Injection Molding of

Thermosets

chines can be converted to injection of ther-

OVERVIEW moset by changing the screw, barrel, and noz-
zle. Because most thermoset barrels are shorter
In the mid-l960s, about two years after the
than their thermoplastic counterpart, it may be
introduction of automatic transfer molding
necessary to reposition the injection assembly
machines and screw-preplasticizinghransfer
closer to the clamp fixed platen.
molding machines, the concept of in-line screw
The thermoset molding materials developed
injection molding of thermosets (sometimes re-
specifically for injection molding have a long
ferred to as direct screw transfer or DST) was
shelf life in the barrel at moderate temperatures
developed. It had long been thought that this
(approximately 200"F), and react very rapidly
process, already highly successful with ther-
when the temperature is brought up to 350 to
moplastic materials, would be impractical for
400°F as the material is forced through the
thermosetting plastics because the critical time-
sprue, runners, and gates, and fills the cavities.
temperature relationship would prove uncon-
This unique development in materials helped to
trollable, and material would set up in the bar-
gain acceptance of injection molding as a reli-
rel.
able production process.
Development progressed not only on screw
and barrel designs but also on stability of ther-
moset materials at elevated temperatures, fi- How the Process Operates
nally leading to successful processing by screw
injection molding. (See Fig. 8-1.) A typical arrangement for in-line screw injec-
This technique has had a significant influ- tion molding of thermosets is shown in Fig.
ence on the thermoset molding business by vir- 8-5.
tue of reduced molding cycle time and the po- The machine consists of two sections
tential it offers for low-cost, high-volume mounted on a common base. One section
production of molded thermoset parts. clamps and holds the mold halves together un-
Today, thermoset injection molding ma- der pressure during the injection of material into
chines are available in all clamp tonnages up to the mold. The other section-the plasticizing
1200 tons and shot sizes up to 20 lb. (see Figs. and injection unit-includes the feed hopper,
8-2, 8-3, and 8-4). the hydraulic cylinder which forces the screw
Thermoset in-line screw assemblies are fitted forward to inject the material into the mold, a
to horizontal or vertical clamp machines. Most motor to rotate the screw, and the heated barrel
horizontal clamp thermoplastic injection ma- which encloses the screw.
Basically, the injection-molding press,
Reviewed and revised by John L. Hull, Vice Chairman,
whether for thermosets or for thermoplastics, is
Hull Corporation, Hatboro, PA. the same, utilizing the reciprocating screw to
239
240 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

1
1
7

Fig. 8-1. Reciprocating screw injection molding, 600-ton hydraulic clamp. (Courtesy Hull Corporation)

Fig. 8-2. A 3OO-ton clamp, reciprocating screw injection molding machine. (Courtesy H f M Corp.)

Fig. 8-3. A 150-ton toggle clamp BMC injection molding machine, rear side showing stuffing cylinder feeding into
injection barrel. (Courresy H f M Corp.)
 INJECTION MOLDING OF THERMOSETS 241

Fig. 8-4. Close-up of BMC stuffer cylinder, at left, feeding through elbow into injection barrel of plunger-injection
molding machine. (Courtesy Hull Corp.)

plasticate the material charge. In most injection the screw. As it passes through the barrel, the
molding of thermosets, the material, in granu- plastic picks up conductive heat from the heat-
lar or pellet form, is fed from the hopper by ing element on the barrel and frictional heat
gravity into the feed throat of the barrel. It then from the rotation of the screw.
is moved forward by the action of the flights of For thermoset materials, the depth of flights

Movable platen -, Tie Fixed Heating Hopper

Clam()-cylinder piston
7 1- bars
7 platen
3, end
cooling-,
K$W:?q

nder t o r e t r a c t Y/////A

Fig. 8-5. Typical arrangement of direct screw transfer molding machine for thermosets. (Courtesy S. Bodner)
242 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

of the screw at the feed-zone end is normally At a carefully selected time during the cycle,
the same as the depth of flight at the nozzle the plasticating process in the barrel is initiated
end; this is a 1 : 1 compression ratio screw. This and timed to be complete by the time that the
compression ratio is the major difference be- mold is fully closed again. The molding cycle
tween thermoset and thermoplastic molding repeats automatically.
machines-the latter having compression ratios In the process, the granular plastic is fed di-
such that the depth of flight at the feed end is rectly into the barrel of the press, and no ex-
1; to 5 times that at the nozzle end, giving ternal auxiliary preforming or preheating
compression ratios of 3 : 1 to 5 : 1. equipment is required. Despite this, the tem-
As the material moves forward in the barrel, perature of the material entering the mold is
it changes from a granular to a semiviscous higher and more uniform than that in other
consistency, and it forces the screw backward thermoset molding techniques because of the
in the barrel against a preset hydraulic pres- homogenizing effect of the screw upon the
sure. This back pressure is an important pro- plastic.
cessing variable. The screw stops turning when Most barrels are covered with a metal jacket
the proper amount of material has reached the designed to permit heated water to flow across
nozzle end of the barrel, as sensed by a vernier- and around the barrel (Fig. 8-6). The water or
set limit switch. This material at the nozzle temperature-controlled fluid not only assists in
end-the charge-is the exact volume of ma- heating the thermoset material as it moves along
terial required to fill the sprue, runners, and the flight of the screw but helps prevent over-
cavities of the mold. heating, as the fluid will withdraw excessive
The heated and plasticated slug of material internal heat should it occur because of exces-
at the front or nozzle end of the barrel is mod- sive screw rpm or back pressure.
erately stable for perhaps a minute or more- Screw check valves or sleeves, which are
enough retention time for the mold to complete standard for thermoplastics (except for heat-
closing and the machine to be in the high-pres- sensitive materials such as PVC), are not used
sure clamp mode. with thermosets. They provide restrictions to
The screw is then moved forward at rapid even flow of high viscosity materials, and
speeds (up to 2000 inches per minute) by hy- eventually cause the material to set up in the
draulic pressure (up to 20,000 psi) on the plas- valves or sleeves. Some material slippage or
tic. The hot plastic melt is forced through the back flow along the flights of the screw does
nozzle of the barrel, through the sprue of the occur when the injection pressure approaches
mold, and into the runner system, gates, and maximum. Because of this slippage, the full
mold cavities. slug of plasticated material does not reach the
The temperature of the material rises from cavities. Therefore, one should not attempt to
the barrel temperature of about 200°F to mold
temperature of 350 to 400”F, and fast cross-
linking takes place, curing the part in seconds
or a few minutes, depending on the mass of
material and the maximum cross-sectional
thickness of the part.
When the reciprocating screw has delivered
about 95% of the charge, the injection or
“boost” pressure of up to 20,