of momentum
Hence we get,
will be less so that the force of impact of
(Δp)1 (Δp)2
SC

=- the ball on hands will be reduced.

t t As we expressed the second law as
m1v1-m1u1 - (m2v2-m2u2) Δp
t = t Fnet =
Δt
After solving this, we get In order to minimize Fnet , you have to
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2 maximize the stopping time.
We get Fnet Δt = Δp
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 43
 From the above equation we know that Δp = Fnet Δt
the product of net force and interaction Even if the Δp is the same in both the
time is called impulse of net force. Impulse cases, the magnitude of the net force (Fnet)

A
is equivalent to the change in momentum acting on the egg determines whether the
that an object experiences during an egg will break or not.

AN
interaction. Forces exerted over a Why does a fielder catch a fast moving
limited time are called impulsive forces. cricket ball by pulling back his arms while
Often the magnitude of an impulsive force catching it? If he doesn’t pull his hands
is so large that its effect is appreciable, back what would happen? The ball
even though its duration is short. Let us definitely hurts him. When he pulls back

NG
observe the following activity. his hands he experiences a smaller force
for a longer time. The ball stops only when
Activity-8 your hands stop. This shows that the
change in the momentum not only depends
Dropping eggs on the magnitude of the force but also on
LA
Take two eggs and drop them from a
the time during which force is exerted on
that object.
certain height such that one egg falls on a
concrete floor and another egg falls on a
Think and discuss
cushioned pillow.
TE

What changes do you notice in both A meteorite burns in the atmosphere

eggs after they are dropped? Why? before it reaches the earth’s surface.
What happens to its momentum?
As you throw a heavy ball upward, is
there any change in the normal force
T

on your feet?
When a coconut falls from a tree and
ER

strikes the ground without bouncing.

Fig-21: (a) Fig-21: (b)
Fig-21: (a) fall of an egg on a concrete floor What happens to its momentum?
(b) fall of an egg on a cushioned pillow. Air bags are used in cars for safety.
Why?
When we drop the egg on the concrete
SC

floor, it will break, because a large force Example 4

acts on the egg for the short interval of A cannon of mass m1 = 12000 kg
time. located on a smooth horizontal platform
Δp = Fnet Δt fires a shell of mass m 2 = 300 kg in
When we drop the egg on a cushioned horizontal direction with a velocity v2 =
pillow, it doesn’t break because a smaller 400m/s. Find the velocity of the cannon
force acts on the egg for longer time. after it is shot.
44 Laws of Motion
 Solution m1v1 = - m2v2
Since the pressure of the powder gases v1 = - m2v2 /m1
in the bore of the cannon is an internal

A
Substituting the given values in the
force the net external force acting on above equation, we get
cannon during the firing is zero. (300kg) x (400m/s)

AN
Let v1 be the velocity of the cannon v1 = -
12000kg
after shot. The initial momentum of system = -10 m/s.
is zero. Thus the velocity of cannon is 10m/s
The final momentum of the system after the shot.
= m1v1+m2v2

NG
Here ‘-’ sign indicates that the canon
From the conservation of linear moves in a direction opposite to the motion
momentum, We get, of the bullet.
m1v1+m2v2 = 0

Key words
LA
Laws of motion, Inertia, Mass, Linear momentum, Conservation of momentum,
Impulse, Impulsive force
TE

What we have learnt

First Law of Motion: A body continues its state of rest or of uniform motion unless a
net force acts on it.
T

The natural tendency of objects to resist a change in their state of rest or of uniform
motion is called inertia.
ER

The mass of an object is a measure of inertia. SI unit of mass is Kilogram (kg).

Second Law of Motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and it takes place in the direction of net force.
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity. p = mv
One ‘Newton’ is the force which when acting on a body of mass 1 kg, produces an
SC

acceleration of 1 m/s2
1 newton (N) = 1kg x 1 ms-2
Third Law of Motion: If one object exerts a force on other object, the second object
exerts a force on the first one with equal magnitude but in opposite direction.
In an isolated system, that means where there is no net external force, the total
momentum is conserved.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 45
 Let us Improve our learning

A
Reflections on Concepts
1) Explain the reasons for the following. (AS1)

AN
a) Why dust comes out of a carpet when it is beaten with a stick?
b) Luggage kept on the roof of a bus is tied with a rope.
c) Why a pace bowler in cricket runs from a long distance before he bowls?
2) Illustrate an example of each of the three laws of motion.(AS1)

NG
3) Explain the following (AS1)
a) Static Inertia b) Inertia of motion c) momentum
d) impulse e)impulsive force
Application of Concepts
1) Two objects have masses 8 kg and 25 kg. Which one has more inertia?
Why?(AS1)
LA
2) What is the momentum of a 6.0 kg ball bowling with a velocity of 2.2 m/s?
(Ans: 13.2 kg m/s2)(AS1)
3) Two people push a car for 3 s with a combined net force of 200 N. (AS1)
TE

(a) Calculate the impulse provided to the car.

(b) If the car has a mass of 1200 kg, what will be its change in velocity?
(Ans: (a) 600 N.s (b) 0.5 m/s)
4) A force acts for 0.2 sec on an object having mass 1.4 kg initially at rest. The force
stops to act but the object moves through 4m in the next 2 seconds find the magnitude
T

of the force? ( Ans: 14 N )(AS1)

5) An object of mass 5 kg is moving with a velocity of 10 ms-1. A force is applied so
ER

that in 20 s, it attains a velocity of 25 ms-1. What is the force applied on the object?
( Ans: 3.75 N )(AS1)
6. A hammer of mass 400 g, moving at 30 m s-1, strikes a nail. The nail stops the
hammer in a very short time of 0.01 s. What is the force of the nail on the hammer?
SC

(AS1) (Ans: 1200 N)

7. A man of mass 30 kg uses a rope to climb which bears only 450 N. What is the
maximum acceleration with which he can climb safely? ( Ans: 15 m/s2 ) (AS7)

46 Laws of Motion
 Higher Order Thinking questions
1. A vehicle has a mass of 1500 kg. What must be the force between the vehicle and

A
the road if the vehicle is to be stopped with a negative acceleration of 1.7 ms-2?
( Ans:- -2550 N in a direction opposite to that of the motion of the vehicle) (AS7)

AN
2. Two ice skaters initially at rest, push of each other. If one skater whose mass is 60
kg has a velocity of 2 m/s. What is the velocity of other skater whose mass is 40 kg?
(Ans: 3 m/s in opposite direction) (AS7)
3. Three identical blocks, each of mass 10kg, are pulled as shown on the horizontal
frictionless surface. If the tension (F) in the rope is 30N. What is the acceleration of

NG
each block? And what are the tensions in the other ropes? (Neglect the masses of the
ropes) (AS1) (Ans: a = 1m/s2 , T1 =10N, T2 = 20N)

T1 LA T2

4. If a fly collides with the windshield of a fast-moving bus, (AS2)

(a) Is the impact force experienced, same for the fly and the bus? Why?
TE

(b) Is the same acceleration experienced by the fly and the bus? Why?

Multipule Choice Questions

1. The scientist who said that "an object in motion will remain in same motion as long
T

as no external force is applied" is [ ]

a) Aristotle b) Galileo c) Newton d) Dalton
ER

2. If the net force acting on an object is zero, then the body is said to be in the state of
[ ]
a) Equilibrium b) Motion c) Inertia of motion d) Uniform motion
SC

3. The inertia of a body depends on [ ]

a) Shape b) Volume c) Mass d) Area

4. Newton used the word ‘mass in motion’ to represent [ ]

a) Linear momentum b) Inertia of motion
c) Velocity d) Inertia at rest

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 47

 5. The S.I unit of momentum is [ ]
a) m/sec b) Kg-m c) k.g.m/sec d) Kg. m/sec2

A
Suggested Experiments

AN
1. Conduct an experiment to prove Newton’s first law of motion and write a report.

2. Conduct an experiment to show the action and reaction forces acting on two
different objects.

Suggested Projects

NG
1. Observe some daily life examples for Newton’s first law of motion and explain
the situaions. Write a report on your observations.

2. Write a report on the action and reaction in the systems that you have observed
LA
in your daily life which are the evident of Newton’s third law of motion.
TE
T
ER
SC

48 Laws of Motion
 Chapter

A
4

AN
Refraction of Light at
Plane Surfaces

NG
We have learnt about the reflection of Activity 2
LA
light on plane surfaces in class 7 and 8.
Go to a long wall (of length about 30
Beauty of the nature is made apparent with
light. Light exhibits many interesting feet) facing the Sun. Go to one end of a
phenomena. wall and ask your friend to bring a bright
Let us try to explore a few of them. metal object near the other end of the wall.
TE

You might have observed that a coin kept When the object is a few inches from the
at the bottom of a vessel filled with water wall it appears distorted and you will see
appears to be raised. Similarly, a lemon a reflected image in the wall as though the
kept in a glass of water appears to be bigger wall were a mirror.
than its size. When a thick glass slab is
• Why is there an image of the object
T

placed over some printed letters, the letters

on the wall?
appear raised when viewed through the glass
slab. To answer the above questions and to
ER

• What could be the reasons for the above give reasons for the situations mentioned
observations? we need to understand the phenomenon
of refraction of light.
Activity 1
Refraction
Take some water in a glass tumbler.
SC

Keep a pencil in it. Look at the pencil from Activity 3

one side of the glass and also from the top Take a shallow vessel with opaque
of the glass. walls such as a mug. (A tin or a pan is
• How does it look? suitable). Place a coin at the bottom of the
• Do you find any difference between vessel. Move away from the vessel until
the two views? you cannot see the coin.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 49

 If yes, draw a ray diagram from the coin
Eye Light ray
to the eye. Keep in mind that the light ray

A
Opaque travelling in a medium takes a straight line
walls path.
Coin
•

AN
What happens to the light ray at the
fig-1(a) interface between water and air?
See figure 1(b). • What could be the reason for this
bending of the light ray in the second
Eye
instance?

NG
Light ray
The above questions can be answered
by Fermat’s principle, which states that the
Opaque light ray always travels between two points
Coin walls
in a path which needs the shortest possible
fig-1(b) time to cover. Let us apply this principle
LA
Stand there. Ask your friend to fill the to our activity.
vessel with water. When the vessel is filled By observing the path of the ray, it is
with water the coin comes back into view.
clear that the light ray changes its direction
See figure 1(c).
at the interface separating the two media
TE

• Why are you able to see the coin when

the vessel is filled with water? i.e, water and air. This path is chosen by
You know that the ray of light the light ray so as to minimize time of
originating from the coin, doesn’t reach travel between coin and eye. This is
your eye when the vessel is empty (see possible only if the speed of the light
figure1b). Hence you couldn’t see the changes at interface of two media. Thus
T

coin. But the coin becomes visible to you we can conclude that the speed of the light
after the vessel is filled with water.
changes when light propagates from one
ER

• How is it possible?
medium to another medium.
• Do you think that the ray reaches your
eye when the vessel is filled with water? “The process of changing speed at an
interface when light travels from one
Eye
medium to another resulting in a change in
SC

direction is refraction of light. The process

Light ray of refraction involves bending of light ray
except when it is incident normally”.
Consider that light travels from
Water
Opaque
walls
medium 1with speed v1 to medium 2 with
Coin speed v2 as shown in figures 2(a) and (b).
fig-1(c)
50 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
 N interface of separation of two media. When
NN-normal it travels from denser medium to rarer
V1

A
medium it bends away from normal. We
Rarer
have seen that the ray of light deviates from
Interface its path at the interface. Draw a normal at

AN
the point of incidence as shown in figure
V2 (3).
Denser
Let ‘i’ be the angle made by incident
N ray with normal and ‘r’ be the angle made

NG
fig-2(a) by refracted ray with the normal. These
N
angles are called angle of incidence and
angle of refraction respectively.
V1
Denser
N
LA fig-3
i

Rarer
TE

V2 r
fig-2(b)
N
• What difference do you notice in fig
N
2(a) and Fig 2(b) with the respect to
To explain the process of refraction we
refracted rays?
need to know about a constant called
T

• Is there any relation between refractive index which is the property of a

behaviour of refracted rays and speeds transparent medium. Let us learn about it.
ER

of the light? The extent of the change in direction

Experiments have showed that change that takes place when a light ray propagates
in the direction of light is due to change through one medium to another medium is
in the speed of the light in the medium. expressed in terms of refractive index.
If v2 is less than v1 then medium 2 is said Refractive index
SC

to be denser with respect to medium 1. Light travels in vacuum with a speed

If v2 is greater than v1 then medium 2 is nearly equal to 3x108 m/s (denoted by
said to be rarer with respect to medium 1. letter ‘c’). The speed of light is smaller
If light ray enters from rarer medium than ‘c’ in other transparent media.
to denser medium then refracted ray Let ‘v’ be the speed of light in a certain
moves towards the normal drawn at the medium. Then the ratio of speed of light

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 51

 in vacuum to the speed of light in that fast or how slow light travels in a medium.
medium is defined as refractive index ‘n’. The speed of light in a medium is low
It is called absolute refractive index. when refractive index of the medium is

A
Absolute refractive index high and vice versa. The refractive index
speed of light in vacuum ‘n’ means that the speed of light in that

AN
=
speed of light in medium medium is nth part of speed of light in
c vacuum.
n= ...............(1)
v For example the refractive index of
It is a dimensionless quantity because 3
glass is .Then the speed of light in glass
it is a ratio of the same physical quantities. 2

NG
2
Refractive index gives us an idea of how is × 3 × 108 = 2 × 108 m/s.
3
Table:1 Refractive indices of some material media.
Material medium Refractive index Material medium Refractive index
Air 1.0003 Canada balsam 1.53
Ice 1.31 Rock salt 1.54
Water 1.33
LA Carbon Diasulphide 1.63
Kerosene 1.44 Dense flint glass 1.65
Fused quartz 1.46 Ruby 1.71
Turpentine oil 1.47 Sapphire 1.77
TE

Crown glass 1.52 Diamond 2.42

Benzene 1.50

Note : From table 1, you know that an Relative refractive index

optically denser medium may not possess The refractive index of a medium with
T

greater mass density. For example, respect to another medium is defined as

kerosene with high refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in the first
ER

optically denser than water although its medium to the speed of light in the second
mass density is less than water. medium. Let v1 and v2 be the speeds of
• Why do different material media light in the first and second media
possess different values of refractive respectively. Then,
Indices? Refractive index of second medium
SC

• On what factors does the refractive with respect to first medium is given by
index of a medium depend? speed of light in medium - 1
n21 =
Refractive index depends on the speed of light in medium - 2
following factors. v1
n21 = v
(1) nature of material (2) wavelength 2

of light used. (You will learn about this in Dividing both numerator and
your higher classes). denominator by c we get
52 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
 v v v2 1 1 n Take a protractor and place it along NN
= v = c = = 2
1 1

2 c n1 n2 n1 in such way that its centre coincides with

A
n2 O as shown in figure 4(a). Then mark the
D n21 = n ....................(2) angles from 00 to 900 on both sides of the
1
line NN as shown in figure 4(a). Repeat the

AN
This is called relative refractive Index.
We define relative Refractive index as same on the other side of the line NN. The
follow angles should be indicated on the curved
Relative refractive index, ( n21 ) = line.
Refractive index of second medium (n 2 )

NG
Refractive index of first medium (n1 )

Lab Activity 1
Aim: Obtaining a relation between
angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
Materials required: A plank, white
LA
chart, protractor, scale, small black painted fig-4(b)
plank, a semi circular glass disc of thickness
nearly 2cm, pencil and laser light. Now place a semi-circular glass disc
so that its diameter coincides with the
TE

Procedure :
interface line (MM) and its center
Take a wooden plank which is covered
with white chart. Draw two perpendicular coincides with the point O. Point a laser
lines, passing through the middle of the light along NN in such a way that the light
paper as shown in the figure 4(a). Let the propagates from air to glass through the
point of intersection be O. Mark one line interface at point O and observe the path
T

as NN which is normal to the another line of laser light coming from other side of
marked as MM. Here MM represents the disc as shown in figure 4 (b). (If you
ER

line drawn along the interface of two cannot observe the path of laser light put
media and NN represents the normal
a black-coloured plank against the curved
drawn to this line at ‘O’.
line and observe the light point and
imagine the light path).
• Is there any deviation?
SC

Send Laser light along a line which

makes150 (angle of incidence) with NN
and see that it passes through point O.
Measure its corresponding angle of
refraction, by observing laser light coming
from the other side (Circular side) of the
fig-4(a)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 53
 glass slab. Note these values in table (2). such as 200,300,400,500 and 600 and note
Do the same for the angles of incidence the corresponding angles of refraction.

A
Table 2
i r Sin i Sin r Sin i / Sin r

AN
Find sin i, sin r for every ‘i’ and ‘r’ and Let us take up another activity to find

NG
evaluate sin i/ sin r for every incident angle this.
‘i’.
Actitivy 4
Note : Take the help of your teacher
to find the values of sin i and sin r for Take a metal disk. Use a protractor and
each case. mark angles along its edge as shown in
LA
Finally, we will get the ratio sin i / sin the figure 5(a). Arrange two straws at the
r as a constant. centre of the disk in such a way that they
can be rotated freely about the centre of
• Is this ratio equal to refractive index
the disc.
of glass? Why?
TE

This ratio gives the value of refractive

index of glass. In the above experiment
you might have noticed that ‘r’ is less than
‘i’ in all cases and the refracted ray bends
T

towards normal in each case.

fig-5(a)
• What do you conclude from these
ER

observations? Adjust one of the straws to make an

From the above experiment we can angle 10 0 . Immerse half of the disc
conclude that when light ray travels from vertically into the water, filled in a
a rarer medium (air) to a denser medium transparent vessel. While dipping, verify
(glass) the value of r is less than the value that the straw at 100 is inside the water.
SC

of ‘i’ and the refracted ray bends towards From the top of the vessel try to view the
the normal. straw which is inside the water as shown
• Can you guess what happen when light in figure 5(b). Then adjust the other straw
ray travels from a denser medium to a which is outside the water until both straws
rarer medium? appear to be in a single straight line.

54 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces

 Then take the disc out of the water and that means when light travels from water
observe the two straws on it. You will find (denser) to air (rarer). It behaves in an

A
that they are not in a single straight line. opposite way to that we observed in lab
activity 1.
From this activity we can generalize

AN
Straw
that when the light ray travels from denser
to rarer, it bends away from the normal
Straw and r > i.
• Is there any relation between the angle
fig5(b) of incidence and the angles of

NG
refraction?
• Why do the straws appear to be in a
The relation between angle of
straight line when we view them from
incidence and angle of refraction can be
the top?
given by n1 sin i = n2 sin r.
Measure the angle between the normal This is called snell’s law
and second straw. Draw table (2) again in
LA sin i n 2
⇒ =
your notebook and note the value. Do the sin r n1
same for various angles. Find the n 2 v1
corresponding angles of refraction and we know =
n1 v 2
TE

note them in the table drawn. Use the data sin i v1

⇒ =
in the table and find refractive index of sin r v 2
water. Do not take up this activity for
When light travels from one
angles of incidence greater than 48 v1
medium to another the ratio speeds is v
degrees. You will learn the reasons for this n2
2

in the following sections. and the ratio of refractive indices is .

T

n1
You will observe that in the above Hence angle of reflection and angle of
sin i v
refraction will follow sin r = v
1
activity, ‘r’ is greater than ‘i’ in all cases
ER

Derivation of Snell’s Law :

A
Consider the following analogy to derive it.
Let us imagine that a person has fallen out of X
SC

boat and is screaming for help in the water at point

B as shown in figure 6(a).
B
The line marked through point ‘X’ is the shore
line. Let us assume that we are at a point ‘A’ on
the the shore and we saw the accident. In order to fig-6(a)
save the person we need to travel a certain
distance on land and a certain distance in water.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 55

 We know that, we can run faster on land than
we can swim in water.
time t

A
• What do we do to save the person?
C • Which path enables us to save the person in
the shortest possible time?

AN
Z
fig-6(b) • Do we go in a straight line?
By careful thought we would realize that it
would be advantageous to travel a greater distance on the land in order to decrease
the distance in water because we go much slower in water. For whatever speeds on

NG
land and in water, the final path that one has to follow to reach the person is ACB, and
that this path takes the shortest time of all the possible paths (see figure 6c). If we
take any other route, it will be longer. If we plot a graph for the time taken to reach
the girl against the position of any point when we cross the shore line, we would get
a curve something like that shown in figure 6(b). In this graph, the distance from
point Y to the points like D, C are taken as values of Z.
A
LA
N

i
i
E
TE

Y C X
D
At D and C angle of refraction is r r
taken as r because the points C F
and D are assumed to be close r
N
fig-6(c) B
T

Where ‘C’, the point on shore line, corresponds to the shortest of all possible
times. Let us consider a point ‘D’ on shore line which is very close to point ‘C’ such
ER

that there is essentially no change in time between path ACB and ADB.
Let us try to calculate how long it would take to go from A to B by the two paths
one through point D and another through point C (see figure 6c). First look at the
paths on the land as shown in figure 6(c). If we draw a perpendicular DE; between
two paths at D, we see that the path (AD) on land is shortened by the amount EC. On
SC

the other hand, in the water, by drawing a corresponding perpendicular CF we find

that we have to go the extra distance DF in water. In other words, we gain a time that
is equal to go through distance EC on land but we lose the time that is equal to go
extra distance DF in water. These times must be equal since we assumed there no
change in time between the two paths.
Let the time taken to travel from E to C and D to F be Δt and v1 and v2 be the
speeds of running and swimming. From figure 6(c) we get,

56 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces

 EC = v1 Δt and DF = v2 Δt
EC v1
D DF = v ————(3)

A
1

Let i and r be the angles measured between the path ACB and normal NN,
perpendicular to shore line X.

AN
• Can you find sin i and sin r from figure 6(c)?
Note : Sin of any acute angle in a right angled triangle can be defined as a ratio of
opposite side of that angle to the Hypotenuse. C
BC
sin θ =

NG
AC
From figure 6(c), we get;
A θ B
EC DF
sin i = and sin r =
DF DC
Therefore,
sin i EC
LA ——————(4)
sin r = DF
from equations (3) and (4), we have
sin i / sin r = v1 / v2 ––—————(5)
TE

Thus to save the person, one should take such a path to satisfy the above equation.
We used the principle of least time to derive the above result. Hence we can apply the
same for the light ray also. From (5) we get,
sin i v1 n1 v n
= = (since v = n )
1 1

sin r v 2 n 2 , 2 2

D n1 sin i = n2 sin r.
T

This is called Snell’s law.

ER

Above experiments and activities show • Is there any chance that angle of
that refraction of light occurs according to refraction is equal to 900? When does
certain laws. this happen?
Following are the laws of refraction. Let us find out
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray
Total Internal Reflection
SC

and the normal to interface of two

transparent media at the point of Activity 5
incidence all lie in the same plane.
Use the same materials as used in lab
2. During refraction, light follows
activity 1. Place the semi circular glass
Snell’s law
disc in such a way that its diameter
sin i
n1 sin i = n2 sin r (or) = constant . coincides with interface line MM and its
sin r
centre coincides with point ‘O’ as we have
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 57
 done in lab activity. Now send light from index n1 to medium 2 with refractive index
the curved side of the semicircular glass n2.See figure 7.
disc. This means that we are making the

A
N
light travel from denser medium to rarer Rarer
medium. Start with angle of incidence (i)

AN
equal to 00 i.e., along the normal and look
for the refracted ray on the other side of C
the disc.
• Where do you find the refracted ray? Denser N
• Does it deviate from its path when it

NG
enters the rarer medium?
fig-7
You might have noticed that it doesn’t
deviate. It is already found that the angle of
Send laser light along angles of refraction is more than angle of incidence
incidence 50, 100, 150 etc.., and measure when a light ray travels from denser(n1)
LA
the angle of refraction. Tabulate the results to rarer medium (n2).
in table (3) as shown below and note the For the angle of incidence i, let r be
values ‘i’ and ‘r’ in the table. the angle of refraction.
From Snell’s law
Table 3
TE

n1 sin r
i r n1 sin i = n2 sin r B =
n 2 sin i
n1
we know that, n is greater than 1, so
2

that sin r/ sin i is greater than 1.So we

•
T

At what angle of incidence do you conclude that the angle of refraction is

notice that the refracted ray grazes the greater than the angle of incidence, i.e, r
interface separating the two media (air is greater than i.
ER

and glass)? The angle of incidence at which the

You will observe that at a certain angle light ray, travelling from denser to rarer
of incidence the refracted ray does not medium, grazes the interface is called
come out but grazes the interface critical angle for denser medium. It is
separating air and glass. Measure the angle shown in figure7.
SC

of incidence for to this situation. This

Let C be the critical angle. Then r
angle of incidence is known as critical
angle. becomes 900
The above results can be explained n1 sin 90o
using Fermat’s principle. we get, n = sin c
2
Let us consider the light ray that
travels from medium 1 with refractive n1 1
⇒ =
n 2 sin c
58 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
 n2 n Solution: From the geometry of
We get sin c = . We know that 1 figure E-b it is clear that, the angle of
n1 n2
i.e., n12 is called refractive index of denser incidence on the side BC is equal to α

A
medium with respect to rarer medium (dotted line is a normal drawn at the point
1 of incidence). The ray should undergo total

AN
sin c = internal reflection to reach AC. For
n12
• Can you find the critical angle of water occurence of total internal reflection, the
using the above equation? Discuss it value of α must be greater than the critical
in your class. angle at interface of water and glass.
• What happens to light when the angle

NG
A B
of incidence is greater than critical α
angle?
α
When the angle of the incidence is
greater than critical angle, the light ray gets
reflected into the denser medium at the C
interface i.e., light never enters the rarer
medium. This phenomenon is called total
LA fig E-b
internal reflection. It is shown in figure 7. Let ‘C’ be the critical angle for the
Discuss these ideas in your class and interface of glass and water.
find out the critical angle of water. From the given condition, α > C ——(1)
TE

Let us see an example on total internal 1

We know, sin C = —— (2)
reflection. n12
n1 3 4 9
Example n12 = n = 2 =
3 8
2
A rectangular glass wedge (prism) is From equation 2, we get
immersed in water as shown in figure E-
8
T

a. For what value of angle α, will the beam sin C = B C = 620301

9
of light, which is normally incident on AB, Hence α is greater than C = 62030 |
ER

reach AC entirely as shown in figure E-b.

Let us see few activities of total
4
Take the refractive index of water as internal reflection.
3
3 Activity 6
and the refractive index of glass as .
2
Take a transparent glass tumbler and
SC

coin. Place the coin on a table and place

A B glass tumbler on the coin. Observe the coin
α
from the side of the glass.
• Can you see the coin?
Now fill the glass tumbler with water
C
and observe the coin from the side of the
fig E-a glass tumbler.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 59
 • Can you see the coin?
• Explain why the coin disappears from
view.

A
Activity 7

AN
Take a cylindrical transparent vessel
fig-9(a)
(you may use 1 L beaker). Place a coin at
the bottom of the vessel. Now pour water
The formation of a mirage is the best
until you get the image of the coin on the
example where refractive index of a
water surface (look at the surface of water

NG
medium varies throughout the medium.
from a side). See figure 8.
During a hot summer day, air just
Image of above the road surface is very hot and the
the coin air at higher altitudes is cool. It means that
on the
water the temperature decreases with height. As
surface
a result density of air increases with height.
LA
We know that refractive index of air
increases with density. Thus the refractive
Coin at
bottom index of air increases with height. So, the
cooler air at the top has greater refractive
TE

fig-8
index than hotter air just above the road.
• Can you explain why the image of the Light travels faster through the thinner hot
air than through the denser cool air
coin is formed?
above it.
There are many interesting situations
around us which involve the phenomenon
T

of total internal reflection. One of that is

a mirage which we witness while driving
ER

or while walking on a road during a hot

summer day.
fig-9(b): The paths of light rays when there
Mirages is no change in density of air
Mirage is an optical illusion where it When the light from a tall object such
SC

appears that water has collected on the as tree or from the sky passes through a
road at a distant place but when we get medium just above the road, whose
there, we don’t find any water. refractive index decreases towards ground,
• Do you know the reason why it it suffers, refraction and takes a curved
appears so? path because of total internal reflection.
See figure 9(c).

60 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces

 Refractive index fibre is very thin fibre made of glass
decreases with depth
(or) plastic having radius about a

A
micrometer (10-6 m). A bunch of such
thin fibres form a light pipe.

AN
fig-9(c)

fig-10(a)

This refracted light reaches the

NG
observer in a direction shown in Figure-
9c. This appears to the observer as if the
ray is reflected from the ground. Hence
we feel the illusion of water being present
on road (shown in figure 9a) which is the
fig-10(b)
virtual image of the sky (mirage) and an
LA Figure 10(a) shows the principle of
inverted image of tree on the road (shown
in figure 9c). light transmission by an optical fibre.
Figure 10(b) sketches a optical fibre cable.
Because of the small radius of the fibre,
TE

Think and discuss light going into it makes a nearly glancing

incidence on the wall. The angle of
• Why should you see a mirage as incidence is greater than the critical angle
a flowing water? and hence total internal reflection takes
• Can you take a photo of a mirage? place. The light is thus transmitted along
T

the fibre.
Applications of total internal All organs of the human body are not
reflection
ER

accessible to the naked eye of the doctor,

i) Brilliance of diamonds: Total internal for example intestines. The doctor inserts
reflection is the main reason for light pipe into the stomach through the
brilliance of diamonds. The critical mouth. Light is sent down through one set
angle of a diamond is very low(24.4o). of fibres in the pipe. This illuminates the
SC

So if a light ray enters a diamond it is inside of the stomach. The light from the
very likely to undergo total internal inside travels back through another set of
reflection which makes the diamond fibres in the pipe and the viewer gets the
shine. image at the outer end (generally fed to the
ii) Optical fibres: Total internal computer screen).
reflection is the basic principle behind The other important application of fibre
working of optical fibre. An optical optics is to transmit communication
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 61
 signals through light pipes. For example, perpendicular line to AB. Take two more
about 2000 telephone signals, pins and stick them on the other side of
the slab in such a way that all pins come

A
appropriately mixed with light waves, may
be simultaneously transmitted through a to view along a straight line. Remove the
typical optical fibre. The clarity of the slab from its place. Take out the pins. Draw

AN
signals transmitted in this way is much a straight line by using the dots formed by
better than other conventional methods. the pins such that it reaches first edge (AB)
of the rectangle. You will get a long
• How does light behave when a glass slab
straight line.
is introduced in its path?
• What does it mean?

NG
Let us see
The light ray that falls perpendicular
Refraction Through a Glass Slab
to one side of the slab surface comes out
A thin glass slab is formed when a
with out any deviation.
medium is isolated from its surroundings
Now take another piece of white chart
by two plane surfaces parallel to each other.
on the plank. Clamp it. Place a glass slab
LA
Let us determine position and nature of the
in the middle of the paper. Again draw a
image formed when the slab is placed in border line along the edges of the slab by
front of an object. Let us do an activity. using a pencil. Remove the slab and name
the vertices of the rectangle formed as
Lab Activity 2
TE

A,B,C and D. Draw a perpendicular at a

point on the longer side AB. Now draw a
Aim: Determination of ray tracking by
line, from the point of intersection where
a glass slab and lateral shift.
side AB of rectangle and perpendicular
Material required: Drawing board,
meet, in such a way that it makes 300 angle
chart paper, clamps, scale, pencil, thin
with normal. This line represents the
T

glass slab and pins.

incident ray falling on the slab and the
Procedure: angle it makes with normal represents the
ER

Place a piece of chart (paper) on a angle of incidence.

drawing board. Clamp it. Place a glass slab
in the middle of the paper. Draw border
i
line along the edges of the slab by using a
D C
pencil. Remove it. You will get a figure of
SC

a rectangle. Name the vertices of the

r
rectangle as A, B, C and D. r
Draw a perpendicular at a point on the
longer side (AB) of the rectangle. Again A B
keep the slab on paper such that it • pins i
coincides with the sides of the rectangle
ABCD. Take two pins. Stick them on the fig-11
62 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
 Now place the slab on the paper in such • Can you find any relation between the
way that it fits in the rectangle drawn. Fix angle of incidence and shift?
two identical pins on the line making 300 • Can you find the refractive index of

A
angle with normal such that they stand the slab?
vertically with equal height. By looking at Let us find the refractive index of the

AN
the two pins from the other side of the slab, slab.
fix two pins in such a way that all pins
appear to be along a straight line. Remove Activity 8
slab and take out pins. Draw a straight line
Measure the thickness of the slab.
by joining the dots formed by the pins up to
Note it in your notebook. Take a white
the edge CD of the rectangle. This line

NG
chart and fix it on the table. Take the slab
represents emergent ray of the light.
and place it in the middle of the chart.
Draw a perpendicular ON to the line
Draw its boundary. Remove the slab from
CD where our last line drawn meets the
its place. The lines form a rectangle. Name
line CD. Measure the angle between
emergent ray and normal. This is called the vertices as A,B,C and D. Draw a
LA
angle of emergence. (Check your drawing perpendicular to the longer line AB of the
with the figure 11). rectangle at any point on it. Place slab
• Is the line formed a straight line? again in the rectangle ABCD. Take a pin.
Place at a point P in such a way that its
• Are the angles of incidence and
length is parallel to the AB on the
emergence equal?
TE

perpendicular line at a distance of 15cm

• Are the incident and emergent rays
from the slab. Now take another pin and
parallel?
by looking at the first pin from the other
You will notice an important result
side of the slab try to place the pin so that
that the incident and emergent rays are
it forms a straight line with the first pin.
parallel.
T

• Can you find the distance between the P

parallel rays?
Q
ER

The distance between the parallel rays Glass

slab
is called lateral shift. Measure this shift.
Repeat the experiment for different angles
of incidence and tabulate the values of
angle of incidence and shift corresponding
to each angle of incidence in table (4).
SC

A
B
Table 4 D
C
Agle of Inciddene Shift
fig-12

Note : While doing this, keep your eye

fixed along the edge of the glass slab and
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 63
 first pin is seen through the glass slab, • Is this shift independent of distance of
where as second pin is seen through air first pin from slab?
i.e. outside of the glass slab.

A
To find this, do the same activity for
Remove the slab and observe the
positions of the pins. another distance of the pin from the slab.

AN
• Are they in the same line? You will get the same vertical shift. We
Draw a perpendicular line from the could use a formula to find out refractive
second pin to the line on which first pin is index of the glass.
placed. Call the intersection point Q. Find
Thickness of the slab
the distance between P and Q. We may call R.I =
(thickness of slab − vertical shift)

NG
it vertical shift.

Key words
Refraction, Incident ray, Refracted ray, Angle of incidence, Angle of
Refraction, Absolute refractive index, Relative refractive index, Snell’s law,
LA
Critical angle, Total internal Reflection, Mirage, Shift, Optical fibre.

What we have learnt

TE

• When light travels from one medium to another, its direction changes at the interface.
The phenomenon of changing direction at the interface of the two media is known as
refraction.
• Absolute refractive index = Speed of light in vacuum/ Speed of light in medium B n=c/v.
T

v1 n 2
• Relative refractive index , n21 = v = n .
2 1
ER

• Snell’s law is given by, n1 sin i = n2 sin r .

• The angle of incidence, at which the light ray travelling from denser to rarer medium grazes
the interface, is called the critical angle for those media. sin C = n2/ n1 , where n1 is the
refractive index of denser medium and n2 is the refractive index of rarer medium. (n1>n2)
• When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected
SC

into denser medium at interface. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Let us Improve our learning

I. Reflections on concepts
1. The speed of the light in a diamond is 1, 24, 000 km/s. Find the refractive index of
diamond if the speed of light in air is 3,00,000 km/s. (AS1) (Ans: 2.42)

64 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces

 2. Refractive index of glass relative to water is 9/8. What is the refractive index of water
relative to glass? (AS1) (Ans: 8/9)

A
3. The absolute refractive index of water is 4/3. What is the critical angle? (AS1)
(Ans: 48.50)

AN
4. Determine the refractive index of benzene if the critical angle of benzene with respect to
air is 420.(AS1) (Ans: 1.51)
5. Explain the formation of mirage? (AS1)
6. Explain the refraction of light through a glass slab with a neat ray diagram. (AS5)
7. Why do stars appear twinkling? (AS7)

NG
II. Application of concepts
1. A light ray is incident on air-liquid interface at 450and is refracted at 300. What is the
refractive index of the liquid? For what angle of incidence will the angle between reflected
ray and refracted ray be 900? (AS7) (Ans: 1.414, 54.70)
2. In what cases does a light ray not deviate at the interface of two media?(AS7)
LA
3. Place an object on the table. Look at the object through the transparent glass slab. You
will observe that it will appear closer to you. Draw a ray diagram to show the passage of
light ray in this situation. (AS5)
4. Why does a diamond shine more than a glass piece cut to the same shape? (AS7)
TE

III. Higher Order Thinking Questions

1. Why is it difficult to shoot a fish swimming in water? (AS1)
2. Explain why a test tube immersed at a certain angle in a tumbler of water appears to have
a mirror surface for a certain viewing position? (AS7)
T

3. When we sit at a camp fire, objects beyond the fire are seen swaying. Give the reason for
it. (AS7)
ER

ons
Multiple choice questi

1. Which of the following is Snell’s law. [ ]

a) n1 sin i = sin r/ n2 b) n1/n2 = sin r / sin i
SC

c) n2 / n1 = sin r / sin i d) n2 sin i = constant

2. The refractive index of glass with respect to air is 2. Then the critical angle of glass-air
interface is .................. [ ]
a) 0o
b) 45 o
c) 30 o
d) 60 o

3. Total internal reflection takes place when the light ray travels from............... [ ]
a) rarer to denser medium b) rarer to rarer medium
c) denser to rarer medium d) denser to denser medium

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 65

 4. If the angle of incidence is equal to critical angle, then the angle of refraction is [ ]
a) 0o b) 20o c) 90o d) 180o

A
5. Mirage is a best example for the phenomenon of [ ]
a) Reflection b) Refraction c) Total internal reflection d) Shift
6. Refractive indices of Ice, Benzene, Ruby and Kerosene are 1.31, 1.50, 1.71 and 1.44

AN
respectively. In which of the above media, light travels showly ? [ ]
a) Ice b) Benzene c) Ruby d) Kerosene
4
7. The relative refractive index of water with respect to air is . Then relative refractive
3

NG
index of air with respect to water is [ ]
4 3
a) 4 b) 3 c) d)
3 4
8. In an experiment to trace the path of ray through a glass slab, Shiva N1 A
traced as shown in the figure. The teacher asked idenfity the emergy S B R
ray. Which of the following would Shiva indentify. [ ]
LA N3 N2
a) AB b) BC
c) CD d) N1, N2 P C Q
Suggested Experiments D N4
TE

1. Verify experimentally that sin i is a constant.

sin r
2. Organise some activities to understand the phenomenon of total internal reflection
3. Conduct an experiment to find the relation between angle of incidence and angle of
refraction, when light rays travel from denser to rarer medium.
T

4. Take a bright metal ball and make it black with soot in a candle flame. Immerse it in
water. How does it appear and why? (Make hypothesis and do the above experiment).
ER

5. Take a glass vessel and pour some glycerine into it and then pour water up to the brim.
Take a quartz glass rod. Keep it in the vessel. Observe the glass rod from the sides of the
glass vessel.
• What changes do you notice? • What could be the reasons for these changes?
6. Conduct the activity-7 again. How can you find critical angle of water? Explain your
SC

steps briefly.
7. Find the critical angle of glass and water with respect to air using activity - 5.
Suggested Project works
1. Collect the refractive indices of the following media. Compare them with those are
given in table 1. Findout the pairs of media in which light travels almost with same
speed.

66 IX Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces

 Coconut oil, Cooking oil, Hydrogen gas, petrol, diesel, Glycerine, Vinegar, Hydrochloric
acid, Transparent plastic.

A
2. Collect information on working of optical fibres.
3. Prepare a report about various uses of optical fibres in our daily life.

AN
4. Take a thin thermocol sheet. Cut it in circular discs of different radii like 2cm, 3cm, 4cm,
4.5cm, 5cm etc and mark centers with sketch pen. Now
take needles of length nearly 6cm. Pin a needle to each
disc at its centre vertically. Take water in a large opaque
tray and place the disc with 2cm radius in such a way that

NG
the needle is inside the water as shown in fig-P4. Now try
to view the free end (head) of the needle from surface of fig-P4
the water.
• Are you able to see the head of the needle?
Now do the same with other discs of different radii. Try to see the head of the needle, each
time.
LA
Note: the position of your eye and the position of the disc on water surface should not be
changed while repeating the activity with other discs.
• At what maximum radius of disc, were you not able to see the free end of the needle?
TE

• Why were you not able to view the head of the nail for certain radii of the discs?
• Does this activity help you to find the critical angle of the medium (water)?
• Draw a diagram to show the passage of light ray from the head of the nail in different
situations.
T
ER
SC

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 67

 Chapter
GRAVITATION
5

A
AN
NG
We have learnt about uniform Uniform circular motion
accelerated motion in the chapter 'motion'.
Activity-1
In this chapter let us study about uniform
Observing the motion of an
LA
circular motion which is an example of
accelerated motion. object moving in a circular path
We always observe that an object Take an electric motor (which is used
dropped from certain height falls towards in toys) and fix a disc to the shaft of the
TE

the earth. We know that all planets move electric motor. Place a small wooden block
around the sun. We also know that the on the disc at the edge as shown in figure
moon moves around the earth. In all these 1 (a). Switch on the motor. Find the time
cases there must be some force acting on required to complete ten revolutions by the
these objects to make them move around block and repeat the same two to three
another object, instead of moving in a
T

times. Begin counting revolutions a few

straight line. seconds after starting the motor.
• What is that force? Wooden
ER

Circular Block
• Is the motion of the earth around
the sun uniform motion? Plate Electric Motor
• Is the motion of the moon around
the earth uniform motion?
SC

Newton explained the motion of moon

Battery (a) (b)
by using the concept of uniform circular
motion and then he developed the idea of Fig-1: (a) motion of wooden block on a
circular plate (b) top view of wooden block
gravitation between any two masses.
In this chapter you will learn about • Is the time of revolution constant?
gravitation and centre of gravity. • Is the speed of the block constant?
68 Gravitation
 • What is the shape of its path? directed line joining two vectors
The wooden block moves in a circular represents change in velocity (ΔV).

A
path with a constant speed. So this motion ΔV ΔV
of the wooden block, is uniform circular ΔV V V V ΔV
3(a)
motion. V

AN
V
"Uniform circular motion is motion ΔV V ΔV
V V
of the body with a constant speed in a ΔV ΔV
circular path"
• Does the velocity of the body V
ΔV

NG
change in uniform circular motion?
V
Why? 3(b)
• Does the body in uniform circular
motion have an acceleration? What
is the direction of acceleration? Fig-3(a) & (b): Transformed velocity vectors
Activity-2
LA Let a body move with a constant speed v
Drawing velocity vectors for a in a circular path of radius 'R'. The velocity
body in uniform circular motion vector changes direction and appears to
Recall the motion and path taken by the rotate. If a velocity vector is rotated through
TE

wooden block in the above activity. Draw a small angle, the change in velocity (ΔV)
the path of the wooden block and draw will be represented by the base of the
velocity vectors at successive time isosceles triangle as shown in figure 3(a).
intervals as shown in figure 2. Let us consider the change in velocity
V during the course of a complete revolution of
T

V a body; the sum of the magnitudes of the

V
changes in velocity during a complete
ER

V R revolution will be equal to the sum of the sides

V
of the depicted polygon. But the direction of
V velocity is changing continuously.
V
V It is perfectly clear that the smaller we
take vertex angles of the small triangles,
SC

Fig-2: Velocity vectors at

different points the less will be our error. The smaller the
Use figure 2 and transfer tails of each sides of our polygon , the closer they cling
velocity vector to coincide at a single point to the circle of radius v as shown in figure
as shown in figure 3(a) without changing 3(b) Consequently, the exact value of the
their directions. Figure 3(a) represents the sum of the magnitudes of the changes in
velocity vectors of figure 2 and the velocity of the body during the course of
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 69
 revolution, will be equal to the The net force which change only the
circumference "2πv" of the circle. direction of the velocity of a body is called
"centripetal force".

A
We know that the magnitude of the
acceleration is equal to the ratio of Let us find the value of centripetal
magnitude of change in velocity for one force.

AN
revolution and the time period.
aC V
Let aC be magnitude of acceleration of V
the body in uniform circular motion.
That is, aC=2πv/T aC

NG
aC
Where 'T' is time required to complete
one revolution.
We know that T= 2π R/v V
Substituting this expression we get, Fig-4
aC =v2/R According to the Newton's second law
LA
As the vertex angle of isosceles of motion,
triangles decreases, the angle between the Fnet = (mass) (acceleration)
change in velocity and velocity vector FC = maC
approaches 900. mv 2 v2
TE

FC = (Since aC = )
Therefore, the acceleration of a body R R
Where R is the radius of circle.
in uniform circular motion is directed
In uniform circular motion, 'FC' always
perpendicular to its velocity. But how are
directs towards the centre.
the velocity and acceleration directed
Note: Centripetal force is a net force
relative to the path? Since the velocity is
directed towards the centre of the
T

tangent to the path; the acceleration of the

circle.
body is directed along the radius towards
ER

the centre of the circle. Think and discuss

This acceleration, that changes only the
direction of velocity of a body is called • Can an object move along a curved
"centripetal acceleration". path if no force acts on it?
Newton's second law says that net force • As a car speeds up when rounding
SC

a curve, does its centripetal

on a moving body produces an
acceleration increase? Use an
acceleration in it which is directed along
equation to defend your answer.
the net force.
• Calculate the tension in a string
So in uniform circular motion, a net
that whirls a 2 kg - toy in a
force acts towards the centre. This net
horizontal circle of radius 2.5 m
force is called "Centripetal force".
when it moves at 3m/s.
70 Gravitation
 Universal law of gravitation • What is the speed of the moon?
Once while Sir Isaac Newton was sitting You can calculate the speed of the moon

A
under a tree, an apple fell to the ground. using the equation,
• Do you know what questions arose 2πR
v=
in his mind from this observation? T

AN
• Why did the apple fall to the ground? Thus the acceleration of the moon
• Why does the moon not fall to the towards the centre of the earth
ground? v 2 4π 2 R
am = =
• What makes the moon to move in a R T2

NG
circular orbit around the earth? Substituting the values of R and T in
Moon above equation we can get
V am = 0.27 cm/s2.
aC = am Galileo found that the acceleration of
Apple bodies acquired near the surface of earth is
equal to 981 cm/s2. Thus acceleration of an
ae = g Rm
LA
apple, approximately is equal to 981cm/s2.
He compared the both the acceleration
Re of an apple, ae to the acceleration of the
ae 981
TE

moon, am. We get, = ≅ 3640.-- (1)

a m 0.27
Fig-5: Comparing the motions of the Newton knew that the radius of Earth,
moon and apple Re and the distance of the moon from the
Newton knew that the motion of moon centre of the Earth, Rm are 6371 km and
around the earth is approximately uniform 3,84,400 km respectively. We get
T

circular motion. So certain net force, R m 384400

which we call centripetal force, is required =
Re 6371 ≅ 60.3
to maintain the uniform circular motion.
ER

2
⎛ Rm ⎞
So he introduced the idea of force of ⎜ ⎟ =(60.3)2 ≅ 3640----- (2)
⎝ Re ⎠
attraction between the moon and earth.
ae
He proposed that earth attracts moon and From 1,2 equations it is clear that a
termed it as gravitational force. This 2
m

gravitational force acts as a centripetal ⎛ Rm ⎞

SC

=⎜ ⎟
force and makes the moon revolve around ⎝ Re ⎠
the earth in uniform circular motion. So we get,
Newton knew the following data. The 1
distance of the moon from center of the a∝ ----- (3) and thus,
R2
earth is 384 400 km = 3.844x1010 cm. The Force of attraction
moon takes 27.3 days or 2.35x106 s for a 1
complete revolution around the earth. F∝ ----- (4)
R2
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 71
 Thus it became clear that the force of Force of attraction α (mass)1 (mass)2
gravity decreases with increase in distance Newton generalized the force of gravitation
of the object from the center of the earth.

A
and said, ''it acts between any two bodies in
According to Newton's third law the the universe''. The universal law of gravitation
force on the apple by the earth is equal to states that every body in the universe attracts

AN
the force on the earth by the apple. We get other body with a force which is directly
the force on an object by the earth by using proportional to the product of their masses
the second law of motion and equation-1. and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. The direction of
From Newton's second law of motion
1 the force of attraction is along the line joining

NG
F = ma, and from equation-1, a ∝ the centers of the two bodies.
R2
k
⇒a= (where k is proportionality M1 Fgrav M2
R2 Fgrav
constant)
d
km
Thus we get, F = 2 Fig-6
R
LA Let two bodies of masses M1 and M2
Therefore the force on the apple by the be separated by a distance of 'd'. Then the
Km force of gravitation between them
earth = ---- (5)
R2
M1 M 2
TE

Where 'm' is the mass of apple and 'R' Fgrav ∝

d2
is the radius of the earth.
GM1M 2
KM′ Fgrav =
Force on the earth by the apple = 2 d2
R
---- (6) G is a proportionality constant, called
universal gravitational constant and found
T

Where M is the mass of the earth.

by Henry Cavendish to be
The above forces are equal in magnitude
G=6.67x10-11 Nm2Kg-2
ER

only when the following condition is

The value of G is equal to the magnitude
satisfied.
of force between a pair of 1- kg masses
K=GM and K' = Gm ---- (7) that are 1 metre apart.
Where G is a constant. Note: This formula is applicable to
SC

From equations (5) & (7) we have force spherical bodies. We use the above
GMm formula for all bodies on the earth though
on apple by the earth, F =
R2 they are not spherical because, when
We conclude that gravitational force compared to the earth, any object on earth
between the masses is directly proportional is very small and it is assumed to be a point
to the product of their masses. object.

72 Gravitation
 Solution
Think and discuss
The force on the satellite due to earth
• In figure 7, we see that the moon

A
GmM
is given by F =
'falls' around earth rather than R2
straight into it. If the magnitude of M-Mass of earth = 6 x 1024kg

AN
velocity were zero, how would it m-mass of satellite,
R-radius of earth = 6.4 x 106 m
move?
Let v be the speed of the satellite
2πR 2πR
v= ⇒T=
T v

NG
Required centripetal force is provided
to satellite by the gravitational force hence
mv 2
FC= .
R
Fig-7 GMm
But FC= according to Newton's
• According to the equation for R2
LA
gravitational force, what happens to
law of gravitation.
GMm m(2πR)2
the force between two bodies if the i.e., =
R2 T2R
mass of one of the bodies doubled? 2 3
4π R
• If there is an attractive force ⇒ T2 = , as mass of the earth
TE

GM
between all objects, why do we not (M) and G are constants the value of T
feel ourselves gravitating toward depends only on the radius of the earth.
massive buildings in our vicinity? ⇒ T2 α R3
• Is the force of gravity stronger on a Substituting the values of M, R and G in
piece of iron than on a piece of above equation we get, T = 84.75 minutes.
T

wood if both have the same mass? Thus the satellite revolving around the
• An apple falls because of the earth in a circular path near to the earth's
ER

surface takes 1Hour and 24.7 minutes

gravitational attraction of earth.
approximately to complete one revolution
What is the gravitational attraction
around earth.
of apple on the earth?
Example 1
Free fall
SC

V m
What is the time Activity-3
period of satellite
Acceleration is independent of
near the earth's
masses
surface?(neglect
M Place a small paper on a book. Release
height of the orbit of
satellite from the the book with the paper from certain
Fig-8
surface of the earth)? height from the ground.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 73
 • What is your observation? Now distances of objects from the center of the
drop the book and paper separately, earth.

A
what happens? Since free - fall acceleration is constant
A body is said to be in free fall when only near the ground, the equations of uniform
the gravitational force acts on that body. accelerated motion can be used for the case

AN
of free-fall body.
m
v = u + at,
s = ut + ½ at2 ,
g v2 - u2 = 2as.
R

NG
While solving problems related to Free
Fig-9 M fall objects we use 'g' instead of 'a' in above
Let us drop a body of mass m near the equations.
earth's surface. When we use these equations, you must
Let M be the mass of the earth and R follow the sign convention ( It is discussed
be the radius of the earth.
LA
Now the force of attraction on the mass
in the chapter "motion")

is given by, Activity-4

GMm F GM
F= ⇒ = What is the direction of 'g'
R2 m R2
TE

From Newton's second law, F/m is Throw a stone vertically up. Measure
equal to acceleration. Here this the time required for it to come back to
acceleration is denoted by 'g' earth's surface with a stop clock.
GM
Hence, g= • What happens to its speed when it
R2
from above equation you can conclude moves up and down?
T

that 'g' is the independent of the bodies • What is the direction of

mass. acceleration?
If there were no air friction or
ER

When a stone moves up, the speed

resistance, all the bodies would fall with
decreases. When a stone moves down, the
the same acceleration. This acceleration,
produced due to gravitational force of the speed increases. So the free-fall acceleration
earth near the surface, is called free- fall is vertically downwards. No matter how you
acceleration. throw objects, " g " is directed vertically
SC

Mass of the earth (M) = 6 x 1024 kg down as shown in figure10.

Radius of earth (R) = 6.4 x 106 km
g
Putting these values in the above
equation.
We get g = 9.8 m/s2 (approximately) surface of the earth
In general, this value of acceleration
due to gravity changes due to change in Fig-10

74 Gravitation
 Solution
Think and discuss
The second body takes 1 second to

A
• Give an example for the motion reach ground. So, we need to find the
of an object of zero speed and with distance traveled by the first body in its
non zero acceleration? first second and in two seconds.

AN
• Two stones are thrown into air The distance covered by first body in 2s,
with speeds 20 m/s, 40m/s h1 = ½ gt2 = ½ × 10 × 22 = 20m.
respectively? What are
The distance covered in 1s, h2 = 5 m.
accelerations possessed by the
The height of the first body when the

NG
objects?
other begin to fall h = 20 - 5 = 15m.
Example 2 Example 4
A body is projected vertically up. What A stone is thrown vertically up from the
is the distance covered in its last second tower of height 25m with a speed of 20 m /
/
of upward motion? (g = 10 m s2)
LA s. What time does it take to reach the
+
Solution /
ground? ( g = 10 m s2 )
The distance covered by the object in u
its last second of its upward motion is
TE

equal to the distance covered in the first _

second of its downward motion.
Hence s = ½ gt2= ½ x 10 x 1 = 5 m
Example 3
h
Two bodies fall freely from different g
T

heights and reach the ground

simultaneously. The time of descent for
ER

the first body is t1 = 2s and for the second

t2 = 1s. At what height was the first body
Fig-12
situated when the other began to fall?
Solution
/
( g = 10 m s2 )
Sign convention must be used to solve
SC

this problem. It is shown in figure.

at t=1s
We consider the upward direction as
h1=20m
positive and downward direction as negative
h2=5m with respect to a point of reference. In the
above example the point of projection is
Fig-11 considered as the point of reference.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 75
 Then, u= 20 m s / Weight
a = g = -10 m s2/ Weight of a body is the force of

A
s = h = -25 m attraction on the body due to earth.
From equation of motion s = ut + ½ at2 So, from Newton's second law of

AN
- 25 = 20t - ½ x 10 x t2 motion.

-25 = 20t - 5 t2 Fnet = ma

-5 = 4t - t2 We get,

⇒ t2 - 4t - 5 = 0 W = mg

NG
Solving this equation, It is measured in newtons

We get, ( t - 5 ) ( t + 1 ) = 0 1 kg body weighs 9.8 N

t= 5 or -1 2 kg body weighs 19.6 N

t = 5s 10kg body weighs 98 N

Activity-5
Example 5
LA
Find the time taken, by the body Can we measure the weight of
projected vertically up with a speed of u, free-fall body
to return back to the ground.
Let us find,
TE

Solution
Let us take the equation S = ut + ½ a t2
For entire motion S=0

maximum
height point
T

g
ER

up down
g
u
Fig-14 (a) Fig-14 (b)

Fig-13 Take a spring balance and suspend it to

SC

a=-g the ceiling and put some weight to it. Note

the reading of the spring balance. Now drop
u=u
the spring balance with load from certain
O = ut - ½gt2
height to fall freely. Carefully observe the
½gt2 = ut change in the position of indicator on the
/
t = 2u g spring balance scale while it is in free-fall.

76 Gravitation
 • What changes do you notice in the balanced by a support force or when in
readings of spring balance in above suspension, by a supporting tension. In

A
two instances? either case with no acceleration, weight
• Are the readings same? If not why? equals mg. A support force can occur
without regard to gravity. So broader

AN
Some of you might have the experience
of diving into a swimming pool from definition of the weight of something is the
certain height. net force it exerts against a support.

• How do you feel during free-fall When the body falls freely then it
of your body from a height? experiences weightlessness. Even in this

NG
weightless condition, there is still a
Activity-6 gravitational force acting on the body,
causing downward acceleration. But
Observing the changes during
because there is no support force, the
the free-fall of a body
weight appears to be zero.
LA
Think and discuss

g • When is your weight equal to mg?

Fig-15 (a) Fig-15 (b) • Give example of when your weight
TE

Take a transparent tray and make holes is zero?

on opposite sides. Take two or three rubber
Centre of gravity
bands and tie them tightly, close to each
other between the holes. Now place a stone Activity-7
on the bands as shown in the figures 15(a)
T

Balancing of spoon and fork

and 15(b).
• Do the bands bend? Now drop the
ER

tray with stone. Now what happens?

We get the following results in free fall.
In spring - mass activity, the reading
becomes zero. In jumping, the man feels
SC

weightlessness. In the activity-6, the

bands are straight. No stretch occurs in
the rubber bands.
We treated the weight of an object as
the force due to gravity upon it. When in Fig-16: Balancing of fork
equilibrium on a firm surface, weight is

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 77

 Fasten a fork, spoon, and wooden The point where total weight appears to
match stick together as shown. The act is called centre of gravity.

A
combination will balance nicely - on the
Activity-10
edge of the glass. Why?
Locating centre of gravity

AN
Acivity-8
Take a meter scale. Suspend it from
Can you get up without bending various points. What do you notice?
Suspend it from its mid point. What
happens?

NG
The center of gravity of a uniform
object, such as meter stick, is at its
midpoint. The stick behaves as if its entire
weight was concentrated at that point. The
support given to that single point gives
LA support to the entire stick. Balancing an
object provides a simple method of
locating its centre of gravity. The many
small arrows represent the pull of gravity
TE

all along the meter stick. All of these can

be combined into a resultant force acting
Fig-17 through the centre of gravity.
Sit in a chair comfortably as shown in Balanced Upward
fig-17. Try to get up from the chair without force due to finger
T

bending your body or legs.

• Are we able to do so? If not why?
ER

Activity-9
Balancing a ladder
Try to balance ladder on your shoulder? Weight
SC

When does it happen?

Fig-18
We need to introduce the idea of
"Centre of gravity" to understand this The entire weight of the stick may be
observation. thought of as acting at this single point.
Hence we can balance the stick by
The center of gravity is simply the
applying a single upward force at this
average position of weight distribution.
point.
78 Gravitation
 • How to find the center of gravity Stability
of an object?
The location of the centre of gravity is

A
The center of gravity of any freely important for stability. If we draw a line
suspended object lies directly beneath the
straight down from the centre of gravity
point of suspension.

AN
of an object of any shape and it falls inside
the base of the object, then the object will
stable.
If the line through the center of gravity

NG
falls outside the base then the object will
be unstable.

Activity-12
Fig-19 Shift of the center of gravity and
If a vertical line is drawn through the
LA its effects
point of suspension, the center of gravity When you stand erect, where is your
lies somewhere along that line. To centre of gravity?
determine exactly where it lies along the
TE

line, we have only to suspend the object

from the some other point and draw a
second vertical line through that point of
suspension. The center of gravity lies
where the two lines intersect.
T

Activity-11
ER

Identifying the center of gravity Fig-20 (a) Fig-20 (b)

of a ring
Try to touch your toes as shown in
Find the centre of gravity of ring using
figure 20 (a). Try this again when standing
the method explained in the above example.
against a wall as shown in figure 20 (b).
• Where does the center of gravity of
SC

• Are you able to touch your toes in

a ring lie?
second case as shown in fig-20(b)?
• Does the center of gravity of a body If not why?
exist outside the body?
• What difference do you notice in
• Does center of gravity of an object the center of gravity of your body
exist at a point where there is no
in the above two positions?
mass of the object?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 79
 Think and discuss

A
• Where does the centre of gravity of a sphere and triangular lamina lie?
• Can an object have more than one centre of gravity?

AN
• Why doesn't the leaning tower of Pisa topple over?
• Why must you bend forward when carrying a heavy load on your back?

NG
Key words

Uniform circular motion, centripetal acceleration centripetal force, centre of

gravity, law of gravitation, weight, weightlessness, stability, free fall.

What we have learnt

LA
• Motion of body with constant speed in a circular path is called uniform circular
motion .
TE

• The acceleration which causes changes only in direction of the velocity of a body
in circular motion is called centripetal acceleration and it is always directed towards
the center of the circle.
• The net force required to keep a body in uniform circular motion is called
"Centripetal force". FC = Mv2 / R.
T

• Every object in the universe attracts other bodies. The force of attraction between
the bodies is directly proportional to the product of masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
ER

• All the bodies have the same acceleration (9.8m/s2) near the surface of the earth.
But this acceleration slightly decreases as we move away from the surface of the
earth.
• A body is said to be in free fall when only gravity acts on it. (its acceleration is 'g')
SC

• Weight of an object is the force of gravity acting on it.

W = mg
• During free fall condition, the body is in state of 'weightlessness'.
• The center of gravity is the point where total weight of the body acts.
• The body is in equilibrium when the weight vector goes through the base of the
body.
80 Gravitation
 Let us Improve our learning

A
Reflections on concepts
1. How do you explain that an object is in uniform circular motion (AS1)

AN
2. Caliculate the acceleration of the moon towards earth’s center. (AS1)
3. Explain universal law of gravitation. (AS1)
4. Explain some situations where the center of gravity of man lies outside the body.
(AS1)
5. Where does the center of gravity of the atmosphere of the earth lie?(AS2)

NG
6. Explain why a long pole is more beneficial to the tight rope walker if the pole has
slight bending. (AS7)

Application of concepts
1. A car moves with constant speed of 10 m/s in a circular path of radius 10m. The
mass of the car is 1000 kg. How much is the required centripetal force for the car?
LA (Ans:104N) (AS1)
2. What is the speed of an apple dropped from a tree after 1.5 second? What distance
will it cover during this time? Take g=10m/s2 (AS1) (Ans: 15m/s; 11.25m)
3. A ball is projected vertically up with a speed of 50 m/s. Find the maximum height
TE

, the time to reach the maximum height, and the speed at the maximum height
(g=10 m/ s2 ) (AS1) (Ans: 125m; 5s; zero)
4. Two spherical balls of mass 10 kg each are placed with their centers 10 cm apart.
Find the gravitational force of attraction between them. (AS1) (Ans: 104G.Newton)
5. Find the free-fall acceleration of an object on the surface of the moon, if the radius
of the moon and its mass are 1740 km and 7.4 x 1022 kg respectively. Compare this
T

value with free fall acceleration of a body on the surface of the earth. (AS1)
(Ans: approximately 1.63 m/s2)
ER

6. A ball is dropped from a height. If it takes 0.2s to cross the last 6m before hitting
the ground, find the height from which it is dropped. Take g = 10m/ s2 (AS1)
(Ans: 48.05m)
7. The bob of a simple pendulum of length 1 m has mass 100g and a speed of 1.4 m/
s at the lowest point in its path. Find the tension in the string at this moment.
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Take g = 9.8m/sec2 (AS1) (Ans: 1.176N)

8. What path will the moon take when the gravitational interaction between the moon
and earth disappears? (AS2)
9. Can you think of two particles which do not exert gravitational force on each other
why? (AS2)
10. Why is it easier to carry the same amount of water in two buckets, one in each
hand rather than in a single bucket? (AS7)

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 81

 Higer Order Thinking questions
1. A man is standing against a wall such that his right shoulder and right leg are in
contact with the surface of the wall along his height. Can he raise his left leg at this

A
position without moving his body away from the wall? Why? Explain. (AS7)
2. An apple falls from a tree. An insect in the apple finds that the earth is falling

AN
towards it with an acceleration 'g'. Who exerts the force needed to accelerate the
earth with this acceleration? (AS7)

ons
Multiple choice questi

NG
1. The acceleration which can change only the direction of velocity of a body is
called [ ]
a) Acceleration due to gravity b) Uniform acceleration
c) Centripetal acceleration d) Centrifugal acceleration
2. The distance between the Earth and the Moon is [ ]
a) 3,84,400 Km
LA
b) 3,84,400 cm c) 84,000 Kmd) 86,000 Km
3. The value of Universal Gravitaitonal Constant is [ ]
a)6.67 x 10 N.m Kg
-11 2 -2
b) 9.8 m/ Sec 2

c) 6.67 x 10-12N.m2Kg-2 d) 981 m/ Sec2

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4. The weight of an object whose mas is 1 Kg is [ ]

a) 1 Kg/m 2
b) 9.8 m/Sec 2
c) 9.8 N d) 9.8 N/m 2

5. The state of a freely falling body is [ ]

a) Heavy wiehgt b) Less weight c) Weight less d) Constant weight

Suggested Experiments
T

1. Conduct an experiment to find the Centre of Gravity of an object and write a

report.
ER

2s
2. Conduct an experiment to find value for a freely falling body and also find the
t2
value of 'g'.

Suggested Projects
SC

1. Collect the information about the base area and stability of some objects with
different shapes and write a report.
2. Collect information about the path of revolution of moon around the earth and
write a report.

82 Gravitation
 Chapter
IS MATTER PURE?

A
6

AN
NG
You might have gone to the market
many times with your parents to purchase components to come to the surface when
rice, salt, milk, ghee and other provisions. a mixture of liquids are spun rapidly.
You must have tried to ensure that you got Commercially for separating the cream
the purest possible milk and pure ghee etc. from milk, a machine called centrifuge is
In our day to day language, ‘pure’ means used. It follows the same principle.
something with no adulteration. But in
LA Centrifugation is also used in a diagnostic
chemistry pure means something different. laboratory, to test blood and urine samples.
The sample is taken in a centrifugation tube
Let us find out what is pure in chemistry.
and the centrifugation tube is placed in a
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Activity-1 centrifugation machine. On rotation of the

tubes with machine, the heavier particles
Is full cream pure? settle to the bottom and the lighter particles
Take some milk in a vessel. Spin it come to the top of the test tube.
with a milk churner for some time. See
figure 1 Think and discuss
T

How does a laundry dryer squeezes out

water from wet clothes?
ER

What is a mixture?
Fig-1: Churning of milk Many things that we call pure are
actually mixtures of different substances.
After some time, you observe
Juice is a mixture of water, sugar and fruit
SC

separation of a paste like solid out of the

pulp. Even water contains some salts and
milk. This paste like solid called cream
minerals. All the matter around us can be
contains more than one component in it.
classified into two groups – pure
It is therefore a mixture. We have already
substances and mixtures.
studied about mixtures in previous classes.
Let us learn more about them. When a scientist says that something
is pure, he means that the composition of
Churning makes the lighter
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 83
 the substance doesn’t change, no matter Types of mixtures
which part of the substance you take for You have learnt about a mixture. Do
examination. you know the types of mixtures? What are

A
For example, whichever part of a pure they? Let’s find out.
gold biscuit is taken as a sample, the Mixtures can be in solid, liquid

AN
composition is found to be same gaseous states or the combination of these
three states.
throughout. (See figure.2)
Activity-2
Finding out homogeneous and

NG
heterogeneous mixtures
Take two test tubes, Now add one tea
spoon of salt to both the test tubes. Fill
one test tube with water and other with
Fig-2: Pure gold biscuit LA kerosene and stir them.
But, the composition in mixtures is not What do you notice ?
always same. The composition in some In the first test tube you can observe
mixtures change, depending on the part that the salt dissolves completely. Such
you have taken as a sample. types of mixtures are called homogeneous
mixtures. In other test tube salt is not
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dissolved. What do you conclude from

this? Think!
In a homogeneous mixture the
components of mixture are uniformly
distributed throughout it. The components
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of a homogeneous mixture are too

Fig-3: Mixture intimately mixed up that it will be difficult
A mixture is generally made of two or to distinguish them from one another by
ER

more components that are not chemically visual observation. For example air is a
combined. The substances in a mixture homogeneous mixture of many gases.
retain their own properties, and they can We all prepare a drink ‘lemonade’ and
be physically separated. enjoy its taste. It is a mixture of water,
sugar, lemon juice and salt. Is it
SC

• What would you notice from the figure

homogeneous or not? If you taste a
4a and 4b?
spoonful of lemonade, it tastes the same
throughout. The particles of sugar lemon
juice and salt are evenly distributed in this
solution and we cannot see the
components separately. We call such
mixtures as homogeneous mixtures.
Fig-4: (a) Pure substance 4(b) Mixture
84 Is Mater Pure ?
 • Can you give few more examples of (liquid) is the solvent. All the aerated drinks
this kind? are liquid solutions containing carbon
You have observed in the above dioxide (gas) as solute and water as solvent.

A
activity the salt added to kerosene has not Can you give some more examples for
dissolved in it. It is a heterogeneous
solutions and tell the solute and solvent

AN
mixture. A heterogeneous mixture is a
present in those solutions?
mixture made up of different substances,
or the same substance in different states
Think and discuss
which are not uniformly distributed in it.
For example the mixtures “oil and
• “All the solutions are mixtures, but not

NG
vinegar’’, “naphthalene and water’’ are all mixtures are solutions”. Discuss
heterogeneous mixtures. about the validity of the statement and
Thus we can conclude that mixtures are give reasons to support your argument.
of two types homogeneous and heterogeneous.
Do you know that these can again be classified
• Usually we think of a solution as a
liquid that contains either a solid,
into different kinds? Let us find out. liquid or a gas dissolved in it. But,
LA we can have solid solutions. Can
Solutions you give some examples?
All of us enjoy drinking soda water Properties of a solution
and lemonade. We know that they are
In a solution the particles are so small
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examples of homogeneous mixtures. The

homogeneous mixture of two or more in size that we cannot see them with our
substances from which we can not seperate naked eyes. They do not scatter a beam of
its components by the process of filteration light passing through the solution and
is called a solution. Solutions can be in hence the path of light is not visible in a
the form of solids, liquids, or gases. A solution.
T

solution has minimum two components, a

solvent and a solute.The component of the
• Can you prove this with an experiment?
• If the solution is diluted, can the path
ER

solution that dissolves the other

component in it (usually the component of light be visible?
present in larger quantity) is called One more interesting property of
solvent. The component of solution that solution is that, the solute particles do not
is dissolved in the solvent (usually the settle down when left undisturbed. Can
component present in lesser quantity) is you give a reason? If the solute particles
SC

called solute. are settling down in a solution can we call

A solution of sugar is prepared by it as a homogeneous mixture?
dissolving the sugar in water. In this
solution, sugar (solid) is the solute and • What would happen if you add a little
water (liquid) is the solvent. In the solution more solute to a solvent?
of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) • How do you determine the percentage
iodine (solid) is the solute and alcohol of the solute present in a solution?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 85
 Concentration of a solution undissolved solute at a certain temperature.
Can we dissolve as much solute as we If the amount of solute present in a solution
want in a given solvent? How do you is less than that in the saturated solution, is

A
decide the amount of solute that dissolves called an unsaturated solution.
in a solvent. Now take the solution prepared by you into

AN
The amount of solute present in a a beaker and heat it slowly by 5 to 6oC
saturated solution at a certain temperature above the Room Temperature (do not
is called its solubility at that temperature. boil). The undissolved solute dissolves.
For example, take one gram of sugar Add some more sugar to this solution. You
and add 50ml of water to it. Also take notice that more sugar dissolves in it easily

NG
30gm of sugar and add the same amount when it is heated.
of water to it in another beaker. Which one
of the above solutions is called as dilute
and which one is called concentrated?
LA
Activity-3

Preparation of saturated and Fig.6: Adding more sugar to water

unsaturated solutions Find out whether this is true for the
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Take 50 ml of water in an empty cup. salt solution also.

Add one spoon of sugar to the water in
the cup and stir until it dissolves. Keep on Activity-4
adding sugar to the cup and stir till no more Factors affecting the rate of
sugar can be dissolved in it. How many dissolving
spoons of sugar is added ?
T

Take three glass beakers and fill each

of them with 100 ml of water. Add two
ER

spoons of salt to each beaker. Place the

first beaker undisturbed, stir the water in
the second beaker and warm the third
beaker.
What do you observe from the above
SC

three situations? Which method allows the

Fig.5: Adding Sugar to water
solute to dissolve in the solvent easily? If
When no more solute can be dissolved in you increase the temperature of the third
the solution at a certain temperature, it is beaker, what will happen? Repeat the
said to be a saturated solution. In a activity by using salt crystals instead of
saturated solution, equilibrium with the salt powder. What change do you observe?
86 Is Mater Pure ?
 What are the factors that affect the rate Solution
of the solubility of a solute? Mass of solute (salt) = 50g
From this activity we can conclude Mass of solvent (water) = 200g

A
that the temperature size of the solute Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass
particles, and stirring are some of the of solvent
= 50g + 200g = 250g

AN
factors that affect the rate of solubility of
Mass percentage of a solution =
solute in a solvent. Mass of solute
You know that solubility is the X 100
measurement of amount of solute that Mass of solution
dissolves in a solvent at a certain 50
= 100 = 20%

NG
temperature. If the amount of solute present X
Example - 2 250
is little, the solution is said to be dilute,
and if the amount of solute present is more, 80ml of solution contains 20 g of solute.
the solution is said to be concentrated. Calculate the concentration in terms of mass
There are many ways of expressing the by volume percentage of the solution.
concentration of a solution, we learn only
about two of those.
LA Suspensions and Colloidal Solutions
The concentration of a solution can be Activity-5
defined as the amount in grams(mass) of
solute present in 100 grams of (mass) Finding of heterogeneous
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solution or the amount (mass) in grams of mixtures- suspensions and

solute present in 100 ml of the solution. colloids
(i) Mass percentage of a Take some chalk powder in a test tube.
Mass of solute Take a few drops of milk in another test
solute = X 100 tube. Add water to these samples and stir
Mass of solution
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with a glass rod. Observe whether the

(ii) Volume percentage of a particles in the mixtures are visible. Can
you call these mixtures as solutions?
ER

Volume of solute
solute = Volume of X 100 (Hint: Are the above solutions heterogeneous
solution or homogeneous?)
(iii) Mass by volume percentage of a Now do the following steps and
write your observations in the table-1.
Mass of solute
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solution = Volume of X 100 • Direct a beam of light from a torch or a

Example - 1 solution laser beam on the test tubes. Is the path
A solution contains 50g of common of the light beam visible in the liquid?
salt in 200g of water. Calculate the • Leave the mixture undisturbed for some
concentration in terms of mass by mass time. What changes do you observe? Does
percentage of the solution? the solute settle down after some time?

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 87

 • Filter the mixtures. Did you find any appear homogeneous but are actually
residue on the filter papers? heterogeneous.

A
Record your observations in the table - 1 A large number of substances such
Table-1 as milk, butter, cheese, cream, gel, boot

AN
Is the path Residue is polish, and clouds in the sky etc. are some
of the light Did solute seen on the
Mixture
beam settle down? filter paper more examples of colloids.
visible? (Yes/No) (Yes/No)
(Yes/No)
Chalk mixture
Think and discuss

NG
Milk mixture
• Have you ever observed carefully the
We find that the particles of chalk did syrup that you take for cough? Why do
not dissolve but remained suspended you shake it before consuming?
throughout the volume of the water. So
• Is it a suspension or colloidal solution?
this is a heterogeneous mixture because
LA
the solute particles didn’t dissolve and the Colloidal solutions are heterogeneous
particles are visible to naked eye. Such in nature and always consist of at least two
heterogeneous mixtures are called phases; the disperse phase and the
TE

suspensions. “Suspensions are the dispersion medium. Disperse phase is the

heterogeneous mixtures of a solid and a substance that present in small proportion
liquid, in which the solids do not dissolve, and consists of particles of colloidal size
like mixture of soil and water”. (1nm to 100nm). Dispersion medium is the
In activity-5, particles of milk in the medium in which the colloidal particles are
T

second test tube are uniformly spread dispersed. These two phases can be in the
throughout the mixture. Due to smaller form of solid, liquid or a gas. Thus, different
ER

size of milk particles it appears to be types of colloidal solutions are possible

homogeneous but it is a heterogeneous depending upon the physical state of the
mixture. These particles easily scatter a two phases.
beam of visible light. Such mixtures are Here are some common examples of
SC

called colloids or colloidal solutions. colloids from our daily life. (See table-2)
These mixtures possess the characteristics Don’t try to memorize this table-2, it is
in between a solution and a suspension. given only for your information.
They are also called as colloidal We studied that the particles in a col-
dispersions. Colloidal dispersions may loidal solution can easily scatter a beam

88 Is Mater Pure ?
 Table-2: Type of Colloids and their Examples based on dispersion medium and dispersed phase

Dispersion Medium Dispersed Phase Colloid type Examples

A
Gas Liquid Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

AN
Gas solid Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Liquid Gas Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Liquid solid Sol Mud, milk of magnesia
Solid Gas Foam Foam, rubber,

NG
sponge, pumice stone
Solid liquid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid solid Solid sol Coloured gem stone,
LA milky glass

of visible light. This scattering of a beam

• Did you ever observe this
of light is called the Tyndall effect, named phenomenon in the cinema halls?
after the scientist who discovered it. You
may observe this effect in your day-today
• Have you ever got an opportunity of
going through deep forests? If you go
TE

life when a fine beam of light enters a through deep forest you can
room through a small hole or slit. You can experience this effect.
try to see Tyndall effect at your home.
Select a room where the sunlight
falls directly through a window. Close the
T

windows in such a way that a slit is left

ER

open between the windows. (Don’t close

completely). What do you see?
You can also observe this
phenomenon while walking on a road
having a lot of trees on both sides. When
SC

the sunlight passes through branches and

Fig-7: Tyndall effect in the forest
leaves you see the path of dust particles.
When sunlight passes through the
Try to observe the Tyndall effect in
canopy of a dense forest; mist contains tiny
the kitchen when the smoke from the stove
droplets of water, which act as particles
is exposed to sun light.
of colloid dispersed in air.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 89
 contains solids (milk fats and milk
proteins), liquids (water) and gases (air
bubbles). Now can you guess whether ice

A
cream a colloid or not?

AN
Fig- 8: Ice cream Think and discuss
Is ice-cream a colloid ?
Ice cream is made by churning a mixture Is there any difference between a true
of milk, sugar and flavours. This mixture solution and colloidal solution? If you
is slowly chilled to form ice cream. The find the differences, what are those

NG
churning process disperses air bubbles into differences?
the mixture by foaming and breakup the
Can you explain now in a comparative
large ice crystals into tiny particles. The
way about suspensions and colloids? Let
result is a complex substance which
us see.
LA
Table-3: Properties of suspension and colloids
Suspensions Colloids
Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures. Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures.
The particles of suspensions can be seen with The size of particles of colloid are too small to be
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naked eyes. seen by naked eyes..

The particles of suspensions scatter a beam of The particles of colloids are big enough to scatter
light passing through it and make its a beam of light passing through it which makes its
path visible. path visible.
The solute particles settle down when a suspension The particles don’t settle down when the colloid
is kept undisturbed. When the particles settle left undisturbed. i.e., colloid is quite stable.
T

down it does not scatter light any more.

Suspension is unstable. The components can be The components cannot be separated from the
ER

separated from the mixture by the process mixture by the process of filtration or decantation.
of filtration or decantation. Centrifugation technique is used in separation.

by simple physical methods like

Separating the components of a
handpicking, sieving, filtration etc., as we
mixture
SC

use in our day to day life.

Till now we have discussed the types
Sometimes special techniques have to
of mixtures. Do you know techniques to
be used for the separation of the components
separate these mixtures into their
of mixture. We have learnt in class VI, how
respective constituents?
to separate mixtures in various ways like,
Usually heterogeneous mixtures can be
flotation, filtration, crystallization,
separated into their respective constituents
chromatography etc. Let us see more.
90 Is Mater Pure ?
 Sublimation Think and discuss
Activity-6

A
Why do we use different separation
Separation of components of techniques for mixtures like grain and
mixture by sublimation husk as well as ammonium chloride and

AN
salt though both of them are
Cotton Plug heterogeneous mixtures?
z What is the basis for choosing a
Inverted funnel
separation technique to separate
Vapours of
mixtures?

NG
ammonium Solidified ammonium
chloride chloride
Evaporation
Mixture of Activity-7
ammonium chloride China dish
and salt
Process of evaporation of water
LA Vapours

Watch Glass
Ink

Fig- 9: Separating ammonium chloride and salt Beaker

Take one tablespoon of common salt, one Water

TE

tablespoon of ammonium chloride and

mix them.
z Is the mixture heterogeneous? Give
reasons.
Fig-10: Evaporation of water
z How do we separate the salt and
T

Take a beaker and fill it to half its

ammonium chloride?
volume with water. Keep a watch glass on
Take the mixture in a china dish. Take the mouth of the beaker as shown in
ER

a glass funnel which is big enough to cover figure-10. Put few drops of ink on the
the dish. Plug the mouth of the funnel with watch glass. Heat the beaker and observe
cotton and invert it over the dish as shown the watch glass. Continue heating till you
in figure 9. Keep the dish on the stand of do not observe any further change on the
stove and heat for some time and observe
watch glass.
SC

the walls of the funnel. Initially you find

What is evaporated from the watch
vapours of ammonium chloride and then
glass? Is there any residue on the watch
solidified ammonium chloride on the walls
of the funnel. glass?
We know that ink is a mixture of a
Try it for mixtures that have camphor dye in water. We can separate the
or naphthalene. components in the ink using evaporation.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 91

 Procedure : Draw a thick line just above
Think and discuss
the bottom of the filter paper using the
Is it possible to find out marker. Pour some water in the beaker

A
adulteration of kerosene in petrol with and hang the paper strip with the help of a
this technique? pencil and cello tape in such a way that it
should just touch the surface of water as

AN
In activity-7 we saw that ink is a shown in figure 11.
mixture of solute and solvent. Is the dye Make sure that the ink line or mark
in ink a single colour? How many dyes does not touch the water.
are there in ink? How can we find out Allow the water to move up the
those? Is there any technique to separate paper for 5 minutes and then remove the

NG
the different components in the ink? That strip from water. Let it dry.
What colours did you observe in the
is where chromatography would help
black ink sample?
Chromatography is a laboratory technique Take two more paper strips and
for the separation of mixtures into its markers as samples and do the experiment.
individual components. We can use Do the colours occur in the same order
LA
chromatography to separate components and in the same location on all the
in ink. The process can also be used to samples?
separate the coloured pigments in plants Instead of non permanent marker use
and flowers. It is used to determine the a permanent marker. What will you observe?
Now touch the marker line to water.
TE

composition of mixtures.
What will you notice?
Paper Chromatography Instead of thick line, draw a thin line
on the paper strip with non- permanent
Lab Activity marker? Will your results change in each
case?
Aim: Separating the components of ink z Is chromatography used only to
T

using paper chromatography. seperate components of coloured

compounds?
Material required: Beaker, rectangular
Separation of immiscible and
ER

shaped filter paper, black marker (non-

permanent), water, pencil and cello tape.
miscible liquids
Pencil
A liquid is said to be miscible if it
dissolve completely in another liquid. For
example alcohol is miscible in water. Can
you give some more examples for miscible
SC

Cello tape
liquids? Is water miscible in alcohol?
An immiscible liquid is one which
Strip of
filter paper Beaker doesn’t dissolve but forms a layer over
another liquid and can be separated easily
like oil is immiscible in water. Can you
Marker Line name any such liquids from your daily
Fig-11: Separating the components of ink observation?

92 Is Mater Pure ?
 Do you know how to separate solution. Water and ethanol, for example,
immiscible liquids? are miscible because they mix in all
proportions. How can we separate such

A
Activity-8 mixtures?
Distillation

AN
Separation of immiscible liquids
Activity-9
Separating
funnel
Separation of two miscible
liquids by distillation

NG
Kerosene Oil
Acetone and water are also miscible.
Take a mixture of acetone and water in a
Water
distillation flask. Fit it with a thermometer
and clamp it to stand. Attach the condenser
Stop Cock
to the flask and on the other side of the
LA condenser keep a beaker to collect
distillate. Heat the mixture slowly keeping
Fig-12: Separating funnel
a close watch on the thermometer. The
You must have seen a mixture of oil acetone vaporizes and condenses in the
TE

and water. How many layers do you condenser. Acetone can be collected from
observe? How do you separate the two the condenser outlet. Water remains in the
components? distillation flask.
Take a separating funnel and pour The separation technique used above
the mixture of kerosene and water in it. is called distillation. Distillation is used
T

Let it stand undisturbed for some time. So in the separation of components of a

that separate layers of oil and water are mixture containing two miscible liquids.
ER

formed. Open the stopcock of the But there should be a large difference in
separating funnel and pour out the lower the boiling points of the two liquids.
layer (water) carefully. Close the stopcock Thermometer
Clamp
of the separating funnel as the oil reaches
the stop-cock.
SC

Water Outlet
Separation of a mixture of two Distillation
Mixture of Water
Flask
miscible liquids Acetone
andWater
condenser

Cold water in
Sometimes a homogeneous solution Acetone
is formed by the mixing of liquids. Some
liquids have the property of mixing in all
Fig-13: Separating the mixture of
proportions, forming a homogeneous
Acetone and water by distillation
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 93
 What if the boiling points of the
Let’s see the flow chart which gives the
two liquids are close to each
steps of the process.
other?

A
To separate two or more miscible Air
liquids when the difference in their boiling

AN
points is less than 25 o C, fractional Compress and cool by increasing pres-
distillation process is used. If the sure and decreasing temperature
difference in boiling points is greater than
250C, a simple distillation is used. Liquid air
Do you know what process of

NG
fractional distillation is? Allow to warm up slowly in fractional
The apparatus is similar to that for distillation column
simple distillation except that a
fractionating column is fitted in between Gases get separated at different temperatures
the distillation flask and the condenser. A
simple fractionating column is a tube
LA
Points Oxygen Argon Nitrogen
packed with glass beads. The beads Boiling points (0C) -183 -186 -196
provide maximum possible surface area % air by volume 20.9 0.9 78.1
for the vapours to cool and condense
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Flow chart shows the process of obtain-

repeatedly as shown in Fig.14
ing gases from air
Clamp Thermometer If we want oxygen gas from air
Cork
(figure-16), we have to separate out all the other
Fractionating gases present in the air. The air is compressed
column Water Outlet
by increasing the pressure and is then cooled
Water
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Cork
condenser by decreasing the temperature to get liquid air.
Distillation Cold water in This liquid air is allowed to warm up slowly in
Flask a fractional distillation column where gases
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Mixture
separated at different temperatures depending
Pure liquid
component upon their boiling points.
Water out
Cold
Compressed air
Hot Air

Fig-14: Fractional distillation Air

Separator
under Fractional
pressure distillation
SC

• Can you give any examples where we Liquid

column

Air
use this technique? Nitrogen
out
Argon
• How can we obtain different gases from out

air ? Air in
Liquid
oxygen

We have learnt that air is a homogeneous Filter

Freezing Carbon dioxide
out as dry ice
Expansion
cold water in jet
mixture. Can it be separated into its
Fig-15: Separation of componants of air
components?
94 Is Mater Pure ?
 We know that a chemical reaction
Think and discuss takes place among the copper ions present
in the solution with aluminum and copper

A
• Arrange the gases present in air in metal is separated. Does it mean that
increasing order of their boilling copper sulphate is a mixture? No it is not.
points. What do you observe? Here copper cannot be separated

AN
from sulpher and oxygen by any physical
• Which gas forms the liquid first as
process. It can be separated only by a
the air is cooled?
chemical reaction. Substances such as
Types of pure substances copper sulphate are called compounds.
We can define compounds as pure

NG
So far we have studied about mixtures
example – substances whose components substances that can be separated into two
can be separated by physical methods. What or more components only by means of a
about substance that cannot be separated chemical reaction.
further by any of the methods of separation? We now have two types of pure
We call them as pure substances. Let us substances - compounds and elements.
explore further about them.
LA Elements can be divided into metals,
Activity-10 non-metals and metalloids. We have
already studied properties of metals and
Can we separate Sulphur and non-metals. Can you write down the names
TE

Oxygen from Copper sulphate of some elements that you know?

Take concentrated solution of copper Elements have been used since the
sulphate in beaker and drop a piece of early days of civilisation. Metals such as
aluminum foil in it. After some time you iron, lead, copper, helped in the
will observe a layer of copper deposited development of civilizations. For
on the aluminum foil. The solution
T

thousands of years, alchemists – up to and

becomes colourless. Why did this happen?
including Isaac Newton – attempted to
(recall activities of the chapter on Metals
ER

and Non-metals) unearth new elements, and study their

properties. Hennig Brand, a German

Table-4 : Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures Compounds
1. Elements or compounds just mix together to 1.Elements react to form new compounds.
SC

form a mixture and no new compound is formed.

2. A mixture has a variable composition. 2. The composition of each new substance is
always fixed.
3. A mixture shows the properties of the 3. The new substance has totally different
constituent substances. properties.
4. The constituents can be separated fairly easily by 4. The constituents can be separated only by
physical methods. chemical or electrochemical reactions.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 95

 alchemist, boiled urine to discover the material and check if the material is
phosphorus in 1669. But it was not until attracted towards the magnet.
the late 18th century that our knowledge

A
of the elements really took off, as chemists Activity for group-2:
developed new ways to purify and isolate

AN
Mix and crush iron fillings and
elements. sulphur powder. Heat this mixture strongly
Sir Humphry Davy, was extremely till it becomes red hot. Remove it from
successful in discovering many elements flame and let the mixture cool. Check for
- sodium, magnesium, boron, chlorine and magnetism in the material obtained.

NG
many more. Robert Boyle used the term Compare the texture and colour of the
element and Lavoisier was the first to material obtained by the two groups.
establish a useful definition of element. He
The next part can be done if you
defined an element as a basic form of
have a lab set up in the school.
matter that cannot be broken down into
LA
simpler forms by chemical reactions. Each group should divide the
If any substance can be separated material obtained into two parts. Add
into two or more constituent parts by a carbon disulphide to one part. Stir well and
chemical reaction, that substance is filter.
TE

definitely a compound.
Add dilute sulphuric acid or dilute
What do we get when two or more hydrochloric acid to the other part.
elements are combined? We can Observe the changes.
understand through an activity.
Do the same reactions separately
Activity-11 with sulphur and iron. Observe the
T

changes.
Understanding the nature of Now answer the following
ER

elements, compounds and • Did the material obtained by the two

mixtures groups look the same?
Divide the class into two groups. • Which group has obtained a material
Give 5g of iron fillings and 3g of sulphur with magnetic property?
• Can we separate the components of the
SC

powder in a china dish to both the groups.

material obtained?
Activity for group-1: • On adding dilute sulphuric acid or
Mix and crush iron fillings and dilute hydrochloric acid did both the
sulphur powder. Check for magnetism in groups obtain a gas?
the material obtained. Bring a magnet near • Did the gas in both the cases smell the
same or different?
96 Is Mater Pure ?
 The gas obtained by group 1 due to of two substances. i.e. iron and sulphur,
reaction of material with dilute HCl (or) which are elements.
H 2 SO 4 solution is hydrogen. It is

A
The properties of mixture are the
colourless, odourless and combustible. same as that of its constituents. The
The gas obtained by group 2 due to material obtained by the group 2 is a

AN
reaction of material with dilute HCl (or) compound. On heating the two elements
H2SO4 solution is hydrogen sulphide. It is strongly we get compound, which has
a colourless gas with the smell of rotten totally different properties, compared to
eggs. You must have observed that the the properties of the combining elements.

NG
product of the both groups shows different The composition of a compound is the
properties though the starting material was same throughout. We can also observe that
same. the texture and colour of the compound is
Group 1 has carried out the activity the same throughout its volume.
involving a physical change. Where as The chemical and physical nature of
group 2 examined a chemical change. The
LA the matter is better understood by the
material obtained by group 1 is a mixture following flow chart.
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Matter (Solid,
liquid or gas)

Pure substance Mixtures

(Fixed composition) (No fixed composition)
Can’t be separated by normal Can be separated by normal
T

physical methods physical methods

ER

Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Elements ........................................... ................................. .............................
........................................... Have fixed composition canbe Uniform composition
broken down into elements by Non uniform composition
cannot be broken down to simpler ..................................... .............................
chemical or electrochemical
substances reactions for example, sugar in water, for example, sand and salt, sugar
SC

............................................... ............................................... salt inwater, sulphur in carbon and salt, water in oil etc
for example, copper, oxygen, iron, for example, water, methane, disulphide,water in alcohol etc
hydrogen, mercury, etc sugar, salt, etc

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 Key words

A
Pure substances, Mixture, Heterogeneous mixture, Homogeneous mixture, Solution,
Suspension, colloids, solvent, solute, concentration of solution, Tyndall effect, Evaporation,

AN
Centrifuge, Immiscible liquids, Miscible liquids, Chromatography, distillation, Fractional
distillation, Elements, Compounds. Disperse phase, dispersion medium.

What we have learnt

NG
z A mixture contains more than one substance (element and/or compound) mixed in
any proportion.

z Mixtures can be separated into pure substances using appropriate separation

techniques.
LA
z A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The major
component of a solution is called the solvent, and the minor, the solute.
TE

z The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in grams present per 100
ml or per 100 g of the solution.

z Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked
eye, is called a suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
T

z Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be
seen with the naked eye, but is big enough to scatter light. Colloids are useful in
ER

industry and daily life. The colloid has the dispersed phase and the medium in
which they are distributed is called the dispersion medium.

z Pure substances can be elements or compounds. An element is a form of matter

that cannot be broken down by chemical reactions into simpler substances. A
SC

compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of elements,

chemically combined in a fixed proportion.

z Properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements, whereas a

mixture shows the properties of its constituting elements or compounds.

98 Is Mater Pure ?
 Let us Improve our learning

A
Reflections on concepts
1. Which separation techniques will you apply for the separation of the following? (AS1)

AN
(a) Sodium chloride from its solution in water.
(b) Ammonium chloride from a mixture containing sodium chloride and
ammonium chloride.
(c) Mixture of oil and water.
(d) Fine mud particles suspended in water.

NG
2. Explain the following giving examples.(AS1)
(a) Saturated solution (b) Pure substance (c) colloid (d) Suspension
3. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures. (AS1)
(a) Sodium (b) Soil (c) Sugar solution (d) Silver
(e) Calcium carbonate (f) Tin (g) Silicon (h) Coal (i) Air
(j) Methane (k) Carbon dioxide (l) Sea water
LA
Application of concepts
1. Determine the mass by mass percentage concentration of a 100g salt solution which
contains 20g salt? (AS1) Ans: (20% )
2. Calculate the concentration interms of mass by volume percentage of the solution
TE

containing 2.5g potassium chloride in 50ml of potassium chloride (KCl)solution?

(AS1) Ans: (5%)
3. Classify the following substances in the below given table. (AS1)
Ink, soda water, brass, fog, blood, aerosol sprays, fruit salad, black coffee, oil and
water, boot polish, air, nail polish, starch solution, milk.
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Solution Suspension Colloidal dispersion

ER
SC

Higher Order Thinking Questions

1. How would you confirm that a colourless liquid given to you is pure water? (AS1)
2. Write the steps you would use for making tea. Use the words given below and write
the steps for making tea (AS7)
Solution, solvent, solute, dissolve, soluble, insoluble, filtrate and residue.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2018-19 99

 ons
Multiple choice questi

A
1. The machine used to separate the masive particles and light particles from a mixture
is [ ]

AN
a) Atwood machine b) Centrifuge c) Filter paper d) Separating funnel
2. Which is not formed by the physical mixture of two substances [ ]
a) Mixture b) Compound c) Colloid d) Suspension
3. The substance which is relatively less in quantity in a solution is [ ]

NG
a) Solute b) Solvent c) Dispersion phase d) Dispersion medium
4. The amount of solute present in a saturated solution at constant temperature is known
as its [ ]
a) Solubility b) Concentration c) Volume percentage d)Weight percentage
5. If the quantity of solute is more in a solution then the solution is said to be[ ]
a) Saturated solution b) Dilute Solution
c) Concentrated solution
LA d) Unsaturated Solution
6. The phenomenon of scattering of a visible light by the particles of colloid is known as
[ ]
a) Tyndall effect b) Chromotography c) Sublimation d) Reflection
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7. Immiscible liquids can be separated by [ ]

a) Distillation process b) Fractional distillation
c) Chromotography d) Separating funnel
8. Miscible liquids can be separated by [ ]
a) Distillation process b) Fractional distillation
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c) Chromotography d) Separating funnel

9. The scientist who invented the elements like Sodium, Magnesium, Boron, Chlorine
ER

etc is [ ]
a) Issac Newton b) Henning brad
c) Sir Humpry Davby d) Robert Boyle.
Suggested Experiments
1. Which of the following will show Tyndall effect? How can you observe the tyndall
SC

effect in them?
a) Salt Solution b) Milk c) Solution of Copper Sulphate d) Starch Solution
2. Take a solution, a colloid, and a suspension in three different beakers. Pass a light
beam from the side of the beaker and test whether they show Tyndall effect or not?
Suggested Projects
1. Make a list of solids, liquids and gases from your surroundings. (These substance
maybe organic or chemical). Separate mixtures from them and classify them into
solutions, colloids and suspensions.
100 Is Mater Pure ?
 Chapter ATOMS, MOLECULES AND
7

A
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

AN
NG
In the chapter "Is matter around us
pure?" we used the terms elements and • What happens to magnesium on
compounds. You learned about the role of burning it in air ?
separation techniques in identifying • What happens to Sulphur on burning
elements. The pure components obtained it in air?
after separation (or purification) are either • Are the weights of the reactants and
LA
elements or compounds. products same or different?
In this chapter, we can use this
knowledge to explain some of the Do you know?
observations made in previous classes like
TE

Antoine Lavoisier
the rusting of iron rod kept outside, etc.
(1743-1794) was a
• Does the weight of iron rod increase
French nobleman. He
or decrease, on rusting?
made many important
We notice that on burning charcoal, it
contributions to
leaves ash at the end.
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chemistry and some

• Where does the matter of charcoal
go? call him as the Father of Modern
ER

Chemistry.
• Wet clothes dry after some time -
where does the water go? Lavoisier studied combustion reactions
These questions and several other
in detail. He was able to find the masses
similar questions fascinated scientists for
SC

many years. Burning and combustion of reactants and products accurately

reactions, puzzled them to a greater extent. irrespective of their physical states.
Recall the chapter "Metals and non- Based on his observations he proposed
metals."
the law of conservation of mass.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 101

 In this chapter, we use the following 4. Hang the test tube containing 4ml of
terms frequently - elements, compounds, potassium iodide solution in the

A
reactants and products. Discuss with your conical flask containing lead nitrate
friends about meaning of these terms. solution carefully, without mixing
Think of different examples for each term. the solutions. Close the flask with

AN
Let us carry on a lab activity to observe a cork.(see figure 1)
what will happen to weights of reactants 5. Weigh the flask with its contents
and products during a chemical reaction. carefully using spring balance.
6. Now tilt and swirl the flask, so that
Lab Activity

NG
the two solutions mix.
Aim: To find out the change in the mass (see figure 2).
before and after a chemical reaction.
Materials required: Lead nitrate,
potassium iodide, distilled water two Fig - 2
LA
conical flasks, spring balance, small test
tube, retort stand, rubber cork, thread, etc.
Procedure 7. Weigh the flask again using the same
1. Prepare a solution of lead nitrate by spring balance as shown in figure 3.
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dissolving approximately 2 grams of

lead nitrate in 100 ml of distilled
water in a 250 ml conical flask.
2. Prepare a potassium iodide solution
by dissolving approximately 2 gm
T

of Potassium iodide in 100 ml Fig - 3

water in another conical flask
ER

3. Take 4ml solution of potassium 8. Record your observations:

iodide in a small test tube from the Weight of flask and contents before
above prepared solution. mixing = ........................
Weight of flask and contents after
mixing = .........................
SC

Now, try to answer these questions:

• Did you observe any precipitate in
the reaction?
• Do you think that a chemical reaction
has taken place in the flask? Give
reasons.
Fig - 1
102 Atoms and Molecules
 • Do the weights, of the flask and its
Do you know?
contents change during the activity?
•

A
What are your conclusions? Though the law of conservation of
Result: mass was proposed by Lavoisier, It was
experimentally verfied by Landolt. The

AN
A chemical reaction takes place and the
experiment carried out by us is a
mass remains same before and after the
modified form of the experiment
chemical reaction. Therefore, mass is
performed by Landolt. Ask your teacher
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
about Landolt experiment.
reaction.

NG
Think and discuss Law of constant proportions
From the experiments on law of
• Do you get the same result if the conservation of mass, we saw that mass
conical flask is not closed? does not change during a chemical reaction.
LA Now let us look at the results of some
Law of conservation of mass experiments carried out by the Joseph L.
Earlier, it was thought that mass of Proust between 1798 and 1808.
charcoal decreases on burning. But Proust took two samples of copper
TE

Lavoisier, carried out the burning of carbonate - a compound of copper, carbon

charcoal in a closed apparatus and found and oxygen. He took a sample from nature
no change in mass. and another sample prepared in the lab and
decomposed it chemically to find
Antoine Lavoisier on the basis of his percentage of copper, carbon and oxygen
experiment he proposed the law of in the two samples.
T

conservation of mass. It states that, The results obtained are given in

"Matter is neither created nor table- 1
ER

destroyed during a chemical reaction".

More simply, "the mass of products is Table-1
equal to the mass of the reactants in a
Weight percentage
chemical reaction".
Element Natural Synthetic
sample
SC

sample
Think and discuss Copper 51.35 51.35
• Recall the burning of the Magnesium Carbon 38.91 38.91
ribbon in air. Do you think mass is Oxygen 9.74 9.74
conserved during this reaction?
• What do you observe from the table?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 103

 • What difference do you observe in reactions. Why are these laws valid? Why
the percentage of copper, carbon cannot the elements combine in any

A
and oxygen in two samples? arbitrary proportion ?
Similarly, Proust took water from Many scientists tried to give appropriate
different sources, and found that the weight explanations. The English school teacher

AN
percentage of oxygen and hydrogen was John Dalton proposed the basic theory
the same in all samples. There was no about the nature of matter. Dalton reasoned
relation between the place from where the his proposals as mentioned below.
sample came and its composition. 1. If mass was to be conserved, then

NG
Based on his experiments, Proust put all elements must be made up of
forward the law of constant (or definite) extremely small particles, called
proportions. It states that, "a given atoms.
chemical substance always contains the
2. If law of constant proportion is to
same elements combined in a fixed
be followed, the particles of same
LA
proportions by mass." This means that
substance can not be different.
the relative proportion of elements in a
Based on the above laws, Dalton proposed
compound is independent of the source or
"a new system of Chemical Philosophy".
method of preparation.
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Dalton's atomic theory

Think and discuss
• 100 g of mercuric oxide decompose
to give 92.6 g of mercury and 7.4 g of
oxygen. Let us assume that 10 g of
T

oxygen reacts completely with 125 g

of mercury to give mercuric oxide.
ER

Do these values agree with the law of

constant proportions?
• Discuss with your friends if the carbon
John Dalton
dioxide that you breathe out and the Postulates of Dalton's Atomic theory :
carbon dioxide they breathe out are
1. Matter consists of indivisible
SC

identical. Is the composition of the

particles called atoms.
carbon dioxide of different sources
2. Atoms are neither created nor
same?
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Why are the laws valid? Reorganisation of atoms occur in
By early 19th century, the scientists chemical reactions.
knew some laws governing chemical
104 Atoms and Molecules
 3. All the atoms of a same element have Atoms and molecules
identical mass and identical chemical
properties. Atoms of different Very often you may have heard that atoms

A
elements have different masses and are the building blocks of all matter. But what
different chemical properties. does it mean? It means that matter is

AN
4. Compounds are formed when atoms composed of tiny particles known as atoms.
of different elements combine in simple These atoms are so small that we cannot
whole number ratios. That is, chemical
see them even with a high-powered
change is the union or separation of
microscope. The number of atoms present
atoms as in whole numbers.
even in a small amount of matter is very

NG
5. When atoms of different elements
large.
combine in different whole number
of ratios they form different
Do you know?
compounds. eg : carbon monoxide
(CO); carbondioxide (CO2). Hence
The aluminium foil that we use to
'C' and 'O' combine in 1:1 and 1: 2
LA pack food might seem thin to you. But
ratios respectively to give two
different compounds it has atoms in lakhs, along with its
thickness.
Think and discuss
• Are elements also made of atoms?
TE

• Which postulate of Dalton's theory is

the result of the law of conservation We know that substances are made up
of mass? of - atoms or molecules. Atoms are the
• Which postulate of Dalton's theory most fundamental of all particles that can
can explain the law of constant
have an independent existence. Sometimes
proportions?
T

two or more atoms combine to form a big

Do you know? particle. When atoms combine, they form
ER

molecules. When the particles of a

About 2600 years ago, an Indian sage
(Rishi) called Kanada also postulated substance contain only one type of atoms,
atoms in his VAISHESIKA SUTRA. The that substance is called an element. In
actual name of Kanada was Kasyapa - elements the smallest particle may be atom
he was renamed after his KANA or molecule.
SC

SIDHANTHA. He proposed that all

forms of matter are composed of very There are many elements whose smallest
small particles known as anu and each particle is an atom. Iron, copper, zinc,
anu may be made up of still smaller aluminium, silver, gold, etc are examples
particles called parmanu. of substances in which the smallest particle
The word 'atom' is derived from a Greek is an atom.
word 'a-tomio' (means- indivisible)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 105
 Oxygen and nitrogen are examples of
Do you know?
substances in which the particles are a
How elements like hydrogen and

A
combination of two identical atoms.
oxygen got their names?
Atoms of same elements or of different Sometimes elements are named

AN
elements can join together to form based on their property. For example,
molecules. If atoms of different elements the Latin word for water is 'hydro'. So
join together they form a new substance the element that combined with oxygen
known as compound. to give water was named hydrogen.

NG
So we can have molecules of elements At one time people believed that any
and molecules of compounds. A molecule substance that reacts with oxygen would
can be defined as the smallest particle of be acidic in nature. The Latin word for
a substance that has independent existence acid is 'oxy'. Hence the gas was called
oxygen , meaning 'gas that forms acid'. It
and retains all the properties of that
LA was later discovered that the acidic
substance.
property was not related to oxygen.
Why do we name elements? However, by then the name had come into
common use so it was not changed.
TE

Do you know what gold is called in your Place of discovery of element can
language? But in other languages it would also play a role in its naming. For
have a different name. There are so many example, the gas which was first
languages in the world that it is not discovered in the sun (Greek name for
possible to know the different names of Sun is 'helio'), was named helium.
Can you guess the orgin of names of
T

each element in different languages. To

polonium and californium?
help scientists communicate without Sometimes elements were named to
ER

confusion, we must have one name for honour the scientists. For example:
each element that is accepted by everyone. Einsteinium, Fermium, Rutherfordium
and Mendelevium.
Do you know?
John Berzelius
Symbols of elements
SC

suggested that
initial letter of an You must have realized that chemistry
element from its involves a lot of reactions. It will be a waste
name in english of time to write the full name of the
written in capitals should be the elements and compounds every time to
symbol of that element, Eg. 'O' for
describe a reaction. To avoid this we use
oxygen, 'H' for Hydrogen and so on.

106 Atoms and Molecules

 some shortcuts. Using short forms or How do we write the symbols for
symbols for naming the elements is one Calcium, Chlorine, Chromium?

A
solution.
We have already used the letter 'C' for
Over a 118 elements have been
Carbon. Look at the elements after Carbon
discovered so far. How do we decide

AN
and before Aluminium in the table.
their symbols?
Discuss with your teacher and friends
Table-2: Symbols for some elements
how the symbols have been decided for
Element Name Symbol these elements. Notice the following:

NG
Hydrogen H • A symbol can have either one or
Oxygen O two letters of English.
Nitrogen N • The first letter of the symbol is
Sulphur S always upper case and the second
LA
letter is always lower case.
Carbon C
Calcium Ca Activity-1
Chlorine Cl Some elements and their possible
TE

Chromium Cr symbols are given in table-3. Correct

them and give reasons for your corrections.
Boron B
Barium Ba
Table-3
Bromine Br
T

Beryllium Be
ER

Aluminium Al Element Possible symbol

Iron Fe
Aluminium al
Gold Au
Carbon c
Sodium Na
SC

Potassium K Chromium Chr

Usually, the first letter of the name of Chlorine CL

the element in English becomes the symbol
Beryllium Be
of that element and is always written as a
capital letter (upper case).
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 107
 Some unusual symbols
This is not the end of the problem. We observe that symbols for some elements come

A
from their names but some don't, which can be seen in Table-4. Certain elements have
symbols based on their Latin names (or older names in other languages).

AN
• Would you be able to recognise the elements of the table-2, have symbols of this
category?

Activity-2
Write the symbols for given elements

NG
Look up a periodic table and try to find the symbols for the given elements in table 4 and
write them against their names.
Table-4

Element Sodium Silver Tungsten Potassium Copper Gold Iron Lead Mercury
LA
Latin name Natrium Argentum Wolfram Kalium Cuprum Aurum Ferrum Plumbum Hydragyrum

Symbol

Elements with more than one Subscript number indicates number of

TE

atom in their molecules atoms of Oxygen combined to form its

molecule.
We have learnt that several elements
You might have heard about Ozone gas.
have more than one atom in their smallest
This gas is found in large quantities in the
constituent particles. It means these
upper layers of the earth's atmosphere. It
T

elements contains two or more atoms

protects us by shielding the earth from
combined together to form a molecule.
harmful ultra violet rays of the sun. Every
ER

Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are

molecule of ozone has three atoms of
examples of such elements. oxygen. Can you write the formula of
For example, a molecule of oxygen ozone?
has two atoms. We need a formula to
Atomicity
represent such a molecule in a simple way.
SC

Molecules of many elements, such as

The formula for oxygen molecule is O2.
Argon (Ar), Helium(He), etc are made up
Why don't we write it as 2 O ? Writing of only one atom of that element. But this
a formula in this way indicates two is not the case with the most of non metals.
separate atoms of oxygen. Hence first In non metals the molecules contain more
write the symbol for oxygen. and then than two atoms of same element.
write 2 as a subscript after the letter O.
108 Atoms and Molecules
 The number of atoms constituting a Argon(Ar) exist as single atom. Hence
molecule is known as its atomicity. they are known as monoatomic.

A
For example, a molecule of hydrogen Observe the following table to know
consists of two atoms of hydrogen. Here atomicity of molecules of few elements
the atomicity is two; hence it is known as and try to write the symbol of molecule

AN
diatomic molecule. Helium (He), based on its atomicity.
Table-5

Name of the element Formula Atomicity

NG
Argon Ar Monoatomic
Helium Monoatomic
Sodium Na Monoatomic
Iron Monoatomic
Aluminum
LA Monoatomic
Copper Monoatomic

Hydrogen H2 Diatomic
TE

Oxygen Diatomic
Nitrogen Diatomic
Chlorine Diatomic

Ozone O3 Triatomic
T

Phosphorus Tetratomic
Sulphur S8 Octatomic
ER

• Why do some elements be Valency

monotomic? Till now, there are over 118 elements
• Why do some elements form known. These elements react with each
diatomic or triatomic molecules? other to form compounds. Every element
SC

• Why do elements have different has a definite combining capacity, that

atomicities ? determines the atomicity of its molecules.
To understand the atomicities of Every element reacts with other element
molecules of elements and compounds we according to its combining capacity, which
need to understand the concept of valency. we call as its valency.
• What is valency?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 109
 Table-6 What is an ion?
Valencies of some elements Compounds formed by metals and non

A
metals contain charged particles . The
Element Valency charged particles are known as ions. A
Helium 0 negatively charged ion is called anion and

AN
Hydrogen 1 the positive charge ion is cation.
For example sodium chloride does not
Fluorine 1
contain discrete molecules as its
Chlorine 1 constituent units. Its constituent particles
are positively charged sodium ions (Na+)

NG
Oxygen 2
and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl–).
Nitrogen 3 Ions may be a charged independent
Carbon 4 atoms or a group of atoms (polyatomic)
that have a net charge on them. Hence ions
So atoms of the elements have power to
are charged particles.
LA
combine with atoms of other elements.
This is known as its valency.
Table-7: Some common, simple and poly atomic ions.
Net Charge Table-7: Some common,
Cation simple and polyatomic
Symbol Anion ions Symbol
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Hydrogen H+ Hydride H-
Sodium Na+ Chloride Cl -
Potassium K+ Bromide Br -
1 unit
Silver Ag + Iodide I-
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Copper* Cu+ Hydroxide OH -

ER

Ammonium NH4+ Nitrate NO3-

Magnesium Mg+2 Oxide O-2
Calcium Ca+2 Sulphide S -2
2 units Zinc Zn+2 Sulphate SO4-2
SC

Copper* Cu+2 Carbonate CO3-2

Iron* Fe+2 Dichromate Cr2O7-2
Aluminium Al+3 Nitride N -3
3 units
Iron* Fe+3 Phosphate PO4-3
* elements which show variable valency.
110 Atoms and Molecules
 Valency of an ion is equal to the
4 3
magnitude of its charge. For Example 5 2

A
valency of chloride ion (Cl–) is 1. Valency
6 1
of sulphate ion (SO4–2) is 2.
7 12
Now refer the table-7 and try to write

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8 9 10 11
the valencies of some other ions.
Atomic mass
The most remarkable concept that Fig - 4
Dalton's atomic theory proposed was

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One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined
"atomic mass". According to him each
as the mass exactly one twelth the atomic
element had a characteristic atomic mass.
mass of Carbon-12 isotope.
Since, atoms are extremely light and
The number of times one atom of given
small, scientists find it difficult to measure
element is heavier than 1/12th of atomic
their individual masses. Hence, the mass
LA mass of carbon-12 is called its atomic
of the atom is compared with a standard
mass.
atomic mass of some other element. In
1961, it was universally accepted that mass The atomic mass of an element is
of carbon-12 atom would be used as a defined as the average mass of all the
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standard reference for measuring atomic isotopes of the element as compared to 1/

masses of other elements. 12th of the mass of one carbon -12 atom.
Observe the diagram (fig-4). Let us Atomic mass of an element is a ratio.
assume the circle in the diagram represents Hence it has no units, but it is expressed in
atomic mass of carbon-12. It is divided amu. According to latest IUPAC
T

into 12 equal parts as shown in the recommendations the amu has been replaced
figure-4, and each part represents 1/12 of by 'u', which is known as unified mass.
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atomic mass of carbon-12.

Table-8: Atomic masses of a few elements

Element Atomic Mass (in u) Element Atomic Mass (in u)

Hydrogen 1 Aluminium 27
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Carbon 12 Phosphorus 31
Nitrogen 14 Sulphur 32
Oxygen 16 Chlorine 35.5
Sodium 23 Potassium 39
Magnesium 24 Calcium 40
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 111
 Do you know? Is it possible for any number of atoms
1. Atomic weights of elements were of hydrogen to combine with any number

A
determined in the beginning with of atoms of oxygen to form a molecule of
reference to hydrogen by John water?

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Dalton. For all the molecules of water to be
While searching various atomic mass identical, it is essential that the atoms of
units scientists initially took 1/16th hydrogen and oxygen that are present in
of the mass of an atom of naturally the molecule must be in fixed numbers.
occurring oxygen as a unit. This was If this number is not fixed, how could all

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considered relevant due to two the particles of water be identical?
reasons. Each molecule of water contains 2
• Oxygen reacted with a large atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen.
number of elements and formed Chemical formulae of
compounds. compounds
LA
• This atomic mass unit gave masses While writing the formula of a
of most of the elements as whole compound we must keep two things in
numbers. mind. First, we must see the elements
present in a molecule of the compound.
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2. During nineteenth century there were

no facilities to determine the mass Second, we must see the number of atoms
of an atom. Hence, chemists of each element present in that molecule.
determined the mass of one atom 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
relative to another by experiments. oxygen are present in a molecule of water,
its formula is H2O.
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Today, atomic mass of an atom can

be determined very accurately with Another rule is that if the molecule of a
the help of an instrument called mass substance contains only one atom, subscript
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spectrometer. need not be written in the formula.

Now look at another example. A
Molecules of compounds molecule of carbon dioxide contains one
A molecule may contain one or more atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
SC

atoms. A molecule may be formed by the carbon and oxygen also react to form
combination of atoms of same element or another compound called carbon
different elements. For example, a monoxide. A molecule of carbon
molecule of water is formed by the monoxide contains one atom of carbon
combination of two atoms of hydrogen and and one atom of oxygen.
one atom of oxygen. All the molecules of
water are identical.
112 Atoms and Molecules
 • Can you write the formula of carbon Examples
dioxide and carbon monoxide? Try 1. Formula of hydrogen chloride
H1 Cl1

A
to write formula for them as we have formula: HCl
done in case of water molecule. H1 Cl1
2. Formula of magnesium chloride
Let us try to write chemical formulae

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Mg2 Cl1
formula: MgCl2
of compound in criss - cross method by Mg1 Cl2
using valency. 3. Formula of calcium oxide
For eg. Sodium carbonate.The following Ca2 O2
steps should be taken while writing the Ca1 O1 formula: CaO

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chemical formula of sodium carbonate. Ca1 O1
4. Formula of aluminium sulphate is Al2 (SO4) 3
1. Write the symbols of each atom or
Table-9: Formulae of some compounds
group of atoms side by side, usually
the cation first and anion next - Compound Formula
Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Na CO3
LA Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
2. Write the valency of each atom or
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
group of atoms the top of its symbol
Na1 (CO3)2 Copper Sulphate CuSO4
Silver Nitrate AgNO3
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3. Divide the valency numbers by their

highest common factor if any to get Hydrochloric Acid HCl
the simple ratio. Na1 (CO3)2 Sulphuric Acid H2SO4
4. Inter change the valency and write Nitric Acid HNO3
the numbers as the subscript to right Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl
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side of the constituents as their Potasium Dichromate K2Cr2O7

subscripts. Na2 (CO3)1
Potasium Permanganate KMnO4
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5. If any constituent receives the Molecular mass

number 1, ignore it while writing We have already discussed the concepts
the formula. of atomic mass. This concept can be
6. If a constituent has more than one extended to calculate molecular masses.
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atom enclose it with in brackets, if The molecular mass of a substance is

it carries 2 or more mention as the sum of the atomic masses of all the
subscripts. atoms present in a molecule of the
Hence the formula for the sodium substance. As atomic mass is a relative, it
carbonate is Na2CO3. is therefore the moleculer mass is also
relative. Mass of a molecule expressed in
unified Mass (u).
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 113
 For Example: calculate the molecular How many atoms are there in 12 grams
mass of H2SO4 of carbon?

A
Solution You will be surprised to know that the
2 (atomic mass of hydrogen) + (atomic number of molecules in 18 grams of water

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mass of sulphur) + 4(atomic mass of and no.of atoms in 12 grams of carbon as
oxygen) = (2X1)+32+(4X16)=98 u the same. This number is very large. To
handle such large numbers, a unit called
Formula unit mass mole is introduced. This is a numerical

NG
One formula unit of NaCl, means one quantity.
Na+ ion and one Cl- ion, similarly one
One mole of a substance is the amount
formula unit of MgBr2 means one Mg2+
of the substance which contains as many
ion and two Br- ions, and one formula unit
particles (atoms, molcules, ions ....etc) or
of H2O means one H2O molecule. The
entities that are equal to the atoms present
LA
formula unit mass of a substance is a sum
in exactly 12 grams of 12C isotope.
of the atomic masses of all atoms in a
formula unit of a compound. Formula unit The number of particles ( atoms or
mass is calculated in the same manner as molecules) present in one mole of any
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the molecular mass. The only difference substance has a fixed value of 6.022X1023.
is that formula unit is used for the This number is called Avogadro constant
substances whose constituents particles (NA) named in honour of the Italian
are ions. Sodium Chloride has a formula scientist, Amedeo Avogadro.
unit NaCl. The formula unit mass can be Do you know?
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calculated as:
The word "mole" was introduced by
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1 x 23 + 1 x 35.5 = 58.5u
Wilhelm Ostwald, who derived the
Mole concept term from the latin word "moles"
meaning a 'heap' or 'pile'. A mole
We have learnt that atoms and substance may be considered as a heap
molecules are extremely small in size and of atoms or molecules. The unit mole
SC

their number is really very large. Even in was accepted in 1967 to provide a
a small amount of any substance we find simple way of reporting a large number-
very large number of atoms or molecules. the massive heap of atoms and
molecules in a sample.
How many molecules are there in 18
grams of water?

114 Atoms and Molecules

 Molar mass For example molecular mass of water
Having defined mole, it is easier to know (H2O) =18u.

A
the mass of 1 mole of substance. The mass Molar mass of water= 18 g
of 1 mole of a substance which is expressed 18 u water has only one molecule of
in grams is called its molar mass.

AN
water. But 18 g water has one mole
The molar mass and molecular mass are
molecules of water that is 6.022X1023
numerically equal but molar mass has units
grams and molecular mass has unified mass molecules.
units.
1g of hydrogen 6.022 x 1023

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atoms atoms of hydrogen

16 g of oxygen 32 g of oxygen
atoms LA molecules

MOLE
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6.022 x 1023 6.022 x 1023

atoms of oxygen molecules of oxygen

2 g of hydrogen 6.022 x 1023

molecules molecules of hydrogen
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Fig-5: Diagram on concept of mole

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Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions
Chemical Combination
In chemical reactions atoms are
neither created nor destroyed. A chemical Activity 3
reaction is a process that is usually
SC

characterized by a chemical change in which (This activity needs Teacher’s assistance)

the starting materials (reactants) are different - Take a small piece (about 3 cm long)
from the products. Chemical reactions occur of magnesium ribbon.
with the formation and breaking of chemical - Rub the magnesium ribbon with sand
bonds. (you will learn about chemical paper.
bonding in class 10) Some common reaction - Hold it with a pair of tongs.
types are discussed below.
- Burn it with a spirit lamp or burner.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 115
 • What you observe? released on reaction of water with CaO(s).
If you touch the walls of the container you
will feel the hotness. Such reactions are

A
called exothermic reactions.

AN
Beaker

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Water

fig-6: Burning of magnesium

You will notice that,
ribbon
CaO
Magnesium burns in oxygen by
producing dazzling white flame and changes
LA fig-7: Formation of slaked lime by the
reaction of CaO with water
into white powder. The white powder is
magnesium oxide.
A solution of slaked lime produced
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s) in the reaction equation(20) is used to
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide white wash the walls. Calcium hydroxide
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In this reaction magnesium and reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air
oxygen combine to form a new substance to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate
magnesium oxide. A reaction in which on the walls. It gives a white shiny finish to
single product is formed from two or more the walls.
reactants is known as chemical Decompostion Reaction
combination reaction.
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You will also notice release of Activity 4

enormous amount of heat energy when
- Take a pinch of calcium carbonate (lime
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magnesium is burnt in air.

stone) in a boiling tube.
Let us discuss some more examples
of combination reactions. - Arrange the apparatus as shown in
i. Burning of Coal: When coal is burnt figure 8.
in oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced. - Heat the boiling tube over the flame
SC

of spirit lamp or burner.

C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Q (heat energy)
- Now bring a burning match stick near
ii. Slaked lime is prepared by adding
the evolved gas as shown in the figure.
water to quick lime.
- What do you observe?
Ca O(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)+ Q(heat
energy) You will notice that match stick would
Large amount of heat energy is be put off.
116 Atoms and Molecules
 Delivery tube

Clamp

A
Boiling tube

Calcium carbonate
Putoff match stick

AN
Stand
Bunsen Burning match stick
burner

fig-8: Heating of calcium carbonate and testing the gas evolved with burning match stick

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In the above activity, on heating You observe the brown fumes liberating in
calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium the boiling tube. These brown fumes are of
oxide and carbon dioxide. nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Heat
CaCO3 (s) ––––– CaO(s) + CO2 (g) Heat
Lime stone quick lime 2Pb(NO3)2 ––––– 2PbO(s)+ 4NO2 (g)+ O2(g)
Lead Nitrate lead oxide Nitrogen Oxygen
It is a thermal decomposition
LA dioxide
reaction. When a decomposition reaction
is carried out by heating, it is called This is also a thermal
thermal decomposition reaction. decomposition reaction. Let us perform
some more decomposition reactions
Activity 5
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- Take about 0.5g of lead nitrate powder Activity 6

in a boiling test tube.
- Hold the boiling tube with a test tube - Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at
holder. its base.
Lead nitrate - Fit two ‘one holed rubber stoppers’
Clamp Boiling
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tube in these holes.

- Insert two graphite electrodes in these
Delivery tube
rubber stoppers.
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Stand
- Connect the electrodes to 9V battery
as shown in fig.
Bunsen
Gas burner - Fill the mug with water, so that the
collecting electrodes are immersed.
jar
- Add few drops of dilute sulphuric acid
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NO2
fig-9:Heating of lead nitrate and emission to water.
of nitrogen dioxide - Take two test tubes filled with water
- Heat the boiling tube over a flame. (see
and invert them over the two graphite
figure 9) electrodes.
- Note down the change.
- What do you observe? - Switch on the current and leave the
On heating lead nitrate decomposes apparatus undisturbed for some time.
to lead oxide, oxygen and nitrogen dioxide. • What do you observe in the test tubes?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 117
 You will notice the liberation of gas • Did the colour of the silver bromide
bubbles at both the electrodes. These change?
bubbles displace the water in the test tubes.

A
Is the volume of gas collected in both the
test tubes same?
Once the test tubes are filled with

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gases take them out carefully. Test both
the gases separately by bringing a burning
candle near the mouth of each test tube. fig-11(a): Silver bromide
(light yellow colour)

NG
Plastic mug
O2 H2

Test tubes
fig-11(b): when exposed to
Acidified
LA
Graphite rods
water sunlight (gray colour) silver metal
+ – Cathode
Anode Silver bromide decomposes to
silver and bromine in sunlight. Light
9V yellow coloured silver bromide turns to
Switch battery
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gray due to sunlight.

fig-10: Electrolysis of water sunlight
2AgBr(s) ––––– 2 Ag (s) + Br2 (g)
• What do you observe in each case?
This decomposition reaction
• Can you predict the gas present in each
occurs in presence of sunlight and such
test tube?
reactions are called photochemical
In the above activity on passing the reactions.
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electricity, water dissociates to hydrogen All the above decomposition

and oxygen. This is called electrolytic reactions require energy in the form of
ER

composition reaction. heat, light or electricity for converting the

Electrolysis
reactants to products. All these reactions
2H2O (l) ––––– 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) are endothermic.
Carry out the following Activities:
Activity 7 i) Take a pinch of AgCl in a watch glass.
Keep it in sunlight for some time and
SC

- Take some quantity of silver bromide observe the change.

on a watch glass.
ii) Take some ferrous sulphate crystals in
- Observe the colour of silver bromide. a boiling tube. Heat it over spirit lamp.
- Place the watch glass in sunlight for iii) Take about 2 gm of barium hydroxide
some time. in a test tube. Add about 1 gm of
- Now observe the colour of silver ammonium chloride and mix with glass
bromide. rod. Touch the test tube with your palm.
• What changes do you notice? What do you observe?
118 Atoms and Molecules
 Displacement reaction. You can see the gas bubbles coming out
In displacement reaction one from the solution and the balloon bulges
element displaces another element from out (figure 12b). Zinc pieces react with

A
its compound and takes its place there in. dilute hydrochloric acid and liberate
hydrogen gas as shown below.
Displacement of hydrogen from Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2(aq ) + H2 (g)

AN
acids by metals:
Generally metals which are more In the above reaction the element zinc
active than hydrogen displace it from an has displaced hydrogen from hydrochloric
acid. acid. This is displacement reaction.
Let us observe the reaction in
following activity.
Activity 9

NG
Activity 8
- Take two iron nails and clean them by
- Take a small quantity of zinc dust rubbing with sand paper.
in a conical flask.
- Take two test tubes and mark them as A
- Add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly. and B.
LA - Take about 10ml of copper sulphate
solution in each test tube. Dip one iron
nail in copper sulphate solution of test tube
A and keep it undisturbed for 20 minutes.
Dil. HCl
- Keep the other iron nail and test tube
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Conical flask aside.

- Now take out the iron nail fr om copper
Zinc dust
sulphate solution and compare with the
other iron nail that has been kept aside.
fig-12(a)
(see fig13-a)
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Balloon
with H2
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gas

Conical flask
Dil. HCl
Zinc dust
SC

fig-12(b)

- Now take a balloon and tie it to the

mouth of the conical flask.
- Closely observe the changes in the
conical flask and balloon.
fig-13(a):Iron nail dipped in
- What do you notice? copper sulphate solution
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 119
 - Compare the colours of the solutions in Double displacement reaction
the test tubes. (see fig11-b)
Activity 10

A
- Take a pinch of lead nitrate and dissolve
A in 5.0ml of distilled water in a test tube.

AN
- Take a pinch of potassium iodide in a
test tube and dissolve in distilled water.
- Mix lead nitrate solution with
potassium iodide solution.

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B

Pb(NO3)2

fig-13(b): Iron nail and copper KNO3

LA
sulphate solutions compared before
and after the experiment

- What changes do you observe? KI

You will find the iron nail dipped

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in copper sulphate solution becoming fig-14: formation of lead iodide and

brown. The blue colour of copper sulphate Lead Iodide
potassium nitrate
solution in test tube ‘A’ fades. - What do you observe?
A yellow coloured substance which
The chemical reaction in this
is insoluble in water, is formed as
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activity is: precipitate. The precipitate is lead iodide.

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s) Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2KI(aq) PbI2(s)+ 2KNO3(aq)
ER

lead nitrate potassium Iodide lead iodide potassium nitrate

Iron is more reactive than copper, This reaction is double

so it displaces copper from copper displacement reaction. If two reactants
sulphate. This is another example of exchange their constituents chemically
displacement reaction. and form two products, then the reaction
SC

is called as double displacement reaction.

Other examples of displacement Other examples of double
reaction are: displacement reactions are:
1) Sodium sulphate solution on mixing
i) Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Zn (NO3)2(aq)+ 2Ag(s) with barium chloride solution forms a
white prepitate of barium sulphate and
ii) Pb (s) + CuCl2 (aq) PbCl2 (aq) + Cu (s) soluble sodium chloride.

120 Atoms and Molecules

 Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) BaSO4(s)+ 2NaCl(aq) In the activity on heating copper
2) Sodium hydroxide reacts with it reacts with oxygen present in the
atmosphere to form copper oxide.

A
hydrochloric acid to form sodium
chloride and water.
The reaction is shown below.

AN
NaOH (aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Heat
Cu(s) + O2(g) ––––– 2 CuO(S)
3) Sodium chloride spontaneously
combines with silver nitrate in solution
giving silver chloride precipitate and
Sodium nitrate.

NG
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Oxidation and Reduction fig-15(a):

Copper Oxide change
‘Oxidation’ is a chemical reaction into black colour
that involves the addition of oxygen or
removal of hydrogen.
LA
Chind dish
Wire gauze
‘Reduction’ is a chemical reaction containing
that involves the addition of hydrogen or Copper
powder
removal of oxygen.
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Let us try to understand more Tripod

clearly doing this experiment. Bunsen
stand burner

Activity 11
- Take about 1.0g of copper powder in a
T

china dish.
- Keep the china dish on a tripod stand
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containing wire gauge.

- Heat it with a bunsen burner or with a fig-15(b): Oxidation of copper to copper
spirit lamp. oxide
- Do you find any change in colour of
copper? Here copper combines with oxygen
SC

to form copper oxide. Here oxygen is

You will notice that the surface gained and the process is called oxidation.
layer of copper becomes black.
Now pass hydrogen gas over hot
• Why does the colour of copper
copper oxide obtained in above activity
change?
and observe the change (see fig. 16).
• What is the black colour product
formed on the surface of copper?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 121
 Black copper oxide Cork

H2 gas Glass tube H2O(g)

A
Stand Bunsen
burner

AN
fig-16: Reduction of copper oxide to copper
• What do you notice? Have you observe the effects of oxidation

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• Is there any change in black colour of reactions in daily life
copper oxide? Corrosion:
You will notice that the black You must have observed that a
coating on copper turns brown because
freshly cut apple turns brown after some
copper oxide loses oxygen to form copper.
time. The shining iron articles gradually
LA
In this process oxygen is lost and the
become reddish brown when left for some
process is called Reduction.
time. Burning of crackers produce
Heat dazzling light with white fumes.
CuO(s) + H2(g) ––––– Cu(s) + H2O (g)
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In the above reaction hydrogen is

gained; such reaction is called reduction
reaction.

Generally oxidation and reduction

occur in the same reaction. If one reactant
T

gets oxidized, the other gets reduced. Such

reactions are called oxidation-reduction
ER

reactions or redox reactions.

In the CuO, H2 reaction CuO is

fig-17: Rusting of iron
reduced and H2 is oxidized.
• How do these changes occur?
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Some other examples of redox reactions

are: They are all the examples of the
process called oxidation.
i) 2 Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 4 Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g) Let us know how?
Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen
ii) 2 PbO (3) + C(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2 (g) molecules with different substances
starting from metal to living tissue which
may come in contact with it.
122 Atoms and Molecules
 Apples, pears, bananas, potatoes be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing,
etc., contain enzyme called polyphenol galvanizing, chrome plating or making
oxidase or tyrosinase, which reacts with alloys. Galvanizing is a method of

A
oxygen and changes the colour on the cut protecting iron from rusting by coating
surface of the fruit. them a thin layer of Zinc.
The browning of iron, when left for

AN
sometime in moist air, is a process Alloying is also a very good method
commonly known as rusting of iron. This of improving properties of metal.
process is basically oxidation reaction Generally pure form of iron is very soft
which requires both oxygen and water. and stretches easily when hot. Iron is
Rusting does not occur in oxygen free mixed with carbon, nickel and chromium
water or dry air. to get an alloy called stainless steel. The

NG
Burning of crackers is also stainless steel is hard and does not rust.
oxidation process of variety of chemicals, A metallic substance made by
like Magnesium and Sulphur.
mixing and fusing two or more metals, or
• Did you notice the colour coating on
copper articles? a metal and a nonmetal, to obtain desirable
qualities such as hardness, lightness, and
LA
When some metals are exposed to strength is known as alloy.
moisture, acids etc., they tarnish due to the
formation of respective metal oxide on For example: Brass, bronze, and steel.
their surface. This process is called
corrosion. Some more effects of oxidation on
everyday life
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Look at the following example:

Green coating on copper (see fig-18) 1. Combustion is the most common
example for oxidation reactions.
For example: burning of wood
involves release of carbon dioxide, water
vapour along with huge amount of energy.
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2. Rising of dough with yeast depends

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on \oxidation of sugars to carbon

fig-18: Corrosion of copper dioxide and water.
2Cu + O2 2CuO .......... (38) 3. Bleaching of coloured objects using
Corrosion causes damage to car moist chlorine
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bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships etc., Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
and to all other objects that are made of
metals. Especially corrosion of iron is a HOCl HCl + [O]
serious problem. Coloured object + [O] Colourless object.
Corrosion can be prevented or at
least minimized by shielding the metal Some times during rainy season the
surface from oxygen and moisture. It can power supply to our home from the electric

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 123

 pole will be interrupted due to formation for a long period are responsible for
of the metal oxide layer on the electric spoiling of food.

A
wire. This metal oxide is an electrical Rancidity is an oxidation reaction.
insulator. On removing the metal oxide • How can we prevent the spoiling

AN
layer formed on the wire with a sand paper, of food?
supply of electricity can be restored. The spoilage of food can be
4) Rancidity prevented by adding preservatives like
Vitamin C and Vitamin E.
• Have you ever tasted or smelt the
Usually substances which prevent

NG
fat/oil containing food materials
oxidation (Antioxidants) are added to food
left for a long time?
containing fats and oil. Keeping food in
When fats and oils are oxidized they
air tight containers helps to slow down
become rancid. Their smell and taste oxidation process.
change.
LA Manufacturers of potato chips
Thus we can say that oxidation flush bags of chips with nitrogen gas to
reactions in food material that were left prevent the chips from getting oxidized.
TE

Key words
Law of conservation of mass, Law of constant proportion. Atom, Symbol, Atomic
mass, Atomic mass unit (amu), Unified mass (u), Molecule, Molecules of
elements, Molecules of compounds, Formula, Ion (cation, anion), Atomicity,
Valency, Molecular mass, Formula unit mass, Mole, Avogadro constant, Molar
T

mass, Chemical combination, Chemical decomposition, Displacement reaction,

Double Displacement reaction, Oxidation, Reduction, Corrosion, Rancidity,
ER

Antioxidants.

What we have learnt

SC

• The total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is exactly equal to the
mass of the reactants. This is known as the law of conservation of mass.
• In a chemical substance the elements are always present in fixed proportions by
mass. This is known as the law of constant proportion.
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical
reaction and retain all its properties.
124 Atoms and Molecules
 • A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence and retains all the properties of that substance.

A
• Symbols represents atoms and formula represents molecules and compounds.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to compare the masses of different

AN
atoms of elements.

• The number of times one atom of a given element is heavier than 1/12th part of
mass of carbon -12 atom is called its atomic mass.

• By using criss - crosss method we can write the chemical formula of a compound.

NG
• The number of particles present in one mole of any substance is called Avogadro
constant (NA). It is a fixed value of 6.022 x 1023.

• Mass of one mole of a substance is called its molar mass.

•
LA
In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new single
substance.

• In a decomposition reaction a single substance decomposes to give two or more

substances.
TE

• Reactions in which heat energy is absorbed by the reactants are endothermic

reactions.

• In exothermic reaction heat energy is released by the reactants.

T

• A displacement reaction occurs, when an element displaces another element

from its compound.
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• Two different atoms or ions are exchanged in double displacement reactions.

• Oxidation is the gain of Oxygen or loss of Hydrogen.

• Loss of oxygen or gain of Hydrogen is Reduction.

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• Corrosion causes damage to iron appliances.

• When fats and oils are oxidized, they become rancid.

• Precipitate is an insoluble substance.

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 Let us Improve our learning

A
Reflections on concepts

AN
1. Explain the process and precautions in verifying law of conservation of
mass. (AS-3)
2. 0.24g sample of a compound of oxygen and boron was found by analysis to
contain 0.144g of oxygen and 0.096g of boron. Calculate the percentage
composition of the compound by weight. (AS-1)

NG
3. In a class, a teacher asked students to write the molecular formula of oxygen
Shamita wrote the formula as O2 and Priyanka as O. which one is correct? State
the reason. (AS-1)
4. Lakshmi gives a statement "CO and Co both represent element". Is it correct?
LA
State reason. (AS-1)
5. Find out the chemical names and formulae for the following common household
substances. (AS-1)
TE

a) common salt b) baking soda c) washing soda d) vinegar

6. Calculate the mass of the following (AS-1)
a) 0.5 mole of N2 gas. b) 0.5 mole of N atoms.
c) 3.011 x 1023 number of N atoms. d) 6.022 x 1023 number of N2 molecules.
T

7. Calculate the number of particles in each of the following (AS-1)

a) 46g of Na b) 8g of O2 c) 0.1 mole of hydrogen
ER

8. Convert into mole (AS-1)

a) 12g of O2 gas. b) 20g of water. c) 22g of carbon dioxide.
9. Write the valencies of Fe in FeCl2 and FeCl3 (AS-1)
SC

10. Calculate the molar mass of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and glucose (C6H12O6)(AS-1)
11. Which has more number of atoms - 100g of sodium or 100g of iron? Justify your
answer. (atomic mass of sodium = 23u, atomic mass of iron = 56u) (AS-1)

126 Atoms and Molecules

 12. Fill the following table

Sl.No. Name Symbol/formula Molar mass Number of particles

A
present in molar mass.
1 Atomic oxygen 16g 6.022 x 1023 atoms of

AN
oxygen
2 Molecular oxygen
3 Sodium
4 Sodium ion 23g

NG
5 Sodium chloride 6.022 x 1023 units of
sodium chloride
6 water

13. Complete the following table:

LA
13. Write an equation for decomposition reaction where energy is supplied in the
form of Heat / light / electricity. (AS-1)
14. How chemical displacement reactions differ from chemical decomposition reac-
TE

tion? Explain with an example for each. (AS-1)

15. Name the reactions taking place in the presence of sunlight? (AS-1)
16. Why does respiration considered as an exothermic reaction? Explain. (AS-1)
17. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?
T

Write equations for these reactions? (AS-1)

18. Give two examples for oxidation-reduction reaction. (AS-6)
ER

19. In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution in-
volved displacement by copper metal. Write the reaction involved. (AS-1)
20. Draw the digarm to show the experimental setup for the law of conservation of
SC

mass. (AS-5)
Application of concepts
1. Why do we apply paint on iron articles? (AS-1)
2. What is the use of keeping food in air tight containers? (AS-6)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 127

 Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. 15.9g. of copper sulphate and 10.6g of sodium carbonate react together to give

A
14.2g of sodium sulphate and 12.3g of copper carbonate. Which law of chemical
combination is obeyed? How? (AS-1)

AN
2. Carbon dioxide is added to 112g of calcium oxide. The product formed is 200g of
calcium carbonate. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide used. Which law of
chemical combination will govern your answer. (AS-1)
3. Imagine what would happen if we do not have standard symbols for elements?(AS-2)

NG
ons
Multiple choice questi

1. Fe2O3 + 2Al
LA
Al2O3 + 2 Fe. [ ]
The above reaction is an example of:
a) Combination reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
TE

c) Displacement reaction
d) Double decomposition reaction
2. What happens when dil. hydrochloric acid is added to iron filings? Choose the
correct answer.
a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced. [ ]
T

b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.

c) No reaction takes place.
ER

d) Iron salt and water are produced.

3. 2 PbO(s) + C (s) 2Pb(s) + CO2 (g) [ ]
Which of the following statements are correct for the above chemical reaction?
a) Lead oxide is reduced b) Carbon dioxide is oxidized
SC

c) Carbon is oxidized d) (a) and (c) are correct

4. The chemical equation BaCl2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 + 2NaCl represents

following type of chemical reaction. [ ]
i) displacement ii) combination
iii) decomposition iv) double-displacement
128 Atoms and Molecules
 5. The reaction of formation hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chloride
represents following type of chemical reaction [ ]

A
i) decomposition ii) displacement
iii) combination iv) double-displacement

AN
Suggested Experiments
1. Do an experiment to understand the changes in weight of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction, write a report.

NG
Suggested Project
1. Collect the information about the symbols, atomic weights of first thirty elements
in the periodic table and write a report.
LA
TE
T
ER
SC

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 129

 Chapter
FLOATING BODIES
8

A
AN
NG
You must have noticed that Did kerosene float above the water or
some things float on the surface of the water did water float above the kerosene?
and some things sink in it. Did you Which objects float in kerosene?
participate in the activity “floating & Which objects sink in kerosene but
sinking” in the lesson on “materials” in
LA float on water?
class 6? If so, you might have wondered
Which objects sink in water?
as to why some objects, which you
expected would sink, float on water. Did Draw a diagram of the tube, showing
you take one of those objects that floats on the results of your activity.
TE

water, and tried to see if it floats on Why did different objects behave
kerosene or coconut oil? differently?
Have a little fun We shall try to find answers to these
questions in this chapter.
Take a boiling tube and fill about half
You know that, if a glass marble and a
of it with water. Add 15 to 20 ml of
T

small wooden piece are dropped in water

kerosene to the water. Drop in, one by one,
the glass marble sinks in water but a small
plastic buttons, pins, matchsticks, small
piece of wood floats on it. Do you know
ER

pebbles, tiny paper balls, some sand, bits

why this happens? We think that a marble
of wax etc. Close the mouth of the boiling
sinks in water because it is heavy while
tube and shake it well. Wait for some time
the piece of wood floats, because it is light.
and observe what happens.
Now take a wooden block which is
SC

heavier than the marble and put it in water.

What happens?
Why does the wooden block float on
water even though it is heavier than a
marble?
What do we mean by ‘heavy’, what do
Fig :1 we mean by ‘light’?
130 Floating Bodies
 To understand the results of the above Comparing density – relative
activity you must understand the meaning density
of the term heavy. We use this word in our

A
everyday life in two ways. We say “two Activity-1
kilograms of wood is heavier than one Take two test-tubes of the same size.

AN
kilogram of iron”. At the same time, we Fill one to the brim with water and the
also say “iron is heavier than wood”. other with oil.
Can you explain the difference in Which will weigh more?
meaning of the word ‘heavier’ in both Which liquid is denser?
these sentences? In science, we try to

NG
Take two equal sized blocks made of
ensure that each word we use, has the same
wood and rubber.
meaning for everyone. So let’s see in what
way these two sentences differ. Which of these two blocks is
heavier?
The first sentence says that, if we keep
Which one is denser?
two kilograms of wood in one pan of a
LA
balance and one kilogram of iron in the
Think and discuss
other, the beam of balance will tilt towards
the pan with wood in it. What is the Let us suppose you have two blocks
meaning of the second sentence? and you do not know what material they
TE

In second sentence, when we say iron are made of. The volume of one block
is heavier than wood, it means if we take is 30 cm3 while the other is 60 cm3. The
a piece of iron and a piece of wood of the second block is heavier than the first.
same size (that is, they have the same Based on this information, can you tell
volume) and weigh them, the iron will which of the two blocks is denser?
T

weigh more than the wood.

When the volume of two objects is
In the language of science, it may be
unknown, it is difficult to tell which object
ER

stated as “the density of iron is more than

is denser solely on the basis of their
that of the wood”. Density is defined as
weights. One way to compare the density
mass per unit volume.
of objects is to take equal volumes of the
mass two objects and compare their weights, but
Density = volume
SC

this may not be possible for some solids.

For this we can use a simple method of
gm kg
Units for density is or comparing the density of each object with
cm3 m3
water. In the following activity we shall find
We therefore say, the denser object is out, how many times more dense each solid
‘heavy’ and the less dense object is ‘light’. object is compared to water. This is known
as relative density of that object.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 131
 Relative density of an object = weights are then compared.
density of the object Let us perform an activity to
density of water understand how this is done. But first,

A
To find the relative density of an object, check your weighing instrument. We shall
we must first weigh the object and then have to weigh objects several times, so

AN
weigh an equal volume of water. The two your instrument should function properly.

Lab Activity 1
Aim: Finding the relative density of different objects

NG
Material required: Overflow vessel, 50ml measuring cylinder, weighing balance and
weights or electronic weighing machine, rubber erasers, wooden blocks, glass slides,
iron nails, plastic cubes, piece of aluminium sheet, glass marbles, stones, corks etc (note:
whatever object you take, ensure that its volume is more than 20 cc and it should not be
hollow). Record the results of your activity in table 1. (Copy this table in your note book)
LA Table -1

S.No. Name of Weight of Weight of Weight of Relative

displaced water density
object object
water displaced by of the
TE

and cylinder the object object

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T

Weigh the 50ml measuring cylinder in figure 2, ensuring that water does not
and note its weight here.Weight = splash out. Once the object is in the
ER

……………. overflow vessel, water flows out of the beak

Procedure: and collects in the 50 ml. cylinder. Wait till
Weigh the object, record this in column 3 the flow stops. (The object should be fully
of the Table 1. immersed in water. If the object is not fully
We need to find the weight of water immersed, push it in to the water with a
SC

equal to the volume of the object. Pour pin. see figure 2)

water in the overflow vessel until it starts Weigh the cylinder
dripping from its beak. When water stops with the water that
dripping from the beak, place the 50ml overflowed and record
measuring cylinder under it. Slip the object the weight in column 4.
gently into the overflow vessel as shown
Fig-2
132 Floating Bodies
 If we subtract the weight of the relative density is a ratio of the densities
measuring cylinder from this weight, we of a material and water. It is a comparison
get the weight of water (column 5 of the of quantities having the same units, so it

A
table 1). This is the weight of water equal has no units.
to the volume of the object.
Relative density of liquids

AN
Now we can find the relative density
of the object (column 6) by taking the We have discussed the relative density
weight of the object (column 3) and of solid objects. We can also find the relative
dividing it by the weight of an equal density of liquids. For this, we need to find
volume of water (column 5). This tells us the weight of a fixed volume of the liquid

NG
how many times denser the object is, and the weight of an equal volume of water.
compared to water. The formula for finding the relative density
of a liquid is: ( Note: Here mass and weight
Relative density of an object =
are considered as equivalent)
weight of the object
Relative density of a liquid =
LA
weight of water equal to the volume of the object.
Find the relative densities of all objects weight of the liquid
that you collected. weight of the same volume of water
Based on table 1, answer the following
TE

questions.
Lab Activity 2
What is the relative density of wood?
What is the relative density of glass? Aim: To find the relative density of milk,
Which is denser, rubber or plastic? groundnut oil and kerosene.
Which is denser, wood or cork? Material required: Small bottle of 50 ml.
T

Do objects that have a relative density capacity (the bottle should weigh not less
less than 1 sink in water or float on it? than 10gm), weighing balance and weights
ER

Do the objects that sink in water have or electronic weighing machine and milk,
a relative density less than1 or more groundnut oil, kerosene about 50 ml. each
than 1? in different containers.

Classify the above materials as denser Procedure: Find the values given below.
SC

than stone and less dense than stone. Weight of empty bottle = ……..........…….
What relationship do you find between Weight of the bottle with 50ml of water
the relative density of objects and = ............................
floating-sinking of the objects? Weight of 50ml of water = …..........……
One interesting aspect of relative Weigh the bottle with milk in it. Record
density is that it has no units. Because the weight in column 3 of the Table 2.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 133
 Repeat this for other liquids and record of each liquid by comparing the weight
the weights in column 3. Calculate the of the liquid with the weight of same
weight of each liquid by subtracting the volume of water and record these values

A
weight of the empty bottle and record it in column 5.
in column 4. Calculate the relative density

AN
Table -2

S. Name of liquid Weight of the Weight of the Relative

No. bottle filled with liquid (gm) density of
liquid (gm) the liquid

NG
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1 Milk

2 Groundnut oil LA
3 Kerosene

Answer the following questions by If we take two bottles of equal volume

comparing Table 1 and Table 2 and pour pure milk in one and milk
Which liquid will float on top if
TE

mixed with water in the other, which

groundnut oil is poured over water ? one will be heavier?
If we put a wooden block in kerosene, We can use a simple instrument to find
will it float or sink? Give reasons for this out. It is called lactometer.
your answer.
A piece of wax floats in water but the
Activity-2
T

same piece sinks in a liquid say liquid

‘X’. Will the relative density of liquid
Making of lactometer
ER

‘X’ be less than 1 or greater than 1? Take an empty ball pen refill. It should
How can you say ? have a metal point. Take a boiling tube
and fill it with water.
Can we use relative density to find out
whether water has been added to milk? Put the refill in with the metallic point
inside the water as shown in figure 3 (The
SC

Let’s try and find out.

refill may not stand vertically in the water
If we mix some water in milk, will the
as shown in figure, it may slant and cause
relative density of the mixture be less
the top of the refill to touch the wall of
than or more than the relative density
the boiling tube. Think what to do to make
of milk? Refer to Table 2 to find the the refill to stand as shown in figure 3.)
answer.

134 Floating Bodies

 Did the refill sink completely or is some part above the water surface?
Use a pen to mark the point on the refill to show the part which is
above the water surface.

A
Pour out the water from the boiling tube and fill it with milk.
Float the refill in the milk.Did the refill sink up to the same mark as

AN
it sank in water? If not, did it sink more or less in milk than in water?
Why did this happen?
Put a second mark, on the refill, at the point showing the part
which is above the surface of the milk.
Now pour a mixture of milk and water in the boiling tube.

NG
If we put the refill in this mixture, to which point will it sink?
Make a guess.
Test if your guess is correct by actually dipping the refill in the
milk-water mixture.
Fig -3: Improvised
Now, are you able to test whether water is added to milk or not
LA lactometer
by using the above instrument?
We can use a similar instrument, called a hydrometer/densitometer to find out the
density of any liquid.
Example 1
TE

What is the effective density of the mixture of water and milk when
i) they are taken with same masses
ii) they are taken with same volumes
Solution:
T

Let us say the densities of water and milk are ρ1 and ρ2

i) When they are taken with same mass ‘m’ and their volumes are V1 and V2, the
ER

m m
mass of water m = ρ1V1 ; V1= ρ and the mass of milk m = ρ2V2 ; V2= ρ
1 2

Total mass of water and milk is m + m = 2m

SC

m m
Total volume of water and milk is V1 + V2= ρ + ρ
1 2
1 1
=m( + ρ)
ρ
1 2

m (ρ1 + ρ2)
=
ρ ρ
1 2

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 135

 The effective density of the mixture( ρeff)= Total mass / Total volume

2m

A
=
m (ρ1 + ρ2) / ρ1 ρ2

AN
2
= (ρ1 + ρ2) / ρ1 ρ2

2 ρ1 ρ2
= ρ +ρ
1 2

NG
ii) when they are taken with same volume ‘V’ and their masses are m1 and m2
the volume of water V = m1 / ρ1
That is m1 = Vρ1
and the volume of milk V = m2 / ρ2
m 2 = V ρ2
That is
LA
Total mass of water and milk is m1 + m2 = V ρ1 + V ρ2
= V (ρ1 + ρ2)
Total volume of water and milk is V + V = 2V
TE

The effective density of the mixture ( ρeff ) = Total mass / Total volume
ρ = V (ρ + ρ )
eff 1 2
2V
1
= (ρ1 + ρ2)
2
When do objects float on water?
T

Table -3
Object Relative density Floats / Sinks
ER

Activity-3
Rubber eraser
Do objects denser than water Rubber ball
float in it ? Plastic cube
Collect small objects as you did for Plastic pen
SC

Lab Activity 1. Place them one by one in a Iron nail

glass of water and observe whether they
Geometry box
sink or float in water? Record your
observations in Table 3. Glass marble
Take the values of relative densities Wood
from table 1. Stone

136 Floating Bodies

 What do you observe in the above
Activity-4
activity?
Is the weight of an object and

A
Why do some objects float in water
though they are denser than water? weight of water displaced by it
equal ?

AN
List out the objects that float on water
even though they are made up of Take a beaker and weigh it. Note down
material which is denser than water. its weight in your note book.
Fill water in an overflow jar. Wait until
We know that the substances with a
the water stops dripping from the outlet

NG
relative density greater than 1 sink in
of the overflow jar. Then take the beaker
water. But in activity 3, we observed that from the weighing balance and place it
substances with a relative density greater below the outlet of the overflow jar. Take
than 1 sometimes float on water. a wooden block, moisten it with water and
So it seems we cannot judge whether then drop it gently into the overflow jar.
LA
a substance will sink or float only on the Don’t forcefully submerge the wooden
basis of its relative density. There is block in the water. Also, ensure that it does
definitely some other factor which we not block the outlet of the overflow jar.
need to take into account. Water will flow out of the overflow jar
and collect in the beaker kept under the
TE

Let’s investigate that special property, outlet of overflow jar.

which a substance that floats has but a Do you think the weight of the water
substance that sinks doesn’t have. displaced by the wooden block will be less
In lab activity 1, we had compared the than or equal to or more than the weight
weight of the substance with the weight of the wooden block? Make a guess. Place
T

of the water displaced by it to find its the beaker containing the displaced water
relative density. In that activity, we on one pan of the weighing balance. Take
ER

the wooden block, wipe it to clean off

immersed the substance fully in water and
water and place it on the other pan along
collected the displaced water.
with the weights that equal to the weight
We shall now do the same activity, but of empty beaker as shown in Figure 4.
with a slight difference.
SC

The substance will again be put in

water. But this time, if it sinks we’ll let it
sink and if it floats, we’ll let it float. We’ll
then compare the weight of water
displaced by it with the weight of the
substance.
Fig. 4
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 137
 Do the two pans balance? that float could include a plastic bowl, a
Is the weight of the water displaced by ball, a steel container, fruits etc.
In each case, check whether the weight

A
the wooden block less than, equal to or
more than the weight of the wooden of the water displaced is less than, equal
block? to or more than the weight of the

AN
Repeat this experiment with several substance. Note your observations in the
other substances that float or sink. Things table 4.
Table -4
S. Name of the substance Weight of the substance Weight of displaced water

NG
No.
1 Plastic bowl
2 Ball
3 Steel container
4 A fruit that floats
LA
5 A fruit that sinks
6
7
TE

On the basis of the table 4, explain the

relationship between the weight of the Activity-5
substances that float and the weight of the Making aluminium to float
T

water displaced by them. Take a small sheet of aluminium foil.

Can you express this special property Fold it four or five times, pressing the foil
of substances that makes the substance to
ER

tight after each fold. You already know the

float in the form of a principle? relative density of aluminium from an
(The special property of floating earlier Lab activity 1. With this given value
substances that you identified in this of the relative density of aluminium, can
activity was first discovered by you guess whether the aluminium foil will
SC

Archimedes. You will know about this float or sink in water?

further in this chapter.) Drop the folded aluminium foil in the
Can you think of a way to make iron water and test whether your guess is
float on water? Perhaps, the following correct or not.
activity will give you some ideas about Now unfold the aluminium foil and
how you can make iron float on water. make it as a small bowl. Place this bowl in
the water and see whether it floats or sinks.
138 Floating Bodies
 How much water did the bowl of
aluminium foil displace?

A
Is the water displaced by folded
aluminium foil and bowl made using Fig. 5
same aluminium foil the same?

AN
Explain why aluminium bowl floats on
the basis of your theory of floating substances. Do you feel an upward force? Try to
push it further down. Do you feel any
Can you now explain why large ships
increase in the upward thrust? In fact, the
made of iron and steel float on water
upward force of water keeps on increasing
while a small block of iron sinks in water?

NG
as you try to push the bottle down. Now,
Why does the metal bowl displace larger
release the bottle and observe how it bounces
amount of water than a metal piece?
back to the surface of water! So the upward
To know this you must understand the
force of water is a real, observable force
pressure in fluids.
(Buoyancy). This force acting on unit area
Upward force in liquids
LA of the surface of an object (bottle) is called
static pressure of the water.
When we put an object on the surface
of water in a container, the force of gravity, Pressure of Air
exerted by the Earth, pulls the object
Activity -7
TE

downwards i.e. towards the bottom of the

container. However, for objects that float Observing air pressure
on water, there must be an upward force Take a glass tumbler. Stick some
to balance the force of gravity. This cotton at the bottom of it. Immerse it
upward force must come from water. If inversely in water up to the bottom of the
the gravitational force on the object is
T

container as shown in figure 6.

more than the upward force of water, the
object will sink in water. Let us do a simple
ER

activity to observe this upward force.

Activity-6
Fig. 6
Observing the upward force of
SC

liquids Take out the tumbler from water. Is

the cotton attached to its bottom wet? Why?
Take an empty plastic bottle. Put the
This is due to the force of air which is
cap on it tightly. Place the bottle in a bucket
applied on water by the air present in the
of water. The bottle will float.
tumbler and stops water from entering the
Push the bottle into the water by your
tumbler. This force on unit area of water is
hand as shown in figure 5.
pressure of air.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 139
 Atmospheric pressure
All objects on the surface of the earth are subject to constant atmospheric pressure.

A
Force of the atmosphere
Atmospheric pressure =
surface area of the earth

AN
Weight of the atmosphere
Atmospheric pressure =
surface area of the earth

Atmospheric pressure = (Mass of the atmosphere) × g

(surface area of the earth)

NG
(average density of the atmosphere) × (Volume of the atmosphere) × g
Atmospheric pressure =
(surface area of the earth)

ρ × surface area of the earth × Height of the atmosphere × g

Thus Atmospheric pressure =
surface area of the earth
LA
Atmospheric pressure = ρ ¯ (Height of the atmosphere) ¯ g
Atmospheric pressure = ρ h g
Po = ρ h g
Measuring atmospheric pressure At normal atmospheric pressure the
TE

We do not directly experience this mercury barometer shows a mercury

atmospheric pressure, but we can measure column of 76 cm height in the glass tube
it with barometers. The first barometer was above the surface of the mercury in the
invented by ‘Torricelli’ using mercury. (See bowl. This is known as 1 atmospheric
figure 7) pressure.
T

Glass Tube Why is the height of mercury column

nearly 76cm in the tube?
ER

24 cm

What is the state of the mercury

column in the tube? It is at rest, so net force
on it is zero. The weight of the column in
Stand the tube is equal to the force applied on it
SC

76 cm by the mercury in the bowl due to

atmospheric pressure. These two must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in
Mercury
direction.
Glass
Vessel

Fig-7: Barometer
140 Floating Bodies
 Weight of the mercury column (W) = mass of mercury (m) ¯ g
= (Volume) (density) g

A
= (cross sectional area of the tube) (height of
the column) ρ g
= Ahρg

AN
Let ‘Po’ be the atmospheric pressure.
Force on the column due to the atmospheric pressure = Po A
then,
A hρg = Po A

NG
Po = ρgh (of mercury)
ρ,g are constants. So the height of the mercury column depends on atmospheric pressure.
we can calculate the value of atmospheric pressure ‘Po’, by substituting the values of
height of the mercury column ‘h’ , density of the mercury ‘ρ’ and acceleration due to
gravity ‘g’.
LA
Height of the mercury column h = 76cm = 76 ¯ 10-2 m
Density of the mercury ρ= 13.6 gm/cc = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2
TE

Po = hρg
Po = (76 ¯ 10-2 m) ¯ (13.6 ¯ 103 kg/m3) ¯ (9.8 m/s2)
Po = 1.01 ¯ 105 kg.m/m2.s2
1 kg.m/s2 = 1 Newton
hence, Po = 1.01¯ 105 N/m2
T

This value is called one atmospheric pressure.

1 Atmosphere = 1.01¯ 105 N/m2
ER

(1 N/m2 is called Pascal)

Do you know?

The mass of air that would occupy a cylindrical tube with cross sectional area of
SC

1cm2 and that extends 30km upto the top of the atmosphere is about 1kg. The weight
applied on the surface area of 1cm2 on the earth is the atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure
Po = mg/A = 1 kg X 10 m/s2 /1 cm2 =10 N/cm2 or 105 N/m2 (105 Pascal)
This value is nearly equal to 1atm.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 141

 Think and discuss

A
What would happen if the Toricelli experiment is done on moon?
A stopper is inserted in a small hole of the glass tube of the mercury barometer

AN
below the top level of the mercury in it. What happens when you pull out the stopper
from the glass tube?
Why don’t we use water instead of mercury in Torricelli experiment? If we are ready
to do this experiment, what length of tube is needed?
Find the weight of the atmosphere around the earth (take the radius of earth as 6400km.)

NG
Pressure at a depth “h” in a liquid
Let us consider a container which contains a liquid of density “ρ”.
Consider a cylindrical column of height ‘h’ from the surface of the liquid of
cross sectional area “A”. See the figure 8.
LA
The volume of the liquid column
V = Ah
TE

Mass = Volume ¯ density

m = Ah ρ
Weight W = mg = Ah ρ g
What is the state of the motion of the liquid column?

Fig. 8
T

You know that from Newton’s law, the net force on it is zero, because it is at rest.
What are the forces acting on that water column?
ER

There are three forces acting, which are,

i) Weight (W), vertically down
ii) Force on top surface due to atmospheric pressure(Po A), acting vertically down
iii) Force on the bottom surface of the column due to static pressure of liquid (PA),
SC

acting vertically up.

From Newton's laws we get
PA = Po A + W
PA = P A + h ρ g A
o

142 Floating Bodies

 Where P is the pressure at the depth “ h” from the surface of the liquid and Po is the
atmospheric pressure.
PA = Po A + h ρ g A

A
P = P + h ρ g ....... (1)
o
This means that the pressure inside the liquid at a constant depth is constant.

AN
Pressure difference at different levels of depth in fluids
Let us consider a cylindrical column of liquid of height ‘h’ with cross sectional area
‘A’ and let ρ be the density of the liquid. See the figure 9.
What is the pressure P1 in the liquid at depth h1 ?

NG
From equation (1) we get,
P 1 = Po + h1 ρ g ....... (2)
Similarly, pressure P2 at depth h2 is given by
P2 = Po + h2 ρ g ....... (3)
From equations (3) and (2) we get
LA
P2 - P1 = h2 ρ g - h1 ρ g
P2 - P1= ρ g (h2 - h1)
from the figure h = h1 - h2 so
we have, P2 - P1 = hρ g Fig 9
TE

The pressure difference between two levels in that liquid = h ρ g.

Here density of the liquid ‘ ρ’ and ‘g’ are constants, so the pressure difference increases
with a increase in depth.
What happens if we replace this cylindrical liquid column with another object
which is made up of a material whose density is not equal to the density of liquid?
T

The pressure difference in the liquid P2 - P1 = h ρg (values of the liquid)

P2- P1 = h × m/V × g
ER

P2 - P1 = h × m/Ah × g
P2 - P1 = m/A × g
(P2 - P1)A = m × g (Weight of the displaced liquid)
Since F= P×A and W= mg
SC

we get F = W (values of the displaced liquid)

Here ‘F’ is the force applied on the object and ‘W’ is the weight of the displaced
liquid. So the force applied on the object by the liquid is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid.
The force applied on the object in upward direction is called “Buoyancy”. As per the
above equation this buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 143
 Measuring the force of buoyancy When the object floats on the surface
of water, it appears as if it has lost all its
We have seen that when an object is
weight, that is, the spring balance shows

A
immersed in water it experiences an
zero reading for floating bodies! For
upward force, the force of buoyancy. Can
objects that float on a liquid surface, the
we measure this upward force? Let's try.

AN
force of buoyancy balances the force of
Activity-8 gravity at the surface of the liquid.
Now let us repeat this activity and
Let us measure the force of measure the weight of the water displaced
buoyancy by the immersed stone.

NG
Suspend a stone from a spring balance. Activity-9
Note the reading of the spring balance. The
reading gives the weight of the stone. Take Measuring the weight of the
a beaker half filled with water. Now water displaced by the
immerse the stone in the water. Note the immersed stone
LA
reading of the spring balance. The reading Suspend a stone from a spring balance.
of the spring balance gives the 'weight' of (it is better to take a stone that is more
the immersed stone. Do you notice any than 300 gm) . Note the reading on the
change in the weight of the stone before spring balance. The reading gives the
TE

and after it is immersed in water? You weight of the stone. Take an overflow
may notice that the stone, when immersed, vessel with water and place a graduated
appears to lose some weight. beaker below the beak. (Figure 10).
Why does the stone lose weight when Now immerse the stone in the water.
it is immersed? Note the reading on the spring balance and
T

The immersed stone appears to lose

weight because the force of buoyancy,
ER

exerted on the stone by the water, in the

upward direction, serves to 'reduce' the
force of gravity. Thus the apparent loss
of weight must be equal to the force of
buoyancy acting on the immersed stone.
SC

We can measure the force of buoyancy

exerted by a liquid, by measuring the
apparent loss of weight of an object
immersed in that liquid. You will notice
that in every case an immersed object
appears to lose weight.
Fig. 10
144 Floating Bodies
 By how much does the weight of the
stone appear to be decreased?

A
(Apparent loss of weight of the stone)
What is the weight of the displaced
volume of water?

AN
Do you observe any connection
between the two?
The apparent loss of weight of the
immersed stone is equal to the weight of

NG
water displaced by the stone i.e., equal to
the force of buoyancy exerted by the
water.
Fig-11
This wonderful observation was made
measure the volume of water that by Archimedes, an ancient Greek scientist.
overflows into the graduated beaker.
LA
The reading of the spring balance gives let's look at the story that is associated
the weight of the immersed stone and the with this observation.
beaker reading gives the volume of water
TE

displaced by the stone (Figure 11).

Do you know?
Archimedes was a Greek scientist. At that time the
King had a crown made of gold. The King however, suspected
T

that the crown made was not of pure gold and asked
Archimedes to verify this. Archimedes had to solve the
ER

problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt

it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its
density. While taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the
water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect
could be used to determine the volume of the crown. The
SC

Archimedes (287-212 BC) submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal
to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the
volume of water displaced ,the density of the crown could be obtained. This density
would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added.
Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had
forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!" (meaning "I have found it!").

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 145

 Do you know?
How did Archimedes solve the King's problem? A simple arrangement

A
could be used to determine whether a golden crown is less dense than gold.
The crown and a bar of gold, of the same mass as the crown, are suspended
from the two arms of a simple balance as shown in the figure. The balance

AN
is lowered into a vessel of water. If the crown (left) is less dense than the
gold bar (right), it definitely posses a larger volume than that of pure gold
and will displace more water and thus experience a larger upward buoyant
force, causing the balance to tilt towards the gold bar. This would indicate that the crown was not
of pure gold!

NG
Note: This experiment holds good only when the crown doesn’t have any covered hollow
portion in it. Think why?

Archimedes' principle It is only possible when the liquid is

Archimedes' principle states that when enclosed. A scientist named Pascal made a
a body is immersed in a fluid it experiences principle about what happens when a
LA
an upward force of buoyancy equal to the external pressure is applied to a enclosed
weight of fluid displaced by the immersed liquid. Let us know about it.
portion of the body. Pascal's principle
Think and discuss Pascal's principle states that external
TE

pressure applied to a enclosed body of fluid

Why is it easier for you to float in salt is transmitted equally in all directions
water than in fresh water? throughout the fluid volume and the walls
Why is there no horizontal buoyant of the containing vessel.
force on a submerged body? Look at Figure 12. Here, we have an
T

Two solid blocks of identical size are enclosed volume of fluid in a U-shaped
submerged in water. One block is iron tube. The fluid is enclosed in the tube by
and the other is aluminium. Upon
ER

which is the buoyant force greater? V

A piece of iron when placed on a block F1 F2
V
of wood, this makes the wood to float P1 = F 1 / P2 = F2 / A2
lower in the water. If the iron piece is A1
suspended beneath the wood block,
SC

would it float at the same depth? Or

lower or higher?
Fluid
You know that pressure difference at
different levels inside the liquid causes
buoyancy.
Can we increase the pressure inside the Fig-12: Application of Pascal's principle
liquid? (bramah press)

146 Floating Bodies

 two leak-proof pistons in each arm. The downward force is applied on the left
ratio of cross-section areas of the right piston.
and left tubes is A2 : A1 and A2 >A1.

A
When a force F1 is applied to the left

AN
piston the excess pressure acting on the
fluid volume is F1/A1. F1
According to Pascal's principle, this F2
excess pressure is transmitted equally
throughout the fluid volume. That is, every

NG
unit area of the fluid 'experiences' this Fluid
excess pressure of F1/A1.
The excess pressure in the right-side
tube (of cross section area A2) is also
F1/A1 and since its area is A2, the upward Fig. 13: Hydraulic jack
force acting on the right piston is
LA This principle is used in the design and
F2 = A2 x F1 / A1 ; which is much larger in working of hydraulic jacks/lifts (Fig-13)
magnitude than F1. which you can see in automobile
Thus the application of Pascal's workshops. A small downward force
applied by the hand of the operator helps
TE

principle results in a large upward force

(thrust) on the right piston when a small to lift a heavy vehicle with ease!

Key words
Density, Relative density, Lactometer, Hydrometer / densitometer, atmospheric
T

pressure, barometer, buoyancy.

ER

What we have learnt

Objects having a density less than the liquid in which they are immersed, float on
the surface of the liquid.
SC

All objects experience a force of buoyancy when immersed in a fluid.

When an object is immersed in a fluid it appears to lose weight (because of
buoyancy).
The apparent loss of weight of an object, which is immersed in a liquid, is equal to
the weight of liquid displaced by the object. (Archimedes' principle)

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 When an object floats on the surface of a liquid, it displaces a weight of liquid
equal to its own weight.

A
The pressure exerted by a liquid increases with depth below the surface of liquid.
External pressure, applied to an enclosed volume of fluid, is transmitted equally in

AN
all directions throughout the fluid volume.(Pascal's principle)

Let us Improve our learning

Reflections on concepts

NG
1. Why do some objects float on the water? And some sink? (AS1)
2. Explain density and relative density and write their formulae. (AS1)
3. Explain buoyancy in your own words. (AS1)
4. How can you find the relative density of a liquid? (AS3)
5. Draw the diagram of a mercury barometer. (AS5)
LA
Application of concepts
1. A solid sphere has a radius of 2 cm and a mass of 0.05 kg. What is the relative
density of the sphere? (AS1) [Ans: 1.49 ]
2. A small bottle weighs 20 g when empty and 22 g when filled with water. When it is
TE

filled with oil it weighs 21.76 g. What is the density of oil ? (AS1) [ Ans: 0.88 g/
cm3]
3. An ice cube floats on the surface of water filled in glass tumbler (density of
ice = 0.9 g/cm3). Will the water level in the glass rise? When the ice melts completely
(AS1)
4. Find the pressure at a depth of 10m in water if the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.
T

[1Pa=1N/m2] [100kPa = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2 = 1 atm.] (AS1) [Ans: 198 kPa]
5. How can you appreciate the technology of making ships those float on water using
ER

the material which sink in water ? (AS6)

Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. Can you make iron to float in water? How? (AS3)
2. Where do you observe Archimedes principle in daily life? Give two examples.(AS7)
3. Do all objects that sink in water, sink in oil? Give reason. (AS1)
SC

ons
Multiple choice questi

1. Unit of relative density is [ ]

a) g/cm3 b) cm/g3 c) N/m2 d) No units

148 Floating Bodies

 2. The instrument used to measure the purity of milk is [ ]
a) Barometer b) Hygrometer c) Lactometer d) Speedometer

A
3. If P0 = Pressure, ñ = Density, h= height, and g = accelaration due to gravity then
the atmospheric pressure = [ ]
a) P0 = ñhg b) P = mgh c) P = vgh d) P = ½ mgh

AN
4. The first barometer with mercury was invented by [ ]
a) Pascal b) Archimedis c) Newton d) Torecelli
5. The hydrolic jockey which is used in automobile work shops, works on the
principle of [ ]

NG
a) Archimedes b) Pascal c) Torecelli d) Newton
6. The density of water at 250C is [ ]
a) 1g/cm3 b) 2g/cm3 c) 3g/cm3 d) 0.99g/cm3

Suggested Experiments
LA
1. Conduct an experiment to find the relative densities of different substances and
write a report.
2. Conduct an experiment to understand the phenomenon that a stone immersed in
water loses its weight. Write a report on it.
TE

Suggested Projects.
1. The oil brakes in vehicles works on the Pascal’s principle. Collect the information
on working of air brakes in vehicles and write a report.
2. Find the relative densities of different fruits and vegetables and write a report.
T
ER
SC

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 Chapter WHAT IS INSIDE
9

A
THE ATOM?

AN
NG
In previous chapters we have learnt that discovered that atoms were acquiring
all matter is made up of atoms. The first negative charge during process of
modern atomic theory was proposed by electrolysis.
John Dalton. According to Dalton, atoms
were indivisible. That means that they could Michael Faraday's discovery raised
LA
not be divided into further smaller parts. few questions about the indivisibility of
Atoms of an element are all identical to each atoms.
other and different from the atoms of other
How could a neutral atom become
elements. This naturally led scientists to ask
TE

electrically charged? It is a contradiction

the following questions :
to Dalton's theory that the atom was
• Why are the atoms of different indivisible. This led to an idea that there
must exist some tiny particles in atom
elements different?
which are responsible for atom to behave
T

• Is there anything inside atom that sometimes as a charged particle. As atom

make them to be same or different? is considered electrically neutral, it
ER

probably had some positive constituents

• Are atoms indivisible? and equal number of negative constituents
to maintain its electrical neutrality. This
Atoms are too small to be seen with gave scope to think about sub-atomic
naked eye. Scientists relied on indirect particles.
SC

evidence to prove the existence of atoms.

Since they could not see the atoms, they Sub-atomic Particles
could find its properties on the basis of
experiments. Very soon they realized that In science, theories change when
atoms could gain or lose charges. During scientists discover new facts or clues.
electrolysis experiments, Michael Faraday Sometimes, an idea or model must be

150 What is inside the atom?

 changed as new information is gathered. were always identical. He concluded that
Dalton proposed that atoms could not be same type of negatively charged particles
are present in the atoms of all the elements.

A
divided. Experimental evidence began to
show that atoms were divisible and are These particles had a very small mass and
made up of small particle(s). Since these are now called electrons.

AN
particles are smaller than the atom and are Electrons were the first sub-atomic
present inside an atom, they are called particles discovered and studied. An
sub - atomic particles. electron is represented as 'e-'. The mass of
an electron is considered to be negligible
Since atoms are neutral they should

NG
and its charge is considered as to be one
have at least two types of sub-atomic unit negative.
particles, one is positively charged and
another is negatively charged. In fact,
three different subatomic particles have Think and Discuss
been discovered, the third one is a particle
without any charge. Let us see how ideas
LA An atom is electrically neutral. But the
electrons present in it are negatively
about atoms have changed over the time
charged particles. If only negative
with the discovery of sub-atomic particles.
charges were present, the atom would
not be neutral.Then, why are atoms
TE

Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

considered to be neutral ?
You read about Faraday's electrolysis
experiments earlier. Other experiments on The atom must also contain some
gases were carried out in the latter part of positively charged particles so that the
19th century. Scientists studied the effects overall charge on it becomes neutral. This
T

of applying electric current to gases at low sub-atomic particle would have a charge
pressure by using discharge tubes. Other that balances the charge of the electrons.
ER

scientists did similar experiments in This sub-atomic particle was named as

vacuum tubes. In 1897, a British physicist proton in 1920. Its mass was
Joseph John Thomson demonstrated on the approximately 1836 times greater than that
basis of these experiments that negatively of the electron. It is represented as 'p+' and
charged particles are present in the atoms. its charge is taken as one unit positive.
SC

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered

Intially, Thomson thought that the
another sub-atomic particle which had no
negative particles would be different for
charge and had a mass nearly equal to that
each element. But after carrying out
of a proton. It was eventually named as
experiments with many different
neutron. In general, a neutron is
materials, he found that the negatively
represented as 'n0'.
charged particles from all the materials
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 From this discussion we can conclude shape keeping in view the nature of sub-
that atoms are made of small particles called atomic particles.

A
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each of • In how many ways can you arrange
these particles is described in terms of these sub-atomic particles in a
measurable properties, like mass and

AN
spherical shape?
charge. The proton and electron have equal,
Discuss with your friends and try to
but opposite, electrical charges. A neutron
prepare a model to show various ways of
has no electrical charge. The mass of the
arranging the sub-atomic particles in the
1
electron is about th that of a proton. atom.

NG
1836
To understand the structure of an atom,
scientists developed different atomic
models.
Thomson's Model of the Atom
LA This atomic model was proposed by
J.J. Thomson in 1898. This model was
Fig-1: neutron, proton and electron commonly called the plum pudding
• If an atom consist of sub-atomic model, referring to the way the fruit pieces
TE

particles like protons, neutrons and are distributed throughout a plum pudding.
electrons, how are they arranged in According to this model:
the atom? 1. An atom is considered to be a
Let us find out, the Structure of an Atom sphere of uniform positive charge
and electrons are embedded in it,
T

Activity-1 as shown in figure 2(a).

Sketch the structure of atom as
ER

you imagine.
You learnt about electron, proton and
neutron. Suppose you want to arrange
them in an atom, how do you do it?
SC

Many arrangements are possible. Think

that atom looks like a room. You can
arrange the particles in alternating rows.
Can you draw and show how it will look? Fig-2(a) Fig-2(b)

Imagine and draw another arrangement

of sub-atomic particles inside a spherical
152 What is inside the atom?
 2. The total mass of the atom is experiments using gold foil and alpha
considered to be uniformly particles. Alpha particles consist of two

A
distributed through out the atom. protons and two neutrons bound together.
3. The negative and the positive Since they do not have any electrons, they

AN
charges are supposed to balance out are positively charged with two units of
and the atom as a whole is charge. Let us see the experimental set up
electrically neutral.
and understand Rutherford's experiment.
A more familiar example that
represents Thomson's atomic model is

NG
alpha particle
watermelon (figure-2(b)). The positive source stream of alpha particles
charge is spread throughout the atom like g o l d
the red part of watermelon. The black foil

seeds distributed through out the red part

represents electrons. Thomson's model
LA
was modified by one of his students. What detector
is the reason for its modification? The
Fig-3
reason was that some of the experiments
TE

There is a source of the fast moving

carried out by Rutherford, a student of
alpha particles which have a considerable
Thomson, gave results, which were not
amount of energy. The stream of alpha
infavour of Thomson's model.
particles is directed towards a very thin
Do You Know? gold foil.
T

Besides winning the Nobel Prize in The gold foil was placed inside a
detector in such a way that the detector
ER

Physics himself, seven of Thomson's

research students and even his own son, would show a flash of light when an alpha
George, won Nobel Prizes in Physics. particle struck it (see fig-3). The entire
One of Thomson's students was Ernest arrangement was kept in a vaccum
Rutherford. chamber.
SC

Think of Thomson's model of the

Rutherford's alpha particles atom. When the alpha particle hit the foil,
scattering experiment Rutherford expected that they all would
be deflected by the positive charge spread
Ernest Rutherford was a scientist born
evenly throughout the gold atoms.
in New Zealand. In 1909, he did some
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 Rutherford's Observations Thomson's model was assumed that the
positive charge was uniformly distributed

A
throughout the atom and it was expected
that all the alpha particles would be
deflected. Since the alpha particles are very

AN
big, the deflection was expected through
small angles. But Rutherford found that
most of the particles passed through the
gold foil like stones thrown to a fence of

NG
big gaps as mentioned in the above
example. This led Rutherford to think about
new atomic model.
Rutherford concluded from the alpha
particles scattering experiment that :
Fig-4
LA (i) Most of the space inside the atom
Scattering of alpha particles is empty because most of the alpha
But, it was found that most of the alpha particles passed through the gold
particles passed straight through the atoms foil as shown in figure 4.
TE

without any deflection, some particles deflected (ii) A very small fraction of alpha-
in small angles.Only very few particles were particles that were deflected right
deflected through large angles and a very very back indicated that they had met a
small number of particles were reflected right very large positive charge and mass
back as shown in figure 4. which repelled the charge on the
T

alpha particle. So, all the positive

Do You Know? charge must be concentrated in a
ER

On average, for every 20000 alpha very small space within the atom.
particles that were fired at the gold foil On the basis of his experiment,
during Rutherford's famous experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model
only one was reflected back. of an atom, which had the following
Let us try to understand the results of features:
SC

Rutherford's experiments. i) All the positively charged particles

Suppose you throw a small stone at a in an atom formed a small dense
solid wall in a horizontal direction. It will centre, called the nucleus of the
not go through. But if you throw stones atom. The electrons were not a part
through a fence of considerably big gaps, of nucleus.
lots of them would pass through the gaps.
154 What is inside the atom?
 ii) He also proposed that the negatively
charged electrons revolve around the

A
nucleus in well-defined orbits.
Rutherford's model is sometimes
referred to as the planetary model

AN
because the motion of the electrons
around the nucleus resembles the
motion of the planets around the Sun.
iii) The size of the nucleus is very small

NG
as compared to the size of the atom.
Try to sketch Rutherford's model of the
atom.

Think and discuss LA

Compare Rutherford and Thomson's Fig-5
models of the atom on the following
radiate energy continuously. Thus, the
basis:
revolving electron would lose energy
• Where is the positive charge
TE

continuously and get directed towards the

placed?
positively charged nucleus as shown in fig-
• How are the electrons placed?
5 and eventually crash into the nucleus.
• Are they stationary inside the atom
or moving? If this is true, the atoms would become
highly unstable and the matter would not
T

exist in the form that we see it now. But

Limitations of Rutherford's we know that atoms are stable.
ER

atomic model So we need to ask: Why is atom stable?

• Did you observe any defect with
• Can you suggest any other arrange-
Rutherford's model of the atom?
ment of sub-atomic particles in the
Think of an atom like hydrogen with
atom which prevents the revolving
one electron and one proton. The electron
SC

electron to fall into the nucleus?

is attracted by the proton in the nucleus.
Even in circular motion around the nucleus, In 1913, a Danish scientist Neils Bohr
the electron should has an acceleration. suggested an atomic model to explain
structure of atom and to overcome
An accelerated charged particle
Rutherford's limitations.
moving in a circular path would always

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 3. The electron orbits or shells are
represented by the letters K, L, M,

A
N… or the numbers, n=1, 2, 3, 4,
….. as shown in the figure 6.
• Do you think that Bohr's model is

AN
the final model of the atom?
Niels Bohr could successfully explain
the properties of a hydrogen atom like the
atomic spectra emitted by hydrogen atom

NG
employing this model but this model could
Fig-6: Energy levels of an atom not predict the spectra of atoms or ions
with more than one electron.
Bohr's Model of the Atom
You must have noticed that none of
In order to overcome the limitations the atomic models that have been studied
LA
of Rutherford's model, in 1913, Niels Bohr so far, have mentioned about neutrons.
put forward a thought that electrons can This is because neutron was discovered
be found only in certain energy levels, or later in 1932. Until Rutherford's and
regions, around the nucleus. Electrons Bohr's time the neutron had not been
TE

must gain energy to move to a higher discovered. Neutron was discovered

energy level or they must lose energy to nearly two decades later. Except hydrogen
move to a lower level. atom, the atoms of all other elements
Think of books arranged in a bookshelf. contain neutrons in their nuclei.
They can be placed on a higher shelf or The model of the atom, as we know it
T

lower shelf but never between shelves. today, is the contribution of many
Restricting the path of electron inside scientists. Let us observe the history of
ER

the atom, Neils Bohr made the following Atom in chart.

postulates about the model of an atom: We studied that the mass of neutrons
1. The electrons revolves round the and proton is almost equal and is about
nucleus in certain, discrete circular 1836 times heavier than the mass of the
orbits of the atom. These orbits or
SC

electron. So the mass of the entire atom is

shells are called energy levels. due to protons and neutrons. Later, it was
2. While revolving in these discrete discovered that most of the mass was
orbits the electrons do not radiate concentrated inside the nucleus and
energy and this is the reason why therefore the neutrons are also present
electrons do not fall into the inside the nucleus.
nucleus.
156 What is inside the atom?
 History of Atom

A
Metter is composed with 442 B.C.

AN
Indivisible elements

Democritus
1803 A.D. First Atomic Theory

NG
John Dalton

1886 A.D.
Discovery of Cannel Rays LA
Gold stain
1898 A.D. Discovery of electron in
cathode rays experiment
TE

J.J.Thomson

Discovery of Nucleus 1909 A.D.

T

Earnest
Electrons in Stationary
Rutherford
1913 A.D. orbitals – Introduction
ER

of energy levels

Neils Bohr
SC

1913 A.D.
Atomic Number

Henry
Mosley 1931 A.D. Discovery of Neutron

James Chadwick
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 Distribution of electrons in present in a shell is given by the formula
different orbits (Shells) 2n2, where 'n' is the shell number or energy
level index, which takes values 1, 2, 3….

A
According to atomic models, electrons
The maximum number of electrons that
move around the nucleus of atom in various
can be accommodated in each shell is
shells. Electrons in different shells have

AN
shown in the table 1.
different energies. Each shell is represented
by a number 'n' which is known as a shell Table - 1
number or energy level index.
Shell number (n) The maximum number
The shell closest to the nucleus (and
of electrons in a shell(2n2)

NG
has the lowest energy) is called the K-
K-shell (1) 2 (1)2 = 2
shell (n = 1), the shell farther away (and
has higher energy than K-shell) is called L-shell (2) 2 (2)2 = 8
the L-shell (n = 2), etc. M-shell (3) 2 (3)2 =18
• How many electrons can be N-shell (4) 2 (4)2 =32
accommodated in each shell of an
atom?
LA
Rule 2: Each energy level or electron shell
• Can a particular shell has just one is further divided into sub shells. The
electron? maximum number of electrons that can be
• What is the criteria to decide accommodated in each sub shell is 8.
TE

number of electrons in a shell? Rule 3: Electrons cannot be filled in a

After explaining the structure of atom given shell unless the inner shells are
with different atomic models, scientists completely filled i.e., shells are filled in
started describing the distribution of stepwise manner.
electrons in different energy levels or shells Let us take the example of oxygen where
T

of an atom. Bohr and Bury proposed the Z=8. Since number of electrons is equal
following rules for electron distribution. to number of protons, it has eight
ER

Rule 1: The maximum number of electrons electrons.

SC

Fig-7: Arrangement of electrons for the first eighteen elements

158 What is inside the atom?
 Step1: The K shell can accomdates as the valence electrons. Therefore, the
maximum 2 electrons so the first 2 number of electrons present in outermost
electrons fill the shell of n = 1. orbit of an atom is called its valency.

A
Step 2 : The other 6 electrons will fill the Valency of an atom explains the
higher shell n = 2 or the L shell. combining capacity of the element with

AN
other elements in the above example the
Step 3: Then, the electronic structure for valency of carbon atom is 4.
oxygen atom is 2, 6.
Let us consider some more examples,
Arrangement of electrons for the if you consider the atoms like hydrogen/
first eighteen elements is shown lithium/sodium, it contains one electron

NG
schematically in figure 7. in its outermost shell. Therefore valency
of hydrogen, lithium or sodium is one.Can
Valency
you tell, valencies of magnesium and
We have learnt arrangement of the
aluminium? They are two and three,
electrons in an atom in different shells/
respectively, because magnesium has two
orbits.
LA electrons in its outermost shell and
aluminium has three electrons in its
outermost shell.
If the number of electrons in the outer
shell of an atom is nearly close to its full
TE

capacity, then valency is determined in a

different way. For example, the fluorine
atom contains 7 electrons in outermost
shell, and its valency could be 7. But it is
easier for fluorine to gain one electron than
T

Fig-8 to lose seven electrons for obtaining 8

electrons in its outer most shell. Hence,
ER

Let us consider a carbon atom. The its valency is determined by subtracting

atomic number of carbon atom is 6. Hence seven electrons from eight and which
it possesses 6 electrons, which surround gives a valency of '1', for fluorine. In a
its nucleus, as shown in the figure 8. similar manner we can calculate the
valency of oxygen.
According to Bohr -Bury rule, there
SC

should be two electrons in the innermost

• What is the valency of oxygen that
you can calculate by the method
shell (n=1). Out of 6 electrons of carbon
discussed above?
two electrons occupy first shell (n=1). The
remaining four electrons occupy the outer Observe the following Table . Valency of
most shell n=2. The electrons present in the first eighteen elements is given in the
the outermost shell of an atom are known last column of Table 2.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 159

 Table 2
Name of element Symbol Atomic Number of Number of Number of Distribution of electrons Valency
number Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N

A
Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1

AN
Berilium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
Boran B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2

NG
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
Phosphorus*
Sulphur*
P
S
15
16
LA15
16
16
16
15
16
2
2
8
8
5
6
-
-
5,3
2,6
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 - 0

* Multiple valency elements

TE

Think and discuss distribution of electrons in different shells

concluded that the special arrangements
• Phosphorus and sulphur show of electrons in He, Ne and Ar make them
stable or un reactive with other elements.
multiple valency. See table 2. Why
They do not react with other elements to
T

some elements show multiple form compounds. In other words we can

Valency? Discuss with your say that these gases are chemically inactive
ER

friends and teachers. and also known as inert or noble gases.

What is the importance of K L M N

valency? He 2
Ne 2 8
See electron distribution in helium in
SC

Ar 2 8 8
figure 7 and table '2'. You will notice that
the shell of helium has two electrons in
outer most shell and the shell is filled to Atoms of all the noble gases except
its full capacity. Neon and Argon have 8 those of helium have 8 electrons' in their
electrons in their outer most shells. These outer most shell. Thus an atom with eight
three gases are very stable and have low electrons or an octet in their outer most
reactivity. Scientists, studying the
160 What is inside the atom?
 shell, is chemically stable, or does not Atomic mass number
combine with other atoms. An atom with • Should we consider the number of

A
two electrons in its outer most shell, also neutrons as a characteristic of an
is more stable when there is only one shell atom?
present in it.

AN
The mass of an atom which is a
An outermost-shell which has eight characteristic of an atom depends on the
electrons is said to possess an octet. Atoms number of neutrons and protons its nucleus
of an element thus react with other atoms, contains. Number of protons in a nucleus
so as to achieve an octet in their outermost is denoted by Z (atomic number) and

NG
shell. From the above discussion, we can number of neutrons of a nucleus is
conclude that when an element reacts to denoted by N.
form compounds their atoms must combine The number of nucleons, is the total
in such way that they can attain the stable number of protons and neutrons in an
electron distribution of noble gases. atom. It is called the atomic mass number
An atom can achieve an octet by two
LA and is denoted by the letter A.
ways. 1) by transfer of electrons 2) by sharing Atomic mass number = atomic number
of electrons. Both the processes result in the + neutron number
formation of bonds between atoms. A=Z+N
• Mass number is a nearest
TE

Let us go back to the question of why

numerical to the mass of an
do atoms of different elements are individual atom.
different? How can you distinguish • Mass number is the number of
between the atoms of one element from protons plus the number of
the atoms of other element? An element neutrons.
T

can be recognised by certain

characteristics of its atoms. Writing symbols of atoms
ER

Atomic number In standard notation to represent an

We know that, the nucleus is at the atom, the atomic number, mass number
centre of the atom and contains the protons and symbol of the element are written as:
and neutrons. Elements differ from one
atomic mass number
another according to the number of
SC

number of protons +
protons in their atomic 'nuclei'. This value no.of neutrons 19
F
↓ ↓

is called the element's atomic number and 9

number of protons
is denoted by the letter Z.
Atomic number is the number of
atomic number
protons in the nucleus of an atom Read as F - 9-19

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 161

 F is the symbol of the element different number of neutrons are called
fluorine, its atomic number is written at isotopes. Deuterium and tritium are
bottom left. It tells us that this atom has 9 isotopes of hydrogen. The chemical

A
protons. The mass number is written at top properties of isotopes are similar. But their
left. It tells us that the fluorine has 19 physical properties are different.

AN
nucleons (protons + neutrons). For Example: Carbon has three stable
Therefore the number of neutrons
isotopes. Isotopes can also be represented
present in fluorine is equal to 19 - 9 = 10
by their element name followed by the
neutrons. (N = A - Z).
mass number. See following notations.
Isotopes

NG
It must be clear to you that every Carbon-12, carbon-13, & carbon-14
element has a unique atomic number, or 12 13 14
number of protons.
6
C 6
C 6
C
What about mass number? Does every
element has a unique mass number, which Did You Know?
LA
is different from the mass number of other Two elements share the record for
elements? the highest number of known
No, the mass number of an element is isotopes. Both xenon and cesium
not unique because there are more than have 36 isotopes.
TE

one type of atoms of the same element

present in nature in certain cases. Observe How do we determine the atomic mass
the following figure of different Hydrogen of an element with isotopes?
atoms. What do you understand?
In nature, most elements occur as a
mixture of two or more isotopes, each
T

isotope has a certain percentage of natural

occurrence.
ER

Protium (11H) Deuterium (12H) Tritium (13H)

Hydrogen Fig-9 For example, consider the isotopes of
An atom of hydrogen has one nucleon Chlorine. It occurs in nature in two
in its nucleus, an atom of deuterium has isotopic forms, with masses 35 units and
two neucleons in its nucleus, and tritium 37 units. The isotope with mass 35 is
SC

has three. Since atoms of hydrogen, present in 75% and isotope with mass 37
deuterium and tritium have only one is present in 25% in nature
proton in their nuclei, they only have one
electron. But number of neutrons present The atomic mass of an element is
in hydrogen atom is not same in all cases. taken as an average mass of all the
The atoms of the same element which naturally occurring atoms of the sample
have the same number of protons but have element.
162 What is inside the atom?
 The average atomic mass of chlorine are also commonly used in the laboratory
atom, on the basis of above data, will be to investigate the steps of a chemical

A
75 + 37 x 25 reaction.
(35 x 100 100
)
• The isotope of uranium is used as
a fuel in nuclear reactors.

AN
= ( 105
4 +
37
4) = 142 35.5u
4= • The isotope of iodine is used in the
Applications of isotopes treatment of goitre (thyroid).

Some isotopes are used for solving • The isotope of cobalt is used in the
chemical and medical mysteries. Isotopes treatment of cancer.

NG
Key words
Atom, sub-atomic particle, electron, proton, neutron, nucleus, atomic number
(Z), Atomic mass number (A), valency, isotopes
LA
What we have learnt
TE

• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the identity of the element.
• John Dalton's atomic theory described elements in terms of atoms, which he believed
to be small, indivisible particles that make up all matter. He stated that all the
atoms of the same element are identical in mass and size, but atoms of different
elements are different.
T

• The three sub-atomic particles of an atom are: (i) electron, (ii) proton (iii) neutron.
• Electron is a negatively charged particle of the atom.
ER

• Proton, a positively charged particle is the part of atomic nucleus.

• Neutron, an uncharged particle is the part of atomic nucleus.
• Credit for the discovery of electron and neutron goes to J.J. Thomson and J.
Chadwick respectively.
• Thomson determined that atoms contain negatively charged particles, which are
SC

now called electrons. He developed a model of the atom that shows electrons
embedded throughout the mass of positively charged material.
• Rutherford's alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the discovery of the atomic
nucleus.
• Ernest Rutherford's model of the atom has large empty space, with a small, dense,
positively charged nucleus in the centre.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 163
 • Neils Bohr modified Rutherford's model of the atom by stating that electrons move
in specific energy levels around the nucleus.
•

A
The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons in the
nucleus of its atom.
• The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of nucleons in its nucleus.

AN
• Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
• An atom with eight electrons or an octet in their outer most shell is chemically
stable, or does not combine with other atoms.
• Isotopes are atoms which have the same number of protons, but a different number

NG
of neutrons

Let us Improve our learning

Reflections on concepts
1. What are the three subatomic particles? (AS1)
LA
2. What were the three major observations Rutherford made in the gold foil experiment?
(AS1)
3. Give the main postulates of Bohr’s model of an atom. (AS1)
4. State the valencies of magnesium and sodium (AS1)
TE

Application of concepts
1. Compare the sub-atomic particles electron, proton and neutron.(AS1)
2. What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom?(AS1)
3. Define valency by taking examples of nitrogen and boron.(AS1)
4. What is the main difference among the isotopes of the same element?(AS1)
T

5. If Z = 5, what would be the valency of the element? (AS2)

6. Fill in the missing information in the following table.(AS4)
ER

Name Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of

Number (Z) Number (A) Neutrons Electrons
Oxygen 16
8
O 8 16 8 8
7 7
SC

34
16
S
Beryllium 9
12 24
12 25

7. Sketch Rutherford’s atomic model. Why Rutherford’s model of the atom is called the
planetary model?(AS5)
164 What is inside the atom?
 Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. Cl - has completely filled K, L & M shells. Explain it based on Bhor-Bury theory. (AS1)
2. Explain the efforts made by scientists to explain the structure of atom by developing

A
various atomic models?(AS6)

ons
Multiple choice questi

AN
1. Electron was invented by [ ]
a) Thomson b) Chadwick c) Goldstein d) Stoney

NG
2. Proton was invented by [ ]
b) Thomson b) Chadwick c) Goldstein d) Stoney
3. Neutron was invented by [ ]
a) Thomson b) Chadwick c) Goldstein d) Stoney
4. α - particles are made up of the following primary particles [ ]
LA
a) 2 protons and 2 neutrons b) 2 Protons and 2 Electrons
c) 2 Neutrons and 2 Positrons d) 2 Protons and 2 Neutrinos
5. Which model of atom is known as Planetary model [ ]
TE

a) Thomson’s model b) Rutherford’s model

c) Bohr’s model d) Modern atomic model
6. Valency of Aluminium is [ ]
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
7. The gas which is stable without octet configuration is [ ]
T

a) Neon b) Argon c) Radon d) Helium

8. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known
ER

as its [ ]
a) Mass number b) Atomic number c) Valency d) Ion number
9. Deuterium and Tritium are the Isotopes of — [ ]
a) Nitrogen b) Oxygen c) Hydrogen d) Helium
SC

10. The electronic configuration of Sodium is [ ]

a) 2,8 b) 8,2,1 c) 2,1,8 d) 2,8,1

Suggested Projects
1. Write a report on the history of unveiling the structure of atom from John Dalton to
Neils Bohr.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 165

 Chapter
WORK AND ENERGY
10

A
AN
NG
In previous few chapters you have • What do you need to do these works?
learnt about various ways of describing Both human beings and machines need
the motion of objects and causes of motion. energy to do work. Generally this energy
In performing our day - to - day activities is derived by human beings from food they
LA
we use various words like work, energy, and eat and for machines through the electricity
power which are closely related to each supplied to them.
other. Sometimes we use these words
In all the examples mentioned above,
without paying much attention. In this
we notice that a person or a machine doing
TE

chapter you will examine these concepts

work spends some energy to do work. For
more carefully.
example to lift your school bag you spend
People carry out various tasks in daily
some energy. Similarly an electric fan uses
life. For example, lifting of weights,
some electric energy for blowing air.
carrying of weights, sweeping / cleaning of
T

house, cooking of food and watering of • Where does the energy spent go
plants in the garden etc are some of the ultimately?
ER

day-to-day activities. • Is there any transfer of energy while

Similarly you might have also work is being done?
observed that people employ machines
in their homes to carry out different tasks • Can we do any work without transfer
like blowing of air by fan, pumping of water of energy?
SC

by electric motor, heating of water by Think about various works you

electric heater, etc. observed and try to identify the force
Washing machines and vacuum employed for doing the work and the object
cleaners are used for cleaning of clothes on which the work was done. Discuss with
and cleaning the house respectively. your friends about possibility of energy
• How are these works being done? transfer during work.
166 Work and Energy
 Work staircase and reach the second floor
of a building. You spend some energy
In our daily life, we use the term ‘work’

A
to do this. In our common
in various situations. The word 'work' takes
understanding you are not doing any
on different meanings depending on the
work but as per science you have done

AN
situation. For example the statements like
a lot of work to reach the second floor
‘ I am working in a factory’ , ‘The Ramayana
of the building.
is a great work of Valmiki’ ‘The machine
is in working condition’ ‘There are large In our daily life we consider any useful
number of worked out problems in this physical or mental labour as ‘work’

NG
book’ ‘ Let us work out a plan for next year’ For example we consider cooking of
etc have different meanings. There is a food, washing of clothes, sweeping, doing
difference between the way we use the term home work, reading, writing etc. as works.
‘work’ in our day-to-day life and the way But according to scientific definition of
we use it in Science. work all of these activities are not
LA considered as work, only a few of them are
Let us examine these situations.
considered as work.
i) Priyanka is preparing for
• What is work?
examinations. She spends lot of time
• Why is there difference between
in studies. She reads books, draws
TE

general view of work and scientific

diagrams, organizes her thoughts,
view of work?
collects question papers, attends
special classes, discusses problems Scientific meaning of the work
with her friends and performs To understand the way we view work
experiments, etc. and scientific meaning of work let us
T

Solution -1
In our common view ‘she is working observe the following examples.
hard'. But if we go by scientific Example-1
ER

definition of work, the above mentioned

activities are not considered as work.
ii) Rangaiah is working hard to push the
huge rock. Let us say the rock does not
SC

move despite all efforts by him. He

gets completely exhausted and tired.
According to our common view he Fig - 1
worked hard but as per science he has A man lifts cement bags from the
not done any work on the rock. ground and keeps them one by one in a
iii) Let us assume you climb up the lorry.

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 Solution - 2 • Are all the people mentioned in the
above examples doing work?

A
• How do you define work?
To know the meaning of work

AN
according to science analyse the above
examples as per the table in the following
activity 1.

Activity-1

NG
Fig - 2

A girl is pulling a toy car on the ground

Let us understand the meaning of
and the trolley moves a distance. work as per science
Solution - 3 Copy the table-1 given in the page 171
in your note book.
LA
A boy is trying to push a huge rock lying
in a play ground. Discuss with your friends whether
work is being done in each of the examples
mentioned above. What could be your
TE

reason to say that work has been done?

Write your reasons in the table-1.
After careful comparison of all the
above mentioned examples, you can
understand that in each case the person
Fig - 3
T

involved in action/ doing work, spends some

Solution - 4 energy to perform the actions mentioned
ER

A porter is waiting on the platform of in the examples. In some cases there is a

a railway station with luggage on his head. change in the position of the object on
which work has been done, For instance in
example -1 the position of the bag is
changed from ground to the height of the
SC

lorry, and similarly the toycar moved

through a distance by changing its position.
In some other cases though the person
is doing the work and spends energy, there
is no change in the position of the object
Fig - 4 on which work has been done. Like in
168 Work and Energy
 Table - 1
Whether work Who is doing Object on which Reason to say The changes you

A
Situation has been the work? work has that work notice in objects
done or not ? (Name the
been done? has been done on which work
(Yes/No) force) has been done.

AN
The person The cement
Man, is lifting the bag bag moved
1 Cement bag from ground to from the
Yes Muscular
lorry using ground to the
force height of the
muscular force

NG
lorry
2

3 LA
4

example -3, the boy who is trying to push 1. A force should act on the object.
the huge rock by applying force on it
2. The object must be displaced or
spends lot of energy though there is no
TE

there must be change in the position of the

change in the position of the rock. Similarly
object.
in example - 4, the porter standing on the
Let us define the term ‘work’
railway platform with luggage on his head
spends a lot of energy against the Definition of work in science
gravitational force acting on the luggage
T

though there is no change in the position

of luggage.
ER

In our common perception of work all

the forces acting on bodies applied by
persons mentioned in examples 1 to 4 are
doing work but according to science only
SC

the forces applied by persons mentioned

in examples 1 and 2 are doing the work.
According to the scientific concept of
the work, two conditions need to be Fig - 5
satisfied in order to say that work has been Let us consider the following
done. example:

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 169

 Suppose that a constant force (F) acts
Think and discuss
on an object and object is moved through a

A
distance (s) along the direction of the force • A wooden chair is dragged on the level
(F) as shown in figure 5. floor and brought to the same place. Let

AN
In science, we define work to be equal the distance covered be 's' and frictional
to the product of the force (F) and the force acted on the chair by the floor be
displacement (s) moved along the direction 'f' . What is the work done by the
of the force. frictional force ?

NG
Work done = Force x Displacement. Example 1
W = FS A boy pushes a book kept on a table by
applying a force of 4.5 N. Find the work
This formula for work is used in
done by the force if the book is displaced
only translatory motion of the object.
through 30 cm along the direction of push.
Work has only magnitude but no
LA Solution
direction. So work is a scalar. Force applied on the book (F) = 4.5 N
We measure force (F) in newtons Displacement (s) = 30 cm = (30/100) m
(N) and distance (S) in meters (m). In = 0.3m
TE

equation W=FS, if F=1 and S=1 then the Work done, W = FS

work done by the force will be ‘1 N-m’. = 4.5 x 0.3
Hence the unit of work is ‘newton-meter’ = 1.35 J
(N-m) or ‘joule’ (j)
Example 2
T

Thus 1 joule (j) is the amount of work Calculate the work done by a student in
done on an object when a force of 1 newton lifting a 0.5 kg book from the ground and
keeping it on a shelf of 1.5 m height.
ER

(1N) displaces it by 1m along the line of

action of the force. (g=9.8 m/s2)
Solution
Look at the equation W = FS
The mass of the book = 0.5 kg
• What would be the work done when
The force of gravity acting on the book is
SC

the force on the object is zero?

equal to ‘mg’
• What would be the work done when That is mg = 0.5 x 9.8
the displacement of the object is zero? = 4.9 N
• Can you give some examples, where The student has to apply a force equal
the displacement of the object is zero? to that of force of gravity acting on the
book in order to lift it.
170 Work and Energy
 Thus force applied by the student on the If the force acting on an object and
book, F = 4.9 N displacement are in opposite directions

A
Displacement in the direction of force, then the work done by the force is taken as
S = 1.5m negative.
W = – FS

AN
Work done, W = FS
= 4.9 x 1.5 If work has positive value, the body
on which the work has been done would
=7.35 J
gain energy.
In the situation mentioned in figure 5
If work has negative value, the body on

NG
the displacement of the object is in the
direction of the force. But there are certain which the work has been done loses energy
cases where the displacement of the object
Think and discuss
may be in a direction opposite to the force
acting on it. Lift an object up from the ground.
For example if a ball
LA Work done by the force exerted by you
is thrown up (Fig – 6), the on the object moves it in upward
motion is in upward direction. Thus the force applied is in the
direction, where as the
Direction of motion

direction of displacement. However

force due to earth’s
TE

there exists a force of gravitation on the

gravity is in downward
object at the same time
direction.
• What happens to the • Which one of these forces is doing
speed of the ball positive work?
while it moves up? • Which one is doing negative work?
T

• What is the speed at

its maximum height? • Give reasons.
ER

Fig - 6: Positions of ball at various

Example - 3
instants while moving up
A box is pushed through a distance of
• What happens to the speed of the ball
4m across a floor offering 100N
during its downward motion?
Similarly the ball moving on plain resistance. How much work is done by
the resisting force?
SC

ground (Fig-7) will get stopped after some

time due to frictional force acting on it in Solution
opposite direction. The force of friction acting on the box,
F = 100N
Direction of motion
The displacement of the box, S = 4m
The force and displacement are in
Fig - 7

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 171

 opposite directions. Hence work done on
the box is negative.

A
That is, W = – FS
= – 100 x 4

AN
= – 400 J
Example 4
A ball of mass 0.5 kg thrown upwards Fig - 8
reaches a maximum height of 5m. Case -2

NG
Calculate the work done by the force of A toy car is placed on floor without
gravity during this vertical displacement winding the key attached to it and the same
considering the value of g = 10m/s2. toy car placed on the floor after winding
Solution the key attached to it.
Force of gravity acting on the ball,
F = mg = 0.5 x 10 = 5N
LA
Displacement of the ball, S = 5m
The force and displacement are in
opposite directions. Hence work done by
TE

the force of gravity on the ball is negative.

W=–FS Fig - 9 : A Toy Car
=–5x5 • What changes do you notice? Why?
= – 25 J In case -1 you might have noticed that
the metal ball does no work when it rests
Idea of Energy on the surface of the plate but is able to do
T

The word Energy is very often used some work when it is raised to a height.
in daily life in various occasions like ‘ Similarly in case -2 you may notice
ER

He is more energetic’ I am so tired and that the toy is at rest before winding the
lost my energy’, ‘Today I am feeling more key but the same toy moved, when the
energetic than yesterday’ etc. key attached to it is wound up. Here the
• What is energy? work done is due to energy.
• How can we decide that an object
Children may not be able to lift 25 kg
SC

possess energy or not?

rice bag but elders can do that.
Let us consider the following cases
Case -1 • What could be the reason?
A metal ball kept in a ceramic plate is You may observe many such
raised to a certain height from the plate and situations where the capacity to do work
allowed to fall on it. changes from person to person.
• What will happen to the plate? Why? Similarly the capacity of doing work

172 Work and Energy

 by an object on another object depends on
position and state of the object which is
doing work. Thus an object acquires energy

A
through different means and is able to do
work.

AN
Energy transfer and the work
We learned in previous paragraphs,
that we need energy to do any work and a
person doing work spends some energy
while doing the work i.e. the person doing Fig - 10

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the work loses some energy. Now compress the spring with your
• Where does this energy go? palm and release it after few seconds.
• Is there any energy transfer between the Observe the changes in its position, state
object doing the work and the object and size after compressing the spring and
on which work has been done? releasing it. You will notice that when
LA
• Can any force do work without energy
spring is being compressed there is a
change in its size. When it is released it
transfer? gains some energy and may even jump from
In science, we consider work has been the table. The work done by your palm on
done only when there is a change in the the spring increases its energy and makes
TE

position of the object. The object is able it to jump away from the table.
to change its position due to the energy Thus we can conclude that the object
transferred to it by the force doing the which does work loses energy and the
work. Thus whenever work is done on an object on which work has been done gains
object its energy either increases or energy. If negative work is done on an
decreases. object, its energy decreases. For example,
T

when a ball moves on the ground the force

For example if we push a wooden block
of friction does negative work on the ball
which is kept on a table, it starts moving
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(because it acts in a direction opposite to

due to the work done on it and as a result it
the motion of the ball). This negative work
gains kinetic energy. done on the ball decreases its kinetic
energy and makes it comes to rest after
Activity-2 some time.
SC

Understanding the increase and Think and discuss

decrease in energy of an object
Take a hard spring and keep it on the • What would happen if nature does
table as shown in the figure 10. not allow the transfer of energy?
Disscuss with few examples.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 173

 Kinetic energy
Activity-3

A
Understanding the energy of moving objects

AN
NG
Fig – 11 (a) Fig - 11 (b)

Consider a metal ball and a hollow Repeat this activity by pushing the
plastic block which are kept on a table side metal ball with more force so as to
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by side as shown in the figure 11 (a). Now increase its speed and observe the change
suppose that the ball is separated from the in position of the plastic block on the table.
block and brought to one end of the table You may notice that the increase in the
as shown in the figure 11 (b) and pushed to speed of the ball increases its capacity of
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roll on the table with speed ‘v’. doing work on the block.
• What will happen to block? Thus we can conclude that a moving
object can do work. An object moving
• What changes do you notice in the
faster can do more work than an identical
position and state of the ball and block
object moving relatively slow.
when the ball is allowed to roll on the
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table? The energy possessed by an object due

to its motion is called kinetic energy.
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You may notice that when the ball is

The Kinetic energy of an object
pushed , it starts moving with speed of ‘v’
increases with its speed.
and hits the plastic block and displaces it
from point A to B as shown in figure 11 We come across many situations in our
(b). Thus a moving ball is more energetic daily life where objects with kinetic energy
SC

than the ball at rest because the moving ball do work on other objects. For example:
is able to do the work on plastic block to • When a fast moving cricket ball hits
push it forward, whereas the same ball the wickets, it makes the wickets to
cannot do any work when it is at rest. In tumble but if the swinging bat in the
other words, a body possess more energy hands of a batsman hits the ball it
when it is moving than when it is at rest. reaches the boundary.

174 Work and Energy

 • A fast moving bullet pierces the target. The work done on the object by the net force
• Blowing wind moves the blades of the W = Fnet S = F S — (1)

A
wind mill. Let the work done on the object cause
Objects like a falling coconut, a a change in its velocity from ‘u’ to ‘v’ and

AN
speeding car, a rolling stone, a flying the acceleration produced be ‘a’.
aircraft, flowing water and running athlete In the chapter motion we studied about
etc, also possess kinetic energy. equations of uniform accelerated motion.
• How can we find out as to how much The relation between initial velocity ‘u’,
energy is possessed by a moving body? final velocity ‘v’, acceleration ‘a’ and

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displacement ‘s’ is given by
Mathematical expression for kinetic
energy (v 2 - u 2 )
v u = 2 a s or s =
2_ 2
——(2)
2a
We know that the kinetic energy of a
We know by Newton’s second law of
body at rest is zero, but the kinetic energy
LA
of a body moving with certain velocity is
motion
equal to the work done on it to make it Fnet= ma ————— (3)
acquire that velocity from rest. From equations (1), (2) and (3)
(v 2 - u 2 )
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W = ma x
2a
W = ½ m (v 2_ u2)
This is called work - energy theorem.
As we have assumed that object is at
rest, its initial velocity u = o, then
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W = ½ m v2
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Thus the work done on the object is

equal to ½ m v2
Fig – 12
We know that Kinetic Energy of a body
Let us assume that an object of mass
moving with certain velocity is equal to
(m) is at rest on a smooth horizontal plane
work done on the object to acquire that
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as shown in figure 12. Let it be displaced

velocity from rest.
through a distance ‘s’ from the point A to
B by a force (F) acting upon it in the Thus the kinetic Energy (K.E.)
direction of the displacement. In the possessed by an object of mass ‘m’ and
horizontal direction the net force Fnet is moving with velocity ‘v’ is equal to ½ m v2
equal to the applied force F. K.E. = ½ m v2

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 175

 Final velocity, v = 12 km /h = 12x(5/18)
Think and discuss
= 10/3 m/s

A
• Why is it easier to stop a lightly Initial kinetic energy
loaded truck than heavier one that K.E (i) = ½ mu2

AN
has equal speed.
= ½ (90) (5/3)2
• Does the Kinetic energy of a car
= ½ (90) (5/3) (5/3)
change more when it goes from 10
m/s to 20 m/s or when it goes from = 125 J
20 m/s to 30 m/s.? Final kinetic energy,

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• A person starts from rest and begins K.E (f) = ½ m v2
to run. The runner puts a certain
momentum into himself. What is the = ½ (90) (10/3) 2
momentum of ground? And the = ½ (90) (10/3)(10/3)
runner puts a certain amount of
= 500 J
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kinetic energy into himself. What is
The work done by the cyclist = Change in
the kinetic energy of the ground.?
kinetic energy = K.E (f) - K.E(i)
Example 5 = 500 J – 125 J = 375 J.
Find the kinetic energy of a ball of 250 g
Potential energy
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mass, moving at a velocity of 40 cm /s.

Solution
Activity-4
Mass of the ball, m = 250g = 0.25 kg Understanding potential energy
Speed of the ball, v = 40 cm / s =0.4 m /s
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Kinetic Energy,
K.E. = ½ (0.25) x (0.4)2 = 0.02 J
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Example 6
The mass of a cyclist together with the
bicycle is 90 kg. Calculate the work done
by cyclist if the speed increases from
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6km /h to 12 km / h.
Fig-13a Fig-13b
Solution
Mass of cyclist together with bike,
Take a bamboo stick and make a bow as
m = 90 kg.
shown in the figure 13 (a). Place an arrow
Initial velocity, u = 6km/h = 6x(5/18) made of a light stick on it with one end
= 5/3 m/s
176 Work and Energy
 supported by the string of the bow as shown In the first instance of above activity,
in figure13 (a) and stretch the string gently you have gently stretched the string of the

A
and release the arrow. bow. Thus the work done by the force on
• What do you notice? the bow is negligible and energy transferred
to the bow due to this work is also

AN
Now place the arrow on the bow
with one end supported by the string and negligible. Hence the bow is not able to
stretch the string applying more force and push the arrow.
release the arrow as shown in figure13 (b) In the second instance, you have applied
• What differences do you notice in these more force on the string to stretch it. Thus

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two instances with respect to motion the work done by you on bow changed its
of arrow? shape and it acquires large amount of
energy. This energy is stored as potential
• Is there any change in the shape of the
energy in the bow which is responsible for
bow when the string is stretched by
throwing the arrow into air with a great
applying more force?
LA speed.
You may notice that in the first instance,
In our daily life we come across many
figure13(a), when you release the arrow it
such situations where the work done on an
gets separated from the bow and falls down
object is stored as potential energy in it and
on ground. But in second instance,
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figure13(b), you will notice the arrow flies used to do various other works.
with great speed into the air. For example the work done in winding
From this activity we can conclude that the key of toy car is stored as potential
the bow in normal shape is not able to push energy in it and forces the car to move on
the arrow but when we stretch the string, it the ground when released.
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acquires energy to throw the arrow into air Do the following activities for the
with a great speed. The energy acquired by better understanding of potential energy.
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the bow due to change in its shape is known

as its potential energy. Activity-5
Where does the bow get this energy
from?
Observing the energy in
stretched rubber band
Why is it not able to throw off the arrow
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in the first case?

Take a rubber band hold it at one end
Can we increase the potential energy and pull it from the other end and then
of the bow? release the rubber band at one of the ends.
Discuss with friends about changes you
need to make to the bow for increasing its What happens?
potential energy .
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 177
 Potential energy of an object at height
Activity-6 (or) Gravitational potential energy

A
Observing the energy in an An object increases its energy when it
object at some height is raised through a height. This is because
of the work done on the object against gravity

AN
Take a heavy ball. Drop it on a thick acting on it. The energy of such an object is
bed of wet sand from different heights from known as gravitational potential energy.
25cm to 1.5 m. Observe the depression
created by the ball on the bed of sand.

NG
Compare depths of these depressions.

• What do you notice?

• Is there any relation to the depth of

depression and the height from which
ball was dropped?
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In above activity we can observe that
objects also acquire energy sometimes due to
change in position.
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Fig-14
Let us consider the following example
The gravitational potential energy of
We use a hammer to drive nails into a an object at a point above the ground is
plank. If a hammer is placed just on the tip defined as the work done in raising it from
of a nail, it hardly moves into the plank. the ground to that point against gravity.
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Consider an object of mass m raised

But if the hammer is raised to a certain
to height h from the ground. A force is
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height and then allowed to fall on the nail,

required to do this. The minimum force
we observe that the nail is pushed some
required to raise the object is equal to the
distance into the plank.
weight of the object (mg). The object gains
Thus the energy of hammer is increased energy equal to the work done on it. Let
the work done on the object against gravity
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when it is raised to a certain height. This

energy is due to the special position be ‘W’.
(height) of the hammer. That is Work done,

The energy possessed by an object W = force x displacement

because of its position or shape is called = mg x h
its potential energy = mgh.
178 Work and Energy
 Since the work done on the object is Mechanical energy
equal to ‘ mgh’ an energy equal to ‘mgh’ The sum of the kinetic energy and the

A
units is gained by the object, This is the potential energy of an object is called its
potential energy of the object at a height mechanical energy.
‘h’. Consider the following example

AN
P.E. = mgh. The kinetic energy of an aeroplane at
rest is zero. Its potential energy when it is
Think and discuss on ground is also considered as zero. Thus
its mechanical energy is zero while it rests

NG
• Does the international space station on the ground. When the same aeroplane
have gravitational potential energy ? flies it has kinetic energy as well as
potential energy, the sum these energies
Example 7 gives the total mechanical energy of the
A block of 2 kg is lifted up through 2m aeroplane in flight.
from the ground. Calculate the potential
LA Conservation of energy
energy of the block at that point. We find in nature a number of instances
[Take g=9.8m/s2] of conversion of energy from one form to
Solution another form. Sun is the big source of
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energy in nature. The solar energy from the

Mass of the block, m = 2 kg
Sun is converted into various forms like
Height raised, h = 2 m
light energy, heat energy, wind energy etc.
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
Apart from this, we observe various
Potential Energy of the block,
instances of energy conversions in day to
P.E. = m g h
day activities, like conversion of electrical
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= (2) (9.8) (2)

energy into heat energy by Iron box,
= 39.2 J
chemical energy into light energy by a torch
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Example 8
etc.
A book of mss 1 kg is raised through a
height ‘h’. If the potential energy increased Activity-7
by 49 J, find the height raised. Listing the energy conversions in
nature and in day to day life
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Solution Discuss various ways of energy

The increase in potential energy = mgh conversions in nature as well as in our day
That is, mgh = 49 J to day activities and make a separate list
of situations for natural conversions of
(1)(9.8)h = 49 J
energy and energy conversions in day-to-
The height raised, h = (49) / (1x 9.8)
day life and write them in table-2, table-3.
= 5m
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 179
 Table -2: Energy conversions taking place in nature

S.No. Situation of energy conversion in Nature

A
1 Heat energy from the Sun used for preparing food by plants gets

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converted into chemical energy.

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4

Table -3 Energy conversions taking place in day to day activities.

S.No. Situation of energy conversion Gadgets/appliances used for

energy conversion
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1 Conversion of electrical energy Electric fan
into mechanical energy
2
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4
Discuss about the following questions Dead plants buried deep below the
with your friends earth’s surface for millions of years get
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• How do green plants produce food? converted to fuels like petroleum and coal,
• How are fuels like coal and petroleum which have chemical energy stored in them.
ER

formed? The food we eat comes from plant

• What kind of energy conversions sources or animal sources which in turn
sustain the water cycle in nature? take plant parts as their food.
We see other energy conversions in When we eat food, several chemical
processes take place and the chemical
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nature, for example snow deposited at

altitudes melts and the water so formed energy stored in food gets converted in to
flows down to seas. In the process, its various forms needed by the body. For
potential energy is converted into kinetic example when we walk, run, exercise etc.,
energy. We convert the kinetic energy of the energy from food is used for kinetic
water to electrical energy in hydroelectric energy.
power plants.
180 Work and Energy
 Activity - 8 • As the bob proceeds from A to A2 its
potential energy increases slowly and
Conservation of mechanical

A
becomes maximum at A2
energy If we neglect small loss of energy due
Take a long thread say 50-60cm long to air resistance , the sum of potential

AN
and attach a small heavy object like a metal energy and kinetic energy remains constant
ball at one end, tie other to a nail fixed to at any point on the path of motion during
the wall as shown in the figure 15. the oscillation of the pendulum.
Thus the total mechanical energy in the

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system of pendulum remains constant. This
is called conservation of mechanical
energy.
Thus energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be changed from one
A
LA form to another.
This is called law of conservation of
Fig-15 energy.
Now pull the object or bob of the When a ball is dropped from a height
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pendulum to one side to the position A1 its gravitational potential energy decreases,
(Fig-15) and release it. but as the ball comes into motion, its kinetic
What do you notice? energy increases. Thus a free-fall body
You may notice that, the bob swings possess both potential energy and kinetic
towards opposite side and reaches the point energy during its fall to the ground.
A2. It repeats this motion over and over
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Does the conservation of energy apply

again. for the system of free-fall body? How?
• The potential energy of the bob is
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Let us find
minimum at A and reaches maximum at
A1 because the height of the bob is Activity-9
maximum at that position.
• When the bob is released from this Calculating the total energy of
freefall at different heights
SC

point (A 1 ), its potential energy

decreases and kinetic energy starts An object of mass 20 kg is dropped
increasing slowly. from a height of 4m. Compute the potential
• When the bob reaches the position A and kinetic energy in each case given in the
its kinetic energy reaches maximum and following table and write the values in
potential energy becomes minimum. respective column of the table.
(Take g = 10 ms-2.)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 181
 Table-4
Height at Velocity of Kinetic
Potential energy Total energy

A
which object object at energyEk = mv /22
located different Ep= mgh ( Ep+ Ek)
in meters (m) height [in m/s] [in Joules (J)] [in Joules (J)] [in Joules (J)]

AN
4.0 0
3.55 3
3.0 √ 20

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2.35 √ 33
0.8 8
• What do you say about total energy of example a hefty rickshaw puller is able to
system of freely falling body? reach the destination in less time when
• Is the mechanical energy conserved in compared other thinner rickshaw puller.
the system?
LA
Sometimes we notice that a grinder in our
home takes more time to grind 1kg of ‘ dal’
Think and discuss
when compared to the grinder in the
neighbours house.
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• Someone wants to sell you a super

ball claims that it will bounce to a • Do all of us do work at the same rate?
height greater than the height from • Is the energy spent by the force doing
which it is dropped. Would you buy work the same every time?
this ball ? If yes explain, if not • Do machines consume or transfer
explain. energy at the same rate every time
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while doing a particular work?

• A ball, intially at the top of the
Let us consider the following example.
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inclined hill, is allowed to roll down.

Raheem wanted to do some repairs in
At the bottom its speed is 4 m/s. Next
the first floor of his building. He brought
the ball is again rolled down the hill,
100 bricks as advised by the mason. A
but this time it does not start from
labourer was asked to shift these bricks
rest. It has an initial speed of 3 m/s.
from ground floor to first floor. The
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How fast is it going when it gets to

labourer completed the work of shifting
the bottom ?
bricks to first floor in one hour and asked
Power Rs 150/- for the work.
In our day to day life we observe many Next day the mason asked Raheem to
situtation where same activity is being bring 100 bricks more to complete the
completed in different time intervals. For repair work. Raheem brought another 100
182 Work and Energy
 bricks and assigned the work of shifting The unit of power is ‘watt’ and denoted
bricks to some another labourer. He by symbol ‘W’

A
completed the work and demanded Rs 300/ 1 watt is the power of an agent, which
- for completing the assigned work. does work at the rate of 1 joule per second.
Raheem said that he paid Rs 150/- to the We express larger rate of energy

AN
labourer the day before. But the labourer transfer in kilowatts (kW)
argued that he worked more hours hence 1 kilowatt (kW) 1000 watts (W)
he was eligible for more money. 1kW 1000 J. s-1
• Whose argument is correct?
Think and discuss

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• Is work done in two cases same?
• Why is there a change in rate of doing
work? • The work done by a force F1 is larger
In the above example the amount of than the work done by another force
work done is same in both cases. But the F 2 . Is it neccesary that power
delivered by F1 is also larger than that
time taken to complete the work is
LA
different. This means that rate of doing of F2 ? Why ?
work is different. Example 9
A stronger person as in the first case A person performs 420 J of work in 5
minutes. Calculate the power delivered by
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of above mentioned example, may do

certain work in relatively less time him.
compared to another person, similarly a Solution
powerful machine can do a work assigned Work done by the person,W = 420 J
to it in relatively short time compared with Time taken to complete the work,
another machine. t = 5 min = 5 x 60s = 300s
T

Power delivered, P = W / t
We talk about the power of machines
= 420/300 = 1.4 W
like motorbikes, motorcar, water pumping
ER

Example 10
motors etc., the speed at which these
A woman does 250 J of work in 10
machines do work is the basis for their
seconds and a boy does 100 J of work in 4
classification. Power is a measure of the seconds. Who delivers more power?
rate of doing work, that is how fast or how Solution
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slow work is done. Power, P = W / t

Power is defined as the rate of doing Power delivered by woman=250/10=25W
work or rate of transfer of energy. Power delivered by boy = 100/4 = 25W
If an agent does a work W in time t, Both woman and boy deliver same
then power is given by power. That is, rate of doing the work by
Power = Work / time woman and boy are equal.
P = W/t
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 183
 SOURCES OF ENERGY • What is the source of energy to ride
your vehicle?
In activity 8, we have learnt that

A
energy can be transformed from one form • What is the source of energy to
to another. Energy is of different forms and run a thermal power plant?

AN
one form can be converted to another form.
• What do you call these sources
Example, observe fall of a coconut from a
of energy?
coconut tree. Potential energy of coconut
gets converted into Kinetic energy. In this We use LPG, Kerosene, Wood,
case the source for energy conversion is Petroleum, coal, etc..as sources of energy

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gravitational force. From this example we for doing the above mentioned works. These
also understand that the energy sources of energy are known as fuels.
transformations need a source responsible • Where do we get most of these
for their transformations. LA fuels?
A source of energy is one which We know that most of these fuels
can provide adequate amount of energy in can be obtained from earth crust. These
a convenient form over a long period of fuels are known as fossil fuels.
time.
• How are these fossil fuels
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• What is a good source of formed?

energy?
Plants, animals and other living
Good source of energy may be organism after their death got buried under
understood based on the following features: the soil due to floods and other natural
disaster for long period of the time. During
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That does a large amount of work

course of time more soil, mud and rock
per unit volume or unit mass of
sediments deposited over them. Due to
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the source.
absence of oxygen, high pressure, heat and
That is cheap and easily available. action of bacteria, this organic matter
That which is easier to use, store convert into fossil fuels.
and transport. • What could be the main source of
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energy which helps to form fossil

That is most economical and that
fuels?
causes no or minimum pollution.
Fuels: We know that plants and animals
grow using solar energy. This solar energy
• What is the source of energy to cook was trapped in this organic matter through
food? natural processes millions of years ago.

184 Work and Energy

 • Do you think that these fuels get
exhausted, if we use them
continuously for a long time.

A
• What are other alternatives if these
fuels are exhausted?

AN
These fossil fuels cannot be Fig. 16
reproduced by any artificial methods. They
cannot be quickly replaced if once amount of solar energy i.e. nearly 47% is
exhausted. So these are called non- only reaching the earth and the remaining

NG
renewable sources of energy. is reflected back into atmosphere. India is
receiving energy more than 5000 trillion
Think and Discuss: KWH during a year. Under clear cloudless
sky conditions, the daily average of solar
Is the firewood obtained by cutting
energy varies from 4 to 7 KWH/m2 in our
of trees renewable or non renewable
source of energy? Why?
LA country.

Scientists have developed devices to

Renewable sources of energy
use solar energy as a source of energy for
• Is there any alternate source of cooking, electrical needs, etc. The devices
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energy which cannot be exhausted? are mainly solar cooker, solar water heater,
solar cells, etc.
• What could be the methods to get
energy from these sources? Solar cells
We know that Sun is the main source A solar cell converts energy from
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of energy. We already discussed that the sunlight into electrical energy. A solar cell
fossil fuels are also formed due to the solar is made up of sandwiching a Silicon –
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energy trapped in fossils. boron layer and Silicon-arsenic layer. This

1. Solar Energy: cell can trap a very little amount of
electricity. Hence a large number of cells
Sun is the main source of energy. are joined together in series to form a solar
The energy received from Sun is known as
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panel.
solar energy. The sun has been radiating an
enormous amount of energy at the present • Discuss various uses of solar
rate nearly 5 billion years and will panel.
continue radiating energy at that rate for • What are the advantages and
about 5 billion years more. Only a little disadvantages of solar energy?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 185

 2. Bio mass energy

The material contained in the bodies

A
of plants and animals is called ‘Biomass’.
When organisms die, their biomass can be
used as fuel for domestic purpose.

AN
3. Bio gas

Fig. - 18

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• Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of tidal energy.
II. Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE)

Heat from the sun is absorbed by the

LA water on the surface of ocean, but at deeper
levels of ocean, the temperature is very
Fig. 17
‘Biogas’ is a renewable source of less. So, there is temperature difference
energy. It is produced mainly from cow between the water ‘at the surface of ocean’
and ‘at deeper levels’. This difference in
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dung, sewage, crop residues, vegetable

wastes etc. It contains about 65% of temperature is called Ocean Thermal
methane and widely used as fuel for Energy (OTE). The OTE can be converted
cooking. The slurry obtained as a by- into electrical energy by using Ocean
product, left in the biogas plant after the Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
biogas is used up can be used as a manure, plants.
T

which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorous. 5. Geo Thermal Energy

4. Energy from Sea
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The interior of the earth is very hot.

The energy from the sea can be Water seeping down deep into the earth is
obtained mainly in two forms. (i) Tidal
energy, and (ii) Ocean Thermal Energy.

I. Tidal Energy
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During the high tide, the water from

sea can be made to sent into a reservoir of
the barrage and turns turbines. The turbines
then turn the generators to produce
electricity.

Fig. 19
186 Work and Energy
 turned into steam and this can be supplied obtained by two types of nuclear reactions.
to homes for heating purposes and for 1. Nuclear fission and 2. Nuclear fusion.
generating electricity. Electricity produced

A
in this way is very less cost than to other I. Nuclear fission
sources, and also pollution free. The process in which heavy

AN
nucleus of a radioactive atom (Ex:
6. Wind energy Uranium) splits up into smaller nuclei when
Moving air is called wind. Wind bombarded with low energy neutrons is
has kinetic energy. The energy of wind is called nuclear fission. A small change in
harnessed by using wind mills. the nucleus of heavy atoms releases a

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tremendous amount of energy.
235
U92+ 1n0 139
Ba56+ 94Kr36 + 31n0 + Energy

LA
Fig. 20
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A wind mill consists a big fan like

Fig. 21
blades fixed to tall poles at very higher
places, such that they can rotate freely This energy is in the form of heat.
when wind blows. A dynamo is attached to This heat energy is used to produce
the shaft of blades, so the mechanical electricity in nuclear power plants. In India,
the nuclear power plants are situated at
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energy produced by rotating wind mill will

be converted into electrical energy by the Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana pratap sagar
(Rajasthan), Kalpakam (Tamilnadu), Narora
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dynamo.
(Uttar Pradesh), Kaprapur (Gujarat), and
The electrical energy produced by Kaiga (Karnataka).
these wind mills is pollution free. II. Nuclear fusion
The process in which two nuclei of
7. Atomic Energy
light elements combine to form a heavy
SC

Atomic energy is also known as nucleus is called nuclear fusion.

nuclear energy. The physical reaction which 2
H1 + 2H1 3
He2 + 1n0 + Energy
involves changes in nucleus of an atom is The energy released in this form can
called a nuclear reaction. The energy not be controlled. So this is not used as
released during a nuclear reaction is called source for producing electricity. These
nuclear energy. This nuclear energy can be nuclear fusion reactions which are taking place
in Sun's core are the main source of Sun's energy.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 187
 Key words

A
Work, Energy, Transfer of energy, Sources of energy, Conservation of energy,
Kinetic energy, Potential energy, Mechanical energy, Gravitational potential,

AN
Renewable sourcess of energy.

What we have learnt

• Two conditions need to be satisfied in order to say that work has taken place. One is, a

NG
force should act on the object and another is, the object must be displaced or there
must be change in the position of the object.
• The work done by a force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of force (F)
multiplied by the distance moved (s). This formula for work is used in only translatory
motion of the object.
LA
• Work has only magnitude, no direction. So work is a scalar.
• If the force acting on an object and displacement are in opposite directions then the
work done by the force is taken as negative.
TE

• If work has positive value, the body on which work has been done would gain energy. If
work has negative value, the body on which work has been done loses energy.
• Capability of doing work by an object or energy possessed by an object depends on
position and state of the object which is doing work.
• Whenever work has been done on an object its energy either increases or decreases.
T

• Sun is the biggest natural source of energy to us. Many other sources are derived from
it.
ER

• The energy possessed by an object due to its motion is called kinetic energy.
• The energy possessed by an object because of its position or shape is called its potential
energy.
SC

• The sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of an object is called its
mechanical energy.
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another. This is the law of conservation of energy.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate of transfer of energy.

188 Work and Energy

 Let us Improve our learning

A
Reflections on concepts
1. What is work according to science and write its units. (AS1)

AN
2. Give few examples where displacement of an object is in the direction opposite to
the force acting on the object. (AS1)
3. Write few daily life examples in which you observe conservation of energy. (AS6)
4. Draw a diagram to show conservation of mechanical energy in case of a free
falling body. (AS5)

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5. Give some examples for renewable sourcess of energy (AS1)

Application of concepts
1. A man carrying a bag of total mass 25kg climbs up to a height of 10m in 50
seconds. Calculate the power delivered by him on the bag. (AS1) ( Ans : 49J)
2. A 10 kg ball is dropped from a height of 10m. Find (a) the initial potential energy
LA
of the ball , (b) the kinetic energy just before it reaches the ground, and (c) the
speed just before it reaches the ground. (AS1) (Ans: 980J, 980J, 14m/s)
3. Calculate the work done by a person in lifting a load of 20 kg from the ground and
placing it 1m high on a table. (AS1)
4. Find the mass of a body which has 5J of kinetic energy while moving at a speed
TE

of 2m/s. (AS1)
5. A cycle together with its rider weighs 100kg. How much work is needed to set
it moving at 3 m/s. (AS1)
6. Which of the renewable sourcess of energy would you think soutable to
produced in you native place. Why? (AS7)
T

Higher Order Thinking Questions

1. What is potential energy? Derive an equation for gravitational potential energy of
ER

a body of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’. (AS1)

2. What is kinetic energy? Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a body of
mass ‘m’ moving at a speed ‘v’. (AS1)
3. When you lift a box from the floor and put it on an almirah the potential energy of
the box increases but there is no change in its kinetic energy. Is it violation of
SC

conservation of energy? Explain. (AS7)

4. When an apple falls from a tree what happens to its gravitational potential energy
just as it reaches the ground? After it strikes the ground? (AS7)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2019-20 189

 s
Multiple choice question

A
1. S.I. unit of work [ ]

AN
a) N-m b) Kg-m c) N/m d) N-m2
2. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called as [ ]
a) Potential energy b) Kinetic energy
c) Attractive energy d) Gravitational energy

NG
3. Two objects with same masses have been dropped from same height at same time.
Which of the following will remain same in case of these objects [ ]
a)Speed b) Gravitational force c) Potential energy d) Kinetic energy

4. A person is climbing a ladder with a suitcase on his head. Then the work done by that
person on that suitcase is
LA [ ]
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Can not be defined

5. If you have lifted a suitcase and kept it on a table., then the work done by you will
depend on [ ]
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a) The path of the motion of the suitcase b) The time taken by you to do the work
c) Weight of the suitcase d) Your weight.

Suggested Experiments
1. Conduct an experiment to prove the conservation of mechanical energy and write a
T

report on it.
ER

2. Conduct an experiment to calculate the total energy of a freely falling body at different
heights.

Suggested Projects
1. How will the increasing energy needs and conservation of energy influence
SC

international peace, cooperation and security? Collect information on this and write
a report.
2. Collect information about different sources of energy and write a report on the
advantages and disadvantages in harnessing energy from these sources.
3. Make different models showing the harnessing energy from different energy sources.

190 Work and Energy

 Chapter
HEAT
11

A
AN
NG
Recall the experiments you did in
object?
Class 7 with the glass tumblers containing
of cold water, lukewarm water and hot When you touch the metal or
water. We understood that ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ wooden piece, you feel that they are cold.
are relative terms and that heat was a form This means that heat energy is being
transferred from your finger to the pieces.
of energy. We use the terms “Temperature
LA When you remove your finger, you don’t
and Heat” to describe these observations.
These words, technically, have special get a feeling of ‘coldness’. This means
meanings. In order to understand their that when heat energy flows out of your
meanings let us do some activities. body you get the feeling of ‘coldness’ and
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when heat energy enters your body you

Activity-1 get a feeling of ‘hotness’. You can test
Take a piece of wood and a piece of this by bringing your finger near the flame
metal and keep them in a fridge or ice of a matchstick!
box. After 15 minutes, take them out and So, if you feel that the metal piece
T

ask your friend to touch them. is ‘colder’ than the wooden piece, it must
mean that more heat energy flows out of
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• Which is colder? Why?

your body when you touch the metal
When we keep materials in a fridge,
piece as compared to the wooden piece.
they become cold i.e., they lose heat
In other words, the ‘degree of coldness’
energy. The iron and wooden pieces were
of the metal piece is greater than that of
kept in the fridge for the same period of
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the wooden piece.

time but we feel that the metal piece is
colder than the wooden piece. The conventional definition of
• What could be the reason for this temperature is “the degree of hotness or
difference in coldness? coldness”.
• Does it have any relation to the transfer We say that the metal piece is at a
of heat energy from our body to the
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 lower ‘temperature’ as compared to the
wooden piece, when they are taken out of Activity-2

A
the fridge. Take two glass tumblers and fill one
• Why does transfer of heat energy take of them with hot water and another with
cold water. Now take a laboratory

AN
place between objects ?
• Does transfer of heat take place in all thermometer, observe the mercury level
situations? in it and note it in your book. Keep it in
• What are the conditions for transfer hot water. Observe changes in the mercury
of heat energy? level. Note the reading.

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Let us find out • What change did you notice in the
Thermal equilibrium-heat and reading of the thermometer? (mercury
temperature level)?
• Did the mercury level increase or
When two bodies are placed in thermal
decrease?
LA
contact, heat energy will be transferred from
Now place the thermometer in cold
the ‘hotter’ body to the ‘colder’ body. This
water and observe changes in the mercury
transfer of heat energy continues till both
level. Did the level decrease or increase?
bodies attain the same degree of hotness
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(or) coldness. At this stage, we say that the We know that bodies in contact
bodies have achieved ‘thermal equilibrium’. achieve thermal equilibrium due to
Thus, the state of thermal equilibrium transfer of heat energy. When you keep
denotes a state of a body where it neither the thermometer in hot water you observe
receives nor gives out heat energy. that there is a rise in mercury level. This
T

If you are not feeling either hot or happens because heat got transferred from
cold in your surroundings, then your body the hotter body (hot water) to the colder
body (mercury in thermometer). Similarly
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is said to be in thermal equilibrium with

the surrounding atmosphere. Similarly, the in the second case you will observe that
furniture in the room is in thermal the mercury level comes down from its
equilibrium with air in the room. So we initial level because of the transfer of heat
can say that the furniture and the air in the from mercury (hotter body) to water
SC

room are at the same temperature. (colder body). Thus we define heat as
follows:
Heat
• What is temperature? “Heat is a form of energy in transit,
• How can you differentiate it from that flows from a body at higher
heat? temperature to a body at lower
Let us find out temperature.”
192 Is Mater Pure ?
 The steadiness of the mercury column Temperature in kelvin = 273 +
of the thermometer indicates that flow of temperature in degree celsius

A
heat between the thermometer liquid K = 273 + T
(mercury) and water, has stopped. Thermal
Add 273 to the value of temperature
equilibrium has been attained between the

AN
in degree celsius to get the temperature
water and thermometer liquid (mercury). The
on the kelvin scale.
thermometer reading at thermal equilibrium
gives the “temperature”. Thus ‘temperature’ Note: Temperature measured on
is a measure of thermal equilibrium. Kelvin scale is called absolute temperature.

NG
If two different systems, A and B in Temperature and Kinetic energy
thermal contact, are in thermal equilibrium
individually with another system C Activity-3
(thermal contact with A and B), will the Take two bowls one with hot water
systems A and B be in thermal equilibrium and second with cold water. Gently
with each other?
LA sprinkle grains of food colour on the
surface of the water in both bowls
We know that if A is in thermal
.Observe the motion of the small grains
equilibrium with C, then they both have
of food colour.
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the same temperature. Similarly, B and C

have the same temperature. Thus A and B • How do they move?
will have the same temperature and would • Why do they move randomly?
therefore be in thermal equilibrium with each • Why do the grains in hot water move
other. (A,B and C are in thermal contact). more rapidly than the grains in cold
water?
T

The SI unit of heat is joule (J) and

You will notice that the grains of
CGS unit is calorie (cal).The amount of
food colour jiggle (move randomly). This
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heat required to raise the temperature of happens because the molecules of water
1gram of water by 10C is called calorie. in both bowls are in random motion. We
observe that the jiggling of the grains of
1cal = 4.186 joules
food colour in hot water is more when
The SI unit of temperature is kelvin compared to the jiggling in cold water.
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(K). It can also be expressed as degree We know that bodies possess kinetic
celsius (0C). energy when they are in motion.
00C = 273K As the speed of motion of particles
(grain of food colour) in the bowls of water
• How would you convert degree
is different, we can say that they have
celsius to kelvin?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 193
 different kinetic energies.Thus we • Why does this happen?
conclude that the average kinetic energy Because the average kinetic energy
of molecules / particles of a hotter body

A
of the molecules of oil increases, while
is greater than that of a colder body. So the average kinetic energy of the molecules
we can say that the temperature of a body
of water decreases. In other words, the

AN
is an indicator of the average kinetic energy
temperature of oil increases while the
of molecules of that body.
temperature of water decreases.
“The average kinetic energy of the
molecules is directly proportional to the • Can you say that the water loses
energy?
absolute temperature” (KE ∝ T)

NG
From the above discussion it is clear
Activity-4 that, water loses energy while oil gains energy;
because of the temperature difference
Take water in a container and heat it
between the water and oil. Thus some heat
to 60°C. Take a cylindrical transparent
energy flows from water to oil. This means,
LA
glass jar and fill half of it with this hot
the kinetic energy of the molecules of the
water. Very gently pour coconut oil over
water decreases while the kinetic energy of
the surface of the water. (Take care that
the molecules of oil increases.
the water and oil do not mix). Put a lid
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with two holes on the top of the glass jar. • Can you now differentiate between
Take two thermometers and insert them heat and temperature based on the
through the holes of the lid in such a way discussion we made of the above
that the bulb of one thermometer lies only activities?
inside the water and other lies only inside With activities 2, 3 and 4 we can
the coconut oil as shown in figure 1. differentiate heat and temperature as follows:
T

Now observe Heat is the energy that flows from a

ER

the readings of the Thermometer hotter body to a colder body. Temperature

two thermometers. is a quantity that denotes which body is
The reading of the hotter and which is colder. So temperature
thermometer kept determines direction of heat (energy) flow,
in water decreases, Lid whereas heat is the energy that flows.
SC

while, at the same

time, the reading Specific Heat
of the thermo- Coconut
oil Activity 5
meter kept in oil
increases. Take a large jar with water and heat
fig-1 it up to 80oC.Take two identical boiling
Hot water

194 Is Mater Pure ?

 We conclude that the rate of rise in
temperature depends on the nature of the

A
substance.
Oil at
Water at
Activity 6

AN
room
room
temperature
temperature
Hot water
Take two beakers of equal volume
at 80 oC and take 250 grams of water in one beaker
and 1 kg of water in another beaker. Note
fig-2 down their initial temperatures using a

NG
thermometer (initial temperatures should
test tubes with single-holed corks. One of be the same). Now heat both beakers till
them is filled with 50g of water and the the temperature of water in the two beakers
other with 50g of oil, both at room rises to 60 0C. Note down the time required
temperature. Insert two thermometers to raise the temperature of water to 60 0C
through holes of the corks, one each into
LA in each beaker.
two test tubes. Now clamp them to a retort
• Which beaker needed more time?
stand and place them in a jar of hot water
You will notice that you need more
as shown in figure 2.
time to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
TE

Observe the readings of water when compared to 250 grams of

thermometers every three minutes .Note water. That means you need to supply
the readings in your notebook. more heat energy to greater quantity of
water than lesser quantity of water for same
• In which test tube does the temperature change in temperature.
T

rise quickly?
For same change in temperature the
• amount of heat (Q) absorbed by a substance
ER

Are the amounts of heat given to the

water and oil same? How can you is directly proportional to its mass (m)
assume this?
Q ∝ m ( when ΔT is constant ) ….(1)
We believe that the same amount of
heat is supplied to water and oil because Now take 1 litre of water in a beaker
SC

they are kept in the jar of hot water for the and heat it over a constant flame. Note
same interval of time. the temperature changes (ΔT ) for every
two minutes.
We observe that the rate of rise in
temperature of the oil is higher than that • What do you notice?
of the rise in temperature of the water. You will notice that the change in
• Why does this happen? temperature rise with time is proportional,

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 195

 that means, for the same mass (m) of water CGS unit of specific heat is cal/g-
the change in temperature is proportional o
C and SI unit of it is J / kg - K
to amount of heat (Q) absorbed by it.

A
1 cal/g- oC = 1 kcal /kg-K
Q ∝ΔT ( when ‘m’ is constant ) ….(2)
= 4.2 x 103J/kg-K

AN
From equation (1) and (2), we get
= 420 J/kg-K
Q ∝ mΔT @ Q = msΔT
We have seen that the rise in
Where ‘s’ is a constant for a given temperature depends on the nature of the

NG
substance. This constant is called substance; hence the specific heat of a
“specific heat” of the substance. substance depends on its nature. If the
Q specific heat is high, the rate of rise (or
s=––––
mΔT fall) in temperature is low for same
The specific heat of a substance is quantity of heat supplied. It gives us an
LA
the amount of heat required to raise the idea of the degree of ‘reluctance’ of a
temperature of unit mass of the substance substance to change its temperature.
by one unit. • Why is the specific heat different for
• How much heat energy is required to different substances?
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raise the temperature of unit mass of Let us find out.

substance by 1°C ?
We know that the temperature of a
body is directly proportional to the average
Substance Specific heat
kinetic energy of particles of the body.The
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In cal/g-oC In J/kg-K
molecules of the system (body or substance)
Lead 0.031 130
have different forms of energies such as
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Mercury 0.033 139

linear kinetic energy, rotational kinetic
Brass 0.092 380 energy, vibrational energy and potential
Zinc 0.093 391 energy between molecules. The total energy
Copper 0.095 399 of the system is called internal energy of
Iron 0.115 483 the system. When we supply heat energy
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Glass(flint) 0.12 504 to the system the heat energy given to it

Aluminum 0.21 882 will be shared by the molecules among the
Kerosene oil 0.50 2100 various forms of energy.
Ice 0.50 2100 This sharing will vary from
Water 1 4180 substance to substance. The rise in
Sea water 0.95 3900 temperature is high for a substance, if the
196 Is Mater Pure ?
 maximum share of heat energy is utilised 3. A samosa appears to be cool outside
for increasing its linear kinetic energy. but it is hot when we eat it because
the curry inside the samosa contains

A
This sharing of heat energy of the system
also varies with temperature .That is why ingredients with higher specific heats.
the specific heat is different for different

AN
Method of mixtures
substances.
Activity - 7
If we know the specific heat of a
Situation – 1: Take two beakers of
substance, we can determine how much heat the same size and pour 200 ml of water in
(Q) is needed to raise the temperature of a each of them. Now heat the water in both

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certain mass of the substance through certain beakers till they attain the same
degrees by using the equation Q = msΔT temperature. If you pour this water from
these two beakers into a larger beaker,
Applications of Specific heat capacity what temperature could you expect the
1. The sun delivers a large amount of mixture to be? Measure the temperature
energy to the Earth daily. The water
LA of the mixture.
sources on Earth, particularly the • What do you observe?
oceans, absorb this energy for • What could be the reason for the fact
maintaining a relatively constant you observed?
temperature. The oceans behave like
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Situation – 2: Now heat the water

“heat store houses” for the earth. in one beaker to 90oC and the other to
They can absorb large amounts of 60oC . Mix the water from these beakers
heat at the equator without in a larger beaker.
appreciable rise in temperature due
to high specific heat of water.. • What will the temperature of the
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Therefore, oceans moderate the mixture be?

surrounding temperature near the • Measure temperature of the mixture.
What did you notice?
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equator. Ocean water transports the

heat away from the equator to areas • Can you give reasons for the change
closer to the north and south poles. in temperature?
This transported heat helps moderate
Situation – 3: Now take 100 ml of
the climates in parts of the Earth that
water at 90oC and 200 ml of water at 60oC
are far from the equator.
SC

and mix the two.

2. Water melon brought out from the
• What is the temperature of the
refrigerator retains its coolness for a mixture?
longer time than any other fruit
• What difference do you notice in the
because it contains a large percentage change of temperature?
of water. (water has greater specific
Let us find out.
heat).
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 197
 Let the initial temperatures of the temperatures are brought into thermal
samples of masses m1 and m2 be T1 and T2 contact, then net heat lost by the hot bodies
(the higher of the two temperatures is

A
is equal to net heat gained by the cold
called T1, the lower is called T2). Let T be bodies until they attain thermal equilibrium.
the final temperature of the mixture. (If heat is not lost by any other process)

AN
The temperature of the mixture is Net heat loss = Net heat gain
lower than the temperature of the hotter
sample but higher than the temperature of This is known as principle of method
the colder sample. This means that the of mixtures.

NG
hot sample has lost heat, and the cold
Determination of Specific heat of a
sample has gained heat. solid
The amount of heat lost by the hotter
sample Q1 is m1S(T1- T).
LA Lab Activity
The amount of heat gained by the Aim: To find the specific heat of given
cooler sample Q2 is m2S(T - T2). solid.
Since heat lost by the hotter sample Material required: calorimeter,
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is equal to the heat gained by the cooler thermometer, stirrer, water, steam heater,
sample (assuming no loss of heat) i.e wooden box and lead shots.
Q1 = Q2 Procedure: Measure the mass of the
calorimeter along with stirrer.
which can be written as
m1S(T1 - T) = m2S(T - T2)
T

Mass of the calorimeter, m1 = ................

which can be simplified to Now fill one third of the volume of
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calorimeter with water. Measure its mass

T = (m1T1 + m2T2)/(m1 + m2)
and its temperature.
You will notice the temperatures of
Mass of the calorimeter plus water,
mixtures in situation – 2 and situation – 3
m2 = ................
are not equal.
SC

Mass of the water, m2–m1 =

• Can you guess the reason for this?
Temperature of water in calorimeter,
• Can we find temperature of the
mixture using a thermometer? T1 = ...........

Principle of method of mixtures Note: Calorimeter and water are at

When two or more bodies at different same temperature.

198 Is Mater Pure ?

 Take a few lead shots and place them Knowing the specific heats of
in hot water or steam heater. Heat them calorimeter and water, we can calculate
the specific heat of the solid (lead shots).

A
upto a temperature 100 o C. Let this
temperature be T2.
Evaporation

AN
Transfer the hot lead shots quickly When wet clothes dry, you will
into the calorimeter (with minimum loss notice that water in the clothes disappears.
of heat). You will notice that the mixture
• Where does the water go?
settles to a certain temperature after some
Similarly, when the floor of a room
time.

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is washed with water, the water on the floor
Measure this temperature T3 and mass disappears within minutes and the floor
becomes dry.
of the calorimeter along with contents
(water and lead shots). • Why does water on the floor disappear
after some time?
Mass of the calorimeter along with
LA Let us see.
contents, m3 = .........

Mass of the lead shots, m 3 – m2 =

Activity 8
............ Take a few drops of spirit on your
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palm using a droper.

Since there is no loss of heat to
surroundings, we can assume that the entire • Why does your skin become colder?
heat lost by the solid (lead shots) is Take a few drops of spirit (say 1 ml)
transferred to the calorimeter and water in two petri dishes (a shallow glass or
to reach the final temperature. plastic cylindrical lidded dish used in the
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laboratory) separately. Keep one of the

Let the specific heats of the dishes containing spirit under a ceiling fan
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calorimeter, lead shots and water be Sc, Sl and switch on the fan . Keep another dish
and Sw respectively. According to the with its lid closed. Observe the quantity
method of mixtures, we know; of spirit in both dishes after 5 minutes.
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Heat lost by the solid = Heat gain by the calorimeter + Heat gain by the water

(m3- m2 ) Sl(T2-T3) = m1 Sc(T3-T1)+(m2-m1) Sw(T3-T1)

[m1Sc+(m2-m1)Sw] (T3-T1)
Sl = ––––––––––––––––––––––––
(m3-m2)(T2-T3)

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 199

 • What do you notice? liquid decreases and they slow down.
You will notice that spirit in the dish They transfer this energy to escaping

A
that is kept under the ceiling fan molecules during the collisions.
disappears, where as you will find some
spirit left in the dish that is kept in the “The process of escaping of

AN
lidded dish. molecules from the surface of a liquid at
any temperature is called evaporation”
• What could be the reason for this
change? Let us determine the reason for faster
To answer the above questions, you evaporation of spirit kept under the fan. If

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need to understand the process of air is blown over the liquid surface in an
evaporation. The molecules of spirit that open pan or petri dish, the number of
is kept in petri dish, continuously move molecules returned is reduced to a large
with random speeds in various directions. extent. This is because any molecule
As a result these molecules collide with escaping from the surface is blown away
LA
other molecules. from the vicinity of the liquid. This
increases the rate of evaporation. This is
During the collision they transfer
the reason why the spirit in petri dish, that
energy to other molecules. When the
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is kept under ceiling fan evaporates

molecules inside the liquid collide with
quickly when compared to that kept
molecules at the surface, the molecules
closed. You will notice that clothes dry
at the surface acquire energy and may fly
faster when a wind is blowing.
off from the surface.
It means that the temperature of a
T

Some of these escaping molecules may

system falls during evaporation.
be directed back into liquid when they
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon.
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collide with the particles of air. If the number

of escaping molecules is greater than the Activity 9
number returned, then the number of
molecules in the liquid decreases. Thus when Effect of surface area,
a liquid is exposed to air, the molecules at Humidity and wind speed on
SC

the surface keep on escaping from the evaporation

surface till the entire liquid disappears into Take 5ml of water each in a test tube
air. This process is called evaporation. and in a china dish separately and keep
them under the fan. Take 5ml of water in
During the process of evaporation,
another china dish and keep it in the
the energy of the molecules inside the
cupboard.
200 Is Mater Pure ?
 Record room temperatures and time We can also define evaporation as
taken for evaporation of water in all three “the change of phase from liquid to gas

A
cases. If possible, repeat the activity on a that occurs at the surface of the liquid”. It
rainy day and record your observations. is a cooling process, because the particles
of liquid continuously give up their energy

AN
• In which case evaporation is fast? to the particles that are escaping from the
• What do you infer about the effect of surface.

surface area and wind speed on Let us look at the following example.
evaporation?

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• Why do we sweat while doing work?
You must have noticed that the rate of When we do work, we spend our
evaporation in china dish is faster. energy mostly in the form of heat energy
from the body. As a result the temperature
Since evaporation is a surface
of the skin becomes higher and the water
phenomena, during evaporation process
LA in the sweat glands starts evaporating. This
the particles escape from the surface of evaporation cools the body.
liquid. The increase in the surface area
Rate of evaporation of a liquid
provides more scope for particles to
depends on its surface area, temperature
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escape from the surface. Hence, increases

and amount of vapour already present in
the rate of evaporation.
the surrounding air.
Humidity is another factor that effects
• Does the reverse process of
evaporation. The amount of water vapour
evaporation take place?
present in air is called humidity.
•
T

When and how does it take place?

The air around us cannot hold more Let us find out.
ER

than a definite amount of water vapour at

a given temperature. Condensation

If the amount of water vapour is high Activity 10

in air the rate of evaporation will decrease. Place a glass tumbler on the table.
SC

So clothes dry slowly during rainy season Pour cold water up to half its height.
but fast on a sunny and windy day.
• What do you observe on the outer
Because of increase in wind speed, surface of the tumbler?
water vapour particles move away with • Why do water droplets form on the
the wind, decreasing the amount of water outer side of the glass?
vapour in the surroundings.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 201

 We know that the temperature of molecules surrounding you condense on
surrounding air is higher than the your skin and this condensation makes

A
temperature of the cold water. you feel warm.

Air contains water molecules in the Humidity

AN
form of vapour. Some vapour is always present in
When the molecules of water in air, air. This vapour may come from
during their motion, strike the surface of the evaporation of water from the surfaces of
glass tumbler which is cool; they lose their rivers, lakes, ponds and from the drying
of wet clothes, sweat and so on. The

NG
kinetic energy which lowers their temperature
and they get converted into droplets. presence of vapour molecules in air is
said to make the atmosphere humid. The
The energy lost by the water amount of water vapour present in air is
molecules in air is gained by the molecules called humidity.
of the glass tumbler. Hence the average
LA
kinetic energy of the glass molecules Dew and Fog
increases. In turn the energy is transferred In early morning, during winter, you
from glass molecules to the water might have noticed that water droplets
molecules in the glass. form on window panes, flowers, grass etc.
TE

In this way, the average kinetic • How are these water droplets formed?
energy of water molecules in the tumbler Let us find out.
rises. Hence we can conclude that the
During winter nights, the atmospheric
temperature of the water in glass
temperature goes down. The surfaces of
T

increases. This process is called

window-panes, flower, grass etc, become
‘condensation’. It is a warming process.
still colder. The air near them becomes
ER

Condensation can also be defined as saturated with vapour and condensation

“the phase change from gas to liquid”. begins. The water droplets condensed on
such surfaces are known as dew.
Let us examine a situation:
You feel warm after you finish your If the temperature falls further, the
SC

bath under the shower on a hot day. In the whole atmosphere in that region contains
bathroom, the number of vapour molecules a large amount of vapour. So the water
per unit volume is greater than the number molecules present in vapour condense on
of vapour molecules per unit volume the dust particles in air and form small
outside the bathroom. When you try to droplets of water. These droplets keep
dry yourself with a towel, the vapour floating in the air and form a thick mist

202 Is Mater Pure ?

 which restricts visibility. This thick mist surface of water at 1000C. This is what
is called fog. we call boiling of water

A
• Does the temperature of the water rise • Why does this happen?
continuously if heat is supplied to it Water is a solution, there are many

AN
continuously? impurities dissolved in it including some
Boiling gases. When water or any liquid is heated,
the solubility of gases it contains reduces.
Activity 11 As a result, bubbles of gas are formed in
Take a beaker of water, keep it on the liquid (at the bottom and on walls of

NG
the burner .Note the readings of the vessel). Evaporation of water
thermometer for every 2 minutes. molecules from the surrounding causes
these bubbles, to become filled with
• Did you see any rise or fall in the level saturated vapour, whose pressure
of the surface of the water, in the
increases as we increase the temperature
beaker? Why?
LA of the liquid by heating. At a certain
• Does the temperature rise
temperature, the pressure of the saturated
continuously?
vapour inside the bubbles becomes equal
• When does the rise in temperature of to the pressure exerted on the bubbles from
TE

water stop? the outside (this pressure is equal to the

atmospheric pressure plus the pressure of
You will notice that, the temperature the layer of water above the bubble). As a
of the water rises continuously, till it result, these bubbles rise rapidly to the
reaches 100°C. Beyond 100°C no further surface and collapse at the surface
T

rise of temperature of water is seen. At releasing vapour present in bubbles into

100 0C, though supply of heat continues,
air at the surface. This process of
ER

the temperature does not increase further.

converting the liquid into vapour (gas)
We also observe a lot of bubbling at the
continues as long as you supply heat. This
Thermometer
glass rod appears as boiling of water for us.
beaker
“Boiling is a process in which the
SC

ice
cubes water
liquid phase changes to gaseous phase at
a constant temperature at a given
spirit lamp
pressure.” This temperature is called
boiling point of the liquid.
• Are the processes of evaporation and
Fig - 3

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 203

 boiling the same? vaporization is Q/m. Latent heat of
As you have seen in activity – 8 and vaporization is denoted by ‘L’.

A
10, the boiling of a liquid differs CGS unit of latent heat of
vaporization is cal/gm and SI unit is J/kg.
essentially from evaporation. Note that

AN
evaporation takes place at any The boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure (1atm) is 100°C or
temperature, while boiling occurs at a
373K and Latent heat of vaporization of
definite temperature called the boiling
water is 540 cal/gm.
point. Let us recall your observation in
Let us now consider the

NG
activity – 10 that, when boiling process transformation of ice into water.
starts, the temperature of the liquid cannot
• Why does an ice cube get converted
be raised further, no matter how long we into water?
continue to heat it. The temperature
Melting
remains constant at the boiling point until
all of the liquid has boiled away.
LA Activity 12
In activity – 10, you have noticed that, Take small ice cubes in a beaker.
Insert the thermometer into ice cubes in
while heating the water in the beaker, the
the beaker. Observe the reading of the
TE

temperature of water rises continuously till

thermometer. Now start heating the beaker
it reaches 100 0C. But once boiling got
keeping it on a burner. Observe changes
started, no further rise of temperature is in the thermometer reading every 1 minute
seen though supply of heat continues. till the ice completely melts and gets
• Where does the heat energy supplied converted into water.
T

go? • What changes do you notice in the

This heat energy is used to change reading of thermometer as time passes
ER

the state of water from liquid to vapour by?

(gas). This is called latent heat of • Does the temperature of the ice
vapourization. change during the process of melting?
The heat energy required to change You will observe that the temperature
1gm of liquid to gas at constant of ice at the beginning is equal to or below
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temperature is called latent heat of 0oC. If the temperature of ice is below 0oC,
vapourization. it goes on changing till it reaches 00C. When
Consider a liquid of mass ‘m’ that ice starts melting, you will notice no change
requires heat energy of ‘Q’ calories to in temperature though you are supplying
change from its state from liquid phase to heat continuously.
gas phase. Then Latent heat of • Why does this happen?
204 Is Mater Pure ?
 The heat energy supplied to the ice
Do you know?
increases the internal energy of the

A
molecules of the ice. This increase in Strange behaviour of water
internal energy of molecules weakens the A liquid usually expands when it is
bonds as well as breaks the bonds between heated but water behaves differently.

AN
the molecules (H2O) in the ice. That is Between 0oC to 4 oC, its volume shrinks.
why the ice (in solid phase) becomes water Same amount of water in solid ice
(in liquid phase).This process takes place occupies more volume than liquid water.
at a constant temperature 0°C or 273K. Thus density of ice is less than the
density of water. Hence ice floats on

NG
This temperature is called melting point.
water rather than sinking. This is very
This process of converting solid into a
important for survival of marine life
liquid is called “Melting”.
which lives in ponds in the colder areas.
The temperature of the ice does not In extremely cold weather the water at
change during melting because the heat the top become colder and colder, until
LA
energy given to the ice is totally utilized in it freezes. While the ice floats on the
breaking the bonds between the water top, the animals continue to live in the
molecules. water below, which does not freeze and
remains at 40C. The ice on the top of
The process in which solid phase the pond insulates water below it and it
TE

changes to liquid phase at a constant stops the water from losing the heat to
temperature is called melting. This constant air.
temperature is called melting point.
• How much heat energy is required to
Freezing
convert 1gm of ice to liquid?
T

The Heat energy required to convert You might have observed coconut
1gm of solid completely into liquid at a oil and ghee getting converted from liquid
ER

constant temperature is called Latent heat state to solid state during winter season.
of fusion. • What could be the reason for this
Consider a solid of mass m. Let heat change?
energy Q be required to change it from • What happens to water kept in a
SC

the solid phase to liquid phase. The heat refrigerator?

required to change 1gm of solid into liquid • How does it get converted from liquid
is Q/m.
phase to solid phase?
Latent heat of fusion L = Q/m. The
We know that the water that is kept
value of Latent heat of fusion of ice is
in a refrigerator converts to solid ice. You
80cal/gm
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 205
 know that initial temperature of water is the glass bottle breaks.
more compared to the temperature of ice.
• Why did the glass bottle break?

A
It means that during the process of
We know that the volume of the water
conversion from liquid to solid, the internal
poured into the glass bottle is equal to the

AN
energy of the water decreases so that it volume of the bottle. When the water
becomes a solid ice. This process is called freezes to ice, the bottle is broken .This
freezing. means that the volume of the ice should
be greater than the volume of the water
“The process in which the a
filled in the bottle.

NG
substance in liquid phase changes to solid
phase by losing some of its energy is In short, we say that water ‘expands’
called freezing.” (increases in volume) on freezing!

Thus the density of ice is less than

Freezing of water takes place at 0°C
temperature and at one atmospheric
LA that of water and this explains why ice
floats on water.
pressure.
• Are the volumes of water and ice
Think and discuss
TE

formed with same amount of water

equal? Why? • Why do we wear cotton clothes in
Let us find out. summer?

Activity 13 • Why do we see water droplets on

outer surface of a glass containing
Take small glass bottle with a tight
T

ice - cold water?

lid .Fill it with water completely without
• Why do pigs toil in the mud during
any gaps and fix the lid tightly in such a
ER

hot summer?
way that water does not come out of it.
Put the bottle into the deep freezer of a • Why do we store water in matkas
refrigerator for a few hours. Take it out (earthern pots)?
from the fridge and you will observe that
SC

Key words
Temperature, Heat, Thermal equilibrium, Specific heat, Evaporation,
Condensation, Humidity, Dew, Fog, Boiling, Latent heat of vaporization,
Melting, Freezing.

206 Is Mater Pure ?

 What we have learnt

A
• Heat is a form of energy, in transit, that flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at
lower temperature.

AN
• SI unit of heat is joul. Its CGS unit is calore.
1 calorie = 4.186 J.
• When two or more bodies are at different temperature are brought into thermal contact, then
net heat lost by the hot bodies is equal to net heat gained by the cold bodies until they attain
thermal equilibrium.

NG
• The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture.
• The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit
mass of the substance by one unit.
S=Q/mΔt
LA
• The process of escaping of molecules from the surface of a liquid at any temperature is
called evaporation and it is a cooling process.
• Condensation is the reverse process of evaporation.
TE

• Boiling is the process in which the liquid phase changes to gaseous phase at a constant
temperature and constant pressure.
• The heat energy is used to change the state of water from liquid to vapour is called Latent
heat of vapourisation.
• The heat energy required to convert 1 gm of solid completely into liquid at a constant tem-
T

perature is called latent heat of fusion.

Let us Improve our learning

ER

Reflections on concepts
1. Why do we get dew on the surface of a cold soft drink bottle kept in open air? (AS1)
SC

2. Your friend is asked to differentiate between evaporation and boiling. What questions could
you ask to make him to know the differences between evaporation and boiling? (AS2)

3. Water can evaporate at any temperature Explain with an example? (AS3)

4. What role does specific heat play in keeping a watermelon cool for a long time after remov-
ing it from a fridge on a hot day? (AS7)

5. Equal amounts of water are kept in a cap and in a dish. Which will evaporate faster? Why? (AS3)

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 207

 6. Why specific heat is different for different substances? Explain (AS1)

7. If you are chilly outside the shower stall, why do you feel warm after the bath if you stay in

A
the bathroom? (AS7)

Application of concepts

AN
1. Using the concept of evaporation explain why does pant during hot summer days? (AS1)

2. If 50g of water at 20oC temperature and 50 g of water 40oC temperature are mixed, what is
the final temperature of the mixture of? (AS1)

3. What do you observe in the surroundings in terms of cooling or heating when water vapour

NG
is getting condensed (AS1)

4. Convert following into kelvin scale (AS1) (i) 20oC (ii) 27oC (iii) −273oC
Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. How do you appreciate the role of the higher specific heat of water in stabilizing atmo-
LA
spheric temperature during winter and summer seasons? (AS6)
2. Answer these (AS1)
(a) How much energy is transferred when 1 g. of boiling water at 100oC condenses to water
at 100oC?
(b) How much energy is transferred when 1 g. of boiling water 100oC cools to water at 0oC?
TE

(c) How much energy is released or absorbed when 1 g. of water at 0oC freezes to ice at
0oC?
(d) How much energy released or absorbed when 1 g. of steam at 100oC cools to ice at 0oC?
3. Suppose that 1 L of water is heated for a certain time to rise its temperature for 2oC. If 2L of
water is heated for the same time, how much of its temperature would rise?(AS7)
T

ons
Multiple choice questi
ER

1. Which of the following is a warming process [ ]

a) Evaporation b) condensation c) boiling d) all the above
SC

2. Melting is a process in which solid phase changes to [ ]

a) liquid phase b) liquid phase at constant temperature
c) gaseous phase d) Gaseous phase at constaint temperature

3. Three bodies A, B and C are in thermal equilibrium. The temperature of B is 45oC. then the
temperature of C is [ ]
a) 45oC b) 50oC c) 40oC d) any temperature
208 Is Mater Pure ?
 4. The temperature of a steel rod is 330K. Its temperature in oC is [ ]
a) 55oC b) 57oC c) 59oC d) 53oC

A
5. Specific heat S = [ ]
a) Q/ΔT b) QΔT c) Q/mΔT d) mΔT/Q

AN
6. Boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure is [ ]
a) 0oC b) 100oC c) 110oC d) -5oC

7. When ice melts, its temperature [ ]

a) remains constant b) increases

NG
c) decreases d) first decrease and then increase

Suggested Experiments
1. Find the specific heat of solids experimentally write a report.
2. Perform an experiment to prove that the rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on its surface
LA
area and vapor already present in surrounding air write a report.
3. Take different metal pieces of same size and heat them to same temperature, dip them
immediately in the beakers containing water of same level. Observe the temperature
differences in the water. Write your observations
TE

Suggested Projects
1. Take 2kg of ice is at -5oC. Supply heat is continuously to ice. Till it starts boiling. Note
the temperature every minute. Draw a graph between temperature and time using the values
you get. What do you understand from the graph. Write the conclusions. ( You know that ice
melts at 0oc and boils at l00°C.
T

2. Observe the evaporation process and write the report in the form of a table for the following
substances’ are given in the table for given conditions.
ER

Substance Petrol, kerosene, alcohol, water, glycerin, camphor

Conditions Inside the room, outside the room, exposing to sunlight, outside shadow
3. Observe the evaporation process of water which is kept inside ,and outside the house and
repeatedly do this activity with different shaped dishes. Write the report.
SC

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 209

 Chapter

12 SOUND

A
AN
NG
In class 8, we have learnt about sounds Activity-1
produced by vibrating bodies and also
learnt how sound is transmitted through a Sound is a form of energy
medium and received by our ears. In this
Take a tin can and remove both ends
chapter we will study about nature of
LA to make a hollow cylinder as shown in
sound, its production, propagation and
figure 1. Take a balloon and stretch it over
characteristics.
the can. Wrap a rubber band around the
balloon. Take a small piece of mirror and
Every day we hear sounds from various
TE

stick it on the balloon. Take a laser light

sources like birds, bells, machines,
and let it fall on the mirror. After reflection
vehicles, television and Radio etc. Our ears
the light spot is seen on the wall as shown
help us to hear the sounds produced at a
in figure1. Now shout directly into the open
distance.
end of the can and observe the dancing light.
T

• How does sound reach our ears from

the source of its production?
ER

• Does it travel by itself or is there any

force bringing it to our ears?

• What is sound? Is it a force or an Fig-1: Observing vibrations of light

energy?
SC

• Why is the light ray dancing, after

sound is made in the tin?
• Why don’t we hear sounds when our
• What do you infer from this?
ears are closed?
• Can we say that sound is a form of
mechanical energy?
Let us find out.
Like the stretched rubber sheet in the
above activity, sound produced at a distance
210 Sound
 travels through air and reaches our ears to To see vibrations, attach a small piece
produce a sensation of hearing in our ears. of steel wire to one of its prongs as shown

A
in figure 2. While it is vibrating, try to draw
Do you know? a straight line on a piece of smoked glass

AN
Glimpses of history of sound as quick as possible with it. Keep the end
From the very early times the of the wire in such a way that it just touches
question “How sound travels through air”, the glass. A line is formed in the form of
attracted the attention of philosophers. wave as shown in figure 2. Repeat the
Pythagoras (around 570 B.C), a Greek experiment when the fork is not vibrating

NG
scholar and traveller, explained that and observe the difference in the line.
sound travels in air due to the to and fro
formed.
motion of the air particles, which act
upon the ear and produce the sensation
of sound. Galileo (1564-1642) and
Bacon (1561-1625) agreed with the
LA
above theory but it was Newton who first
explained the phenomenon of
propagation of sound through air.
TE

Fig - 2

Production of sound • What do you conclude from the above

activity?
Activity-2
• Can you produce sound without
T

Observing the vibration of tuning vibration in the body?

fork In above activity we have produced
ER

Take a tuning fork and strike one of its vibrations in a tuning fork by striking it
prongs gently with a rubber hammer and with a rubber hammer. We observe that a
vibrating tuning fork produces sound. Thus
bring it near your ear.
sound is produced by vibrating bodies.
• Do you hear any sound?
SC

• Give some examples of vibrating

Touch one of the prongs of the tuning bodies which produce sound.
fork with your finger. What do you feel?
• Which part of our body vibrates when
Share your feeling with your friends. we speak?
• Do you see any vibrations in the tuning • Do all vibrating bodies necessarily
fork? produce sound?
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 211
 Do you know?
A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator; it is a steel

A
bar, bent into a U- shape (Prongs), with a handle at the
bend. It resonates at a specific constant pitch when set

AN
into vibration by striking it with a rubber hammer. The
pitch of the tuning fork depends on the length of the
prongs. It is mainly used as a standard of pitch to tune
other musical instruments.

NG
The device first invented in 1711 by a British musician John Shore.

How does sound travel? Propagation of Sound

We know that sound is a form of We know that sound is produced by
energy. It travels through the air and reaches vibrating objects. The matter or the
LA
our ears to give the sensation of sound. substance through which sound is
If energy transfer takes place during transmitted is called the medium.
sound propagation, then in which form, does
it travel through air?
TE

There may be two possible ways by

which transfer of energy from the source Membrane
of sound to our ears takes places. One is
that the source of sound produces
disturbances (waves) in air and they strike Compression pulse
T

our ears. The other explanation is that some

particles are shot off from the source of
sound and they reach our ears.
ER

Rarefaction pulse
If the second explanation is correct,
vibrating body would gradually lose its
weight as particles are continuously shot
off from it. This certainly never happens, Fig-3
When a source of sound vibrates it
SC

because it would lead to vanishing of the

creates a disturbance in the medium near
object. Thus we can conclude that ‘sound
it. This means that the condition of the
travels through disturbances in the form of
waves’, can be taken as a correct medium near the source becomes different
explanation. from its normal condition. The disturbance
could be in the form of compression of the
• If sound travels in the form of a
medium close to the source. This
wave then what is the pattern?
212 Sound
 disturbance then travels in the medium. Let the other. These two types of pulses travel
us see how it travels. one behind the other, carrying the

A
Consider a vibrating membrane of disturbance with it. This is how sound
musical instrument like a drum or tabla. As travels in air.

AN
it moves back and forth, it produces a Think and Discuss
sound. Figure 3 shows the membrane at
different instants and the condition of the Do compressions and rarefactions
air near it at those instants. in sound wave travel in same directions
As the membrane moves forward or in opposite directions ? Explain.

NG
(towards the right in Figure), it pushes the
particles of air in the layer in front of it. Types of waves
So, the particles of air in the layer get Activity-3
closer to each other. Hence the density of
air increases locally and this layer of air Demonstrating types of wave
LA
pushes and compresses the layer next to it, propagation
which then compresses the next layer, and RCR C R C R CR CR CR CR C
so on. In this way the disturbance moves
forward. We call this type of disturbance
TE

as compression pulse. The particles of the

medium do not travel with the compression Fig-4 Compressions(C) and
rarefactions (R) in a slinky
pulse, they only oscillate about a mean
position. It is the disturbance which travels 1. Take a slinky, it is a spring – shaped
in the forward direction. toy which can be extended or
T

What happens when the membrane compressed very easily. It is very

moves back to the left in figure 3? It drags flexible and can be put into many
ER

back the layer of air near it, decreasing shapes easily. You can send
the density of air there. The particles of continuous waves on a slinky. Lay it
air in the next layer on the right move and down on a table or the floor as shown
fill this less dense area. As a result, its in the figure 4 and ask a friend to hold
own density reduces. In the same way, the one end. Pull the other end to stretch
SC

density of air in successive layers on the the slinky, and then move it to and fro
right decrease one after the other. We say along its length.
that a rarefaction pulse moves to the right. You will see alternate compressions
As the membrane moves back and and rarefactions of the coil. This is
forth repeatedly, compression and similar to the pattern of varying density
rarefaction pulses are produced, one after produced in a medium when sound
passes through it.
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 213
 If the particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicular to the direction of wave,

A
then the wave is called a transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave involves change in
the density of the medium, whereas

AN
transverse wave involves change in the
'shape' of the medium.
• What do you say about sound waves in
air by the above activity?

NG
• Are they longitudinal or transverse?
Sound waves are longitudinal
As we have seen, when a sound wave
Fig-5: Transverse waves in a slinky passes through air, the layers in the medium
are alternately pushed and pulled. Thus the
LA
2. Hang a slinky from a fixed support. Hold
it gently at the lower end and quickly particles of the medium move to and fro
move your hand sideways and back. along the direction of propagation.
What do you observe? This will cause Therefore sound waves in air are
longitudinal.
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a hump on the slinky near the lower end.

This hump travels upwards on the slinky Characteristics of the sound
as shown in figure 5. What is travelling wave
upwards? The part of the slinky that Four quantities play an important role
was at the bottom in the beginning is in describing the nature of a wave. These
T

still at the bottom. Similarly no other quantities are its wave length, amplitude,
part of the slinky has moved up. Only frequency and wave speed. They are called
the disturbance has moved up. Hence
ER

characteristics of the wave. Let us learn

we may say that a wave has travelled about these characteristics in the context
up through the slinky. of the sound wave.
We have discussed two examples of
Let us consider a sound wave produced
wave propagation in a slinky. In the first
by a source such as a tuning fork. Figure 6
SC

case the vibrations are along the direction

shows the variation in the density of air
of wave motion and in the second case the
near the source at a particular time and the
vibrations are perpendicular to the direction
variation in the density of air with position
of wave motion.
is also shown by a graph in Figure 6. Since
If the particles of the medium vibrate
the pressure of air is proportional to
along the direction of wave, the wave is
density at a given temperature, the plot of
called a longitudinal wave.
214 Sound
 density verses position will also have the λ (read as ‘lambda’). We can define
same shape. wavelength as follows.

A
The distance between two consecutive
compressions or two consecutive

AN
A B C D E F G
λ Crest
rarefactions is called the wave length of a
1
sound wave. (Fig 7)
Density

Normal
0
P Q R density
-1
Trough Being a length, wavelength is measured
Position
in metres. SI unit of wave length is metres

NG
Fig-6 (m).
It can be seen from the graph that in
portions like PQ, the density is more than
the normal density, represents a λ
1
compression. In portions like QR, the
Density

0 Normal
density is less than the normal, represents
LA -1
λ
density

a rarefaction. Position
Thus the compressions are the regions Fig-7
where density as well as pressure is high.
2. Amplitude
TE

Rarefactions are the regions where the

density as well as pressure is low. In above The amplitude of a sound wave in air
density vs. position graph, the peak of the can be described in terms of the density of
graph is called crest and valley of the graph air or pressure of air or the displacement
is called trough. of the layers of air. You know that when
T

1. Wave length sound travels in air, the layers of air move

At any given instant, the density of air to and fro, causing compressions and
ER

is different at different places along the rarefactions. As a result, the density and
direction in which sound is moving. For a pressure of air at a place varies. Its value
source like a tuning fork, the distance increases from the normal to reach a
between the consecutive position of maximum and then reduces to a minimum.
maximum density (compressions) (like C
SC

The amplitude of density of medium is

and E in the above figure 6) or minimum the maximum variation in the density when
density (rarefactions) like B and D as sound wave passes through it. Similarly we
shown in figure 6 remain the same. So these
can define amplitude of pressure and
values get repeated after a fixed distance.
displacement of the particle of a medium
This distance is called the wave length of
when sound travels through it.
the wave. It is denoted by the Greek letter
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 215
 1 Ampiltude
Displacement

“The time taken to complete one

0
Position
oscillation of the density of the medium is

A
-1 called the time period of the sound wave”.
It is represented by the symbol (T). Its SI
Fig-8 Ampiltude of a wave unit is second (s).

AN
Thus the maximum disturbance of Frequency is a quantity that is closely
particles in the medium on either side of related to time period. We can define that
mean position is called amplitude of wave. the frequency of sound wave as follows.
It is usually represented by a letter A. The
“The number of oscillations of the
units of amplitude depend on which terms

NG
density of the medium at a place per unit
the amplitude is being described. Because
time is called the frequency of the sound
if sound wave is moving through air we
wave”.
describe amplitude in terms of density and
We usually use the Greek letter υ (read
pressure. If sound wave is moving in solids,
as ‘nu’) to denote frequency.
we describe amplitude in terms of
LA Relation between frequency and time
displacement of particles from their mean
positions. period
Let us find the relationship between
Terms of Units of frequency and time period.
TE

describing amplitude
Let the time taken for υ oscillations = 1s
amplitude
The time taken for one oscillation=(1/υ) s
Density kg/m3 But the time taken for one oscillation
Pressure pascal is called the time period (T) and the number
Displacement metre. of oscillations per second is called the
T

frequency (υ).
3. Time period and frequency
Hence Frequency and time period are
We know that when sound is
ER

related as T = 1/υ or υ = 1/T

propagating through a medium the density
The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
of medium oscillates between a maximum
It is named after Heinrich Rudolph Hertz.
value and a minimum value.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born on 22 February 1857 in
SC

Hamburg, Germany and educated at the University of Berlin.He

was the first to conclusively prove the existence of
electromagnetic waves. He laid the foundation for future
development of radio, telephone, telegraph and even television.
He also discovered the photoelectric effect which was later
explained by Albert Einstein. The SI unit of frequency was
named hertz in his honour.
216 Sound
 Larger units of frequency 1second = λ/T metres
Kilo hertz (KHz) 103 Hz Thus by definition, speed of sound
wave v = λ/T ——————— (1)

A
Mega hertz (MHz) 106 Hz
Giga hertz ( GHz) 109 Hz We know that frequency υ = 1/T —(2)
From equation (1) & (2) we get v = υ λ

AN
Tera hertz (THz) 1012Hz
Speed of a
Example-1 = frequency x wave length.
sound wave
Find the time period of the wave whose
The speed of a sound wave depends on
frequency is 500Hz?
the properties such as the temperature and
Solution nature of the medium in which it is

NG
from T = 1/ υ =1/500 s travelling. But the speed of sound remains
=0.002 s almost the same for all frequencies in a
given medium under the same physical
Think and discuss
conditions.
• In common, speed of sound refers to
Does the frequency of sound waves
LA the speed of sound waves in air. However
depend on the medium in which it
speed of sound varies from substance to
travels? How?
substance. Sound travels faster in liquids
• The frequency of source of sound is and nonporous solids than it does in air. It
TE

10Hz. How many times does it travels about 4.3 times faster in water
vibrate in one minute? (1484 m/s) and nearly 15 times as fast in
iron (5120 m/s) than in air at 200 C. In dry
• Gently strike a hanging bell (temple
air at 200 C the speed of sound is 343.2 m/
bell) and try to listen to the sound
s. this is 1236 km/hr or about 1km in 3s.
produced by it with a stethoscope
T

keeping it both at bottom portion and Think and discuss

top portion of the bell. Is the pitch
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and loudness of the sound same at • During a thunderstrom if you notice

the two portions ? Why ? a 3 second delay between the flash
of lightning and sound of thunder.
4. Speed of Sound wave What is the approximate distance of
The distance by which a point on the thunderstrom from you.
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wave, such as a compressions or Example-2

rarefaction, travels in unit time is called
1. In a certain gas, a source produces
speed of sound wave.
40,000 compression and 40,000
Let the distance travelled by a wave in rarefaction pulses in 1 sec. When the
T seconds = λ metres second compression pulse is produced; the
The distance travelled by a wave in
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 217
 first is 1cm away from the source. sounds and noises. The sounds which
Calculate the wave speed. produce pleasing effect on the ear are

A
Solution called musical sounds while the sounds
We know frequency is equal to number which produce unpleasant effect are called
of compression or rarefaction pulses noises.

AN
travelled per second, hence frequency There are three characteristics by
(υ) = 40,000 Hz which we can distinguish a musical note
Wave length (λ) = distance between from other.
two consecutive compression or They are 1. Pitch 2. Loudness

NG
rarefaction pulses. 3. Quality
λ = 1cm 1. Pitch
From v= υ λ = 40,000 Hz x 1cm = • Sound of mosquito is shrill while sound
40,000cm/s = 400m/s of lion is growl.

Do you know? • Female voice is shriller than male

LA
voice.
Sonic boom From the above examples, what
When a body moves with a speed property of sound differentiates them?
which is greater than the speed of sound Actually pitch of sound is the
TE

in air, it is said to be travelling at sensation conveyed to our brain by the

supersonic speed. Jet fighters, bullets sound waves falling on our ears which
etc., often travel at supersonic speeds. depends directly on the frequency of the
When a sound producing source incident sound waves. The greater the
moves with a speed higher than that of frequency of a musical note, higher is the
T

sound, it produces shock waves in air. pitch.

These waves carry a large amount of
ER

energy. They produce a very sharp and

1
Displacement

loud sound called the sonic boom. 0

-1
The sonic boom produced by Position

supersonic aircraft is accompanied by Fig-9(a)

Sound of lower pitch
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waves that have enough energy to shatter

glass and even damage buildings.
Displacement

1
0
Characteristics of a musical -1
Position
sound Fig-9(b)
Sound of higher pitch
In the previous class, we learnt that all
sounds can be roughly classified as musical
218 Sound
 In musical terms, the pitch of the note determines the position of the note on the musical
scale which is denoted as

A
Note: C D E F G A B C1
(sa) (re) (ga) (ma) (pa) (dha) (ni) (sa)1

AN
Frequency
256 288 320 341.3 384 426.7 480 512
(Hz)

The tuning fork set is prepared based In the above figures 10(a) and 10(b)

NG
on the above frequencies. the variation of wave disturbance with
time is shown as a graph for two sounds
2. Loudness with different amplitudes.
If we strike a school bell lightly, we The amplitude of the sound wave in
hear a soft sound. If we hit the same bell figure10(a) is greater than the amplitude
hard we hear a loud sound. Can you guess
LA of sound wave in figure10(b). So the graph
the reasons for this change? The reason for in figure 10(a) represents a louder sound
this change in intensity of sound is due to and the graph in figure 10(b) represents a
the another characteristic of sound called soft sound.
TE

loudness. The loudness of the sound is measured

Loudness of sound is defined as the in decibels (dB). It signifies the sound
degree of the sensation produced on the ear. pressure level. Human ears pickup sounds
The loudness or softness of a sound is from 10 dB to 180 dB. The loudness of
determined basically by its amplitude. The sound is considered normal, if it is between
T

amplitude of the sound wave depends upon 50 dB to 60dB.

the 'force' with which the objects are made A normal human being can tolerate
ER

to vibrate. loudness of 80 dB. The sound above 80 dB

is painful and causes various health
problems. The decibel level of a jet engine
Displacement

1 Position

0 taking off is 120 dB.

-1 Therefore people working near the
SC

airbase need to protect their ears by using

Fig-10(a) Louder sound ear plugs. Otherwise it may lead to hearing
loss. Listening to very loud music through
Displacement

Position
1
0 earphones of MP3 player or mobile phones
-1 also leads to hearing loss because loudness
Fig-10(b) Soft Sound of sound means high energy is delivered to

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 219

 our ears. Hence we should be very careful
Think and discuss
when listening to music through ear
phones.

A
• Two girls are playing on identical
3. Quality stringed instruments. The strings of the

AN
You might have noticed different both instruments are adjusted to give
sounds produced by different instruments notes of same pitch. Will the quality of
such as violin, piano, flute, etc. To two notes be same? Justify your answer.
distinguish between two sounds, we need • What change would you expect in the
to learn about the quality of sound. characteristic of a musical sound when

NG
The quality of sound is the characteristic we increase its frequency at one instance
which enables us to distinguish between and amplitude at another instance?
musical notes emitted by different musical
instruments or voices even though they have
Reflection of sound
the same pitch and loudness. It is because Does sound get reflected at the
different wave forms are produced by
LA surface of a solid? Let us find out?
different musical instruments. Hence the Activity-4
quality of a note depends on its wave form.
Listening to reflected sound
TE

Take two long, identical tubes and

place them on a table near a wall. Ask
your friend to speak softly into one tube
while you use the other tube to listen.
Adjust the tube until you hear the best
T

sound. You will find that you hear your

friend’s voice best when the tubes make
equal angles with a normal to the wall as
ER

shown in figure-12. Why?

Reflection of sound follows the same
Fig-11
laws as the reflection of light. When sound is
reflected. i.e., the directions in which the
SC

sound is incident and reflected make equal

Figure-11 shows graphical representation
angles with the normal to the reflecting surface.
of sound waves produced by a tuning fork, a
violin and a piano playing the same note • What happens if you lift your tube
(fundamental frequency = 440Hz) with equal slightly above the table?
loudness (amplitude). • Are able to listen to the sound? If not
why?
220 Sound
 You will not be able to hear your friend’s
Think and discuss
voice clearly. Think about the planes of the
tube carrying incident sound and reflected

A
• What could be the reason for better
sound. What will happen to these planes if reflection of sound by rough surfaces
we lift one of the pipes? If you lift one of the

AN
than polished surfaces?
pipes then the pipe carrying incident sound
and the pipe carrying reflected sound will Echo
not be in the same plane. Hence we cannot
If we shout or clap standing at a suitable
hear a clear sound.
distance from a reflecting object such as a

NG
tall building or a mountain, we will hear the
same sound again a little later. This sound
which we hear is called an echo. The
sensation of sound persists in our brain for
about 0.1s. This is called persistence of
LA sound. To hear a distinct echo, the time
interval between the original sound and the
reflected sound must be at least 0.1s. This
Fig-12 means that if a sound produced by a source
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is reflected in less than 0.1 sec., the echo

Repeat the experiment by placing flat would not be heard. For sound to reflect
objects of different materials (steel and after 0.1 sec., what should be the minimum
plastic trays, a card board, a tray draped with distance between the source and the
cloth, etc) against the wall and observe obstacle?
changes in sounds.
T

Let us now derive a formula for finding

• Do hard surfaces reflect sound better out speed of sound, to hear an echo.
ER

than soft ones?

As you have seen in the second part of

the activity, the reflection of sound is
dependent on the reflecting surface.
SC

Generally, hard surfaces reflect sound

better than soft surfaces. But unlike light,
which is reflected well only from highly Fig-13
polished surfaces, sound reflects quite well Let the distance travelled by sound
from rough surfaces as well. For example, from source to obstacle = d
an un-plastered brick wall will reflect Then distance travelled by sound from
sound quite well. obstacle to source = d
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 221
 Thus, total distance travelled by sound In an auditorium or big hall excessive
wave = 2d reverberation is highly undesirable. To

A
Let echo time be ‘t’ sec reduce reverberation, the roof and walls of
the auditorium are generally covered with
Speed = total distance travelled/echo time
sound – absorbent materials like

AN
= 2d/t
compressed fibre board, rough plaster or
Do you know? draperies. The seat materials are also
selected on the basis of their sound
The roaring of thunder is due to the
absorbing properties.
successive reflections of the sound from

NG
a number of reflection surfaces, such as Think and discuss
the clouds and the land.
• In a closed box if you say hello, the
sound heard will be Hellooooo…..
Think and discuss
What does it mean?
LA
• Why is an echo weaker than the Relation between Echo and
original sound ? Reverberation
Reverberation is quite different from
Example-3 an echo. A reflected sound, arriving at the
TE

An echo is heard after 0.8s, when a boy position of listener more than 0.1s after
fires a cracker, 132m away from a tall the direct sound is called an echo. A
building. Calculate the speed of sound? reflection of sound, arriving at the listener
Solution in less than 0.1s after the direct sound is
Echo time (t) = 0.8s called reverberation.
T

Total distance travelled by sound wave

Uses of multiple reflection of
ER

2d = 2x132 m = 264m
sound
From, speed of sound V =2d/t
1. A megaphone and a horn
V = 264m/0.8s = 330 m/s
Megaphones, horns, musical
Reverberation instruments such as trumpets, shehanai and
SC

A reverberation is perceived when the loud speakers are all designed to send sound
reflected sound wave reaches your ear in in a particular direction without spreading
less than 0.1s after the original sound wave. it in all directions, as shown in figure 14.
Since the original sound and reflected sound
In these instruments, a tube followed
waves tend to combine, we get to hear one,
by a conical opening reflects sound
prolonged sound wave.
successively to guide most of the sound

222 Sound
 waves from the source in the forward 3. Designing of concert halls and
direction towards the audience. cinema halls
Generally the ceilings of concert halls,

A
conference halls and cinema halls are
designed such that sound after reflection

AN
reaches all corners of the hall, as shown in
figure 16. In some halls a curved sealing is
arranged in such a way that the sound after
Fig-14 reflecting from the ceiling spreads evenly

NG
across the hall.
Think and discuss

• What is the advantage of having

conical openings in Horns,
megaphones etc ?
LA
2. Stethoscope
Stethoscope is a medical instrument Fig-16
used for listening the sounds produced Think and discuss
TE

within the body, mainly in the heart or

lungs. In stethoscopes the sound of the • Why do we put cushions on the chairs,
patient’s heartbeat reaches the doctor’s carpet on the floor, straw materials on
ears by multiple reflection and amplifying the walls in cinema halls?
the sound as shown in figure 15.
Range of hearing
T

The human ears are able to hear sound

ER

in a frequency range of about 20 Hz to

20,000 Hz. The range of audibility is 20
Hz- 20 KHz. We cannot hear sounds of
frequencies less than 20 Hz or more than
20 KHz. These limits vary from person to
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person and with age. Children can hear

sounds of somewhat higher frequencies,
say up to 30 KHz. With age, our ability to
hear high-frequency sound diminishes. For
the elders, the upper limit often falls to 10-
Fig-15

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 223

 12 KHz. However, we take 20-20,000 Hz Ultrasound is used extensively in
as the audible range for an average person. industries and for medical purposes.

A
Even in the audible range, the human Industrial applications of
ears are not equally sensitive to all ultrasonic waves
frequencies. It is the most sensitive to

AN
1. Drilling holes or making cuts of
frequencies around 2,000-3,000 Hz, where
desired shape
it can hear even a very low-intensity sound.
Holes can also be drilled using
Sound of frequency less than 20 Hz is ultrasonic vibrations produced in a metallic
known as infrasonic sound or infrasound. rod, called a horn. This acts like a hammer,

NG
Sound of frequency greater than 20 KHz is hammering the plate about a hundred
known as ultrasonic sound or ultrasound. thousand times per second.
Do you know? The shape of the hole is the same as
that of the tip of the horn. Ultrasonic
Different animals have different
cutting and drilling are very effective for
LA
ranges of audible frequencies. A dog can
fragile materials like glass, for which
hear sounds of frequencies up to about
ordinary methods might not succeed.
50 KHz and a bat, up to about 100 KHz.
2. Ultrasonic cleaning
Dolphins can hear sounds of even higher
We normally clean dirty clothes, plates
TE

frequencies. These animals can also

produce ultrasonic waves and or other large objects by dipping them in a
communicate using them. Bats use detergent solution and then rubbing and
ultrasonic waves to navigate, as we shall washing. Parts located in hard-to-reach
see a little later. Animals such as places, cannot be easily cleaned by this
elephants and whales produce sounds of method.
T

frequencies less than 20 Hz . Scientists Ultrasonics help in cleaning such

have found that elephants grieve over objects which are placed in a cleaning
ER

their dead by producing infrasonic solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into
sounds. Some fishes can hear sounds, of the solution. This causes high-frequency
frequencies as low as 1-25 Hz. vibrations in the solution. These vibrations
Rhinoceroses communicate using knock off all dirt and grease particles from
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infrasonic sounds of frequency around the objects, which are then removed using
5 Hz. ordinary water.
3. Ultrasonic detection of defects in
Applications of ultrasound metals
Ultrasounds are high frequency sound Metallic components are used in
waves. They are able to travel along a well buildings, bridges, machines, scientific
defined path in gaseous and liquid media. equipment, and so on.
224 Sound
 If there are cracks or holes inside the 2. Surgical use of ultrasound
metal used, the strength of the structure or The ability of ultrasonic waves to
component is reduced and it can fail. Such

A
cause molecules of materials to vibrate
defects are not visible from the outside. vigorously and thus cause certain materials
Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect such to break into tiny pieces (emulsify) is

AN
defects. employed in ultrasound surgery. Cataract
Medical applications of removal is a very common example.
ultrasound Ultrasound is also employed to break
small stones that form in the kidneys into
1. Imaging of organs

NG
fine grains. These grains get flushed out
Ultrasonic waves have given doctors
with urine. This method has eliminated the
powerful and safe tools for imaging human
need to perform surgery.
organs. Echocardiography is a technique in
which ultrasonic waves, reflected from Think and discuss
various parts of the heart, form an image
LA • What is the benefit of using ultrasound
of the heart.
over light waves in the above
Ultrasonography is routinely used to
applications?
show doctors, the images of a patient’s
organs such as the liver, gall bladder, uterus, SONAR
TE

etc. It helps doctors to detect abnormalities

Do you know how we can measure the
such as stones in the gall bladder, tumors,
depth of the sea? Let us find out.
etc.
SONAR stands for Sound Navigation
It is also used to monitor the growth
And Ranging. This is a method for
of a foetus inside the mother’s womb.
T

detecting and finding the distance of

Ultrasonography is safer than older X- objects under water by means of reflected
ray imaging technique. Repeated X-rays can
ER

ultrasonic waves. The device used in this

harm tissues, especially those of a foetus. method is also called SONAR.
• How does a SONAR system work?
SONAR system consists of a
transmitter and a receiver which are
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installed in the “Observation Centre” on

board of a ship. From the observation
centre on board a ship, ultrasonic waves of
high frequencies, say 100 KHz, are sent in
all directions under the water through
Fig-17: Image of Ultrasound scanning
Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 225
 transmitter. These waves
travel in straight lines till Fig-18
they hit an object such as a

A
submarine, a sunken ship,
a school of fish, etc. The

AN
waves are then reflected,
and are received back by
the receiver at the
observation centre. The

NG
direction from which a
reflected wave comes to
the observation centre
tells the direction in which
the object is located. From
the time between sending
LA
the ultrasonic wave and
receiving its echo, and the

speed of sound in sea water, the distance the sea and to locate underwater hills and
TE

of the object from the observation centre valleys.

is calculated. Reflections from various Example 4
angles can be utilized to determine the A research team sends a sonar signal
shape and size of the object. to confirm the depth of a sea. They heard
Let d be the distance between the sonar an echo after 6s.Find the depth of the sea.
T

and an underwater object, t be time between If the speed of sound in sea water is 1500
sending an ultrasonic wave and receiving its m/s?
ER

echo from the object and u is the speed of

Solution
sound in water.
Let the depth of the sea = d m
The total distance covered by the wave
from the sonar to the object and back is 2d. Then Total distance
Using s = ut, travelled by sonar signal (s) = 2d
SC

Or 2d = ut Speed of sound in sea water (u)

ut = 1500 m/s
d= 2
Total time taken (t) = 6s
This method of finding distances is From, s = ut,
also called echo ranging. Marine geologists 2d = 1500 m/s x 6s
use this method to determine the depth of d = 9000/2 m =4.5 km
226 Sound
 Key words

A
Mechanical energy, tuning fork, longitudinal wave, transverse wave,
compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, density of medium, pressure, wavelength,

AN
amplitude, frequency, pitch, loudness, quality of sound, echo, reverberation,
infrasonic, audible range, ultrasonic and SONAR.

What we have learnt

NG
• Sound is a form of mechanical energy which produces sensation of hearing.
• A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator, which resonates at constant pitch when set into
vibration. LA
• If the particles of the medium move to and fro along the direction of propagation of
the wave, the waves are called longitudinal waves.
• Sound waves are longitudinal.
• The region of high density of particles in the medium during propagation of sound is
TE

called compression and low density regions are called rarefaction.

• The distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions is called
wavelength.
• The maximum variation in density or pressure from the mean value is called amplitude
T

or the maximum disturbance of particles of a medium from their mean position is

called amplitude.
ER

• The time taken to complete one oscillation of density in the medium is called time
period of sound wave.
• The number of oscillations of the density of the medium at a place per unit time is
called frequency.
SC

• The distance by which a point of on the wave, such as a compression or rarefaction

travels per unit time is called speed of sound.

• Loudness of sound is defined as the degree of sensation produced in the ear.

• The quality of sound is the characteristic which enables us to distinguish between

musical notes emitted by different musical instruments.

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 227

 • A reflection of sound, arriving at the listener in more than 0.1s after direct sound is
called an echo.

A
• A reflection of sound, arriving at the listener in less than 0.1s after direct sound is
called reverberation.

AN
• Sound of frequency between 20Hz – 20KHz is called sonic or audible limit.

• Sound of frequency less than 20Hz is known as infrasonic sounds.

• Sound of frequency higher than 20KHz is known as ultrasonic sounds.

NG
• SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging.

Let us Improve our learning

LA
Reflections on concepts
1. Explain the following terms
a) amplitude b) wavelength c) frequency (AS1)
TE

2. Write the relation between wavelength, frequency and speed of sound (AS1)
3. Which has larger frequency – infrasonic sound or ultrasonic sound? (AS2)
4. What do you understand by a sound wave? (AS1)
5. Why is soft furnishing avoided in concert halls? (AS7)
T

6. Define the wavelength of a sound wave. How is it related to the frequency and the
wave speed? (AS1)
ER

Application of concepts
1. Does the sound follow same laws of reflection as light does?
(AS1)
2. Two sources A and B vibrate with the same amplitude. They produce sounds of
SC

frequencies 1kHz and 30kHz respectively. Which of the two waves will have larger
power? (AS1)
3. You might have observed that sometimes your pet dog starts barking though no
one is seen near in its surroundings or no disturbance heard nearby. Does this

228 Sound
 observation raise any doubts in your mind about the peculiar behavior of dog
after your understanding about ‘range of hearing the sound’. If yes, write them.

A
(AS2)
4. With the help of a diagram describe how compression and rarefaction pulses are

AN
produced in air near a source of sound. (AS5)
5. How are multiple reflections of sound helpful to doctors and engineers?
(AS7)

NG
Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. Explain the working and applications of SONAR. (AS1)
2. How do you appreciate efforts of a musician to produce melodious sound using a
musical instrument by simultaneously controlling frequency and amplitude of the
LA
sounds produced by it. (AS6)
3. How do echoes in a normal room affect the quality of the sounds that we hear?
(AS7)
TE

s
Multiple choice question

1. When can you say that the sound is propagating thourgh a medium [ ]
a) If the medium is travelling b) The particles of a medium are travelling
T

c) When the source of sound is travelling d) When the disturbance is travelling.

ER

2. The unit for the number of waves produced in a second are [ ]

a) hertz b) joule c) meter d) pascal
3. The sounds of frequency less than 20 Hz are known as [ ]
a) Ultra sounds b) Soft sounds c) Louder sounds d) Infrasonics
SC

4. The sound limit between the frequency of 20Hz – 20000Hz is called as [ ]

a) Audible range b) Ultra sound rangec) Low sound range d) Sonic boom

Telangana Government Free Distribution 2019-20 229

 5. The characterstic feature of sound which conveys the sensation of sound to our
brain is [ ]

A
a)Pitch b) Loudness c) Quality d) amplitude

AN
Suggested Experiments
1. Conduct an experiment to listen the reflected sound and write a report.

Suggested Projects

NG
1. Collect the information about the animals which communicate through Infrasonics
or ultrasonics. Collect their pictures and write a report on their communication
technique.
2. “We know that the sound is a form of energy. So, the large amount of energy produced
LA
due to the sound pollution in cosmopolitan cities can be used to our day to day
needs of energy. It also helps us to protect biodiversity in urban areas”. Do you
agree with this statement? Collect information onthis and write a report.
TE
T
ER
SC

230 Sound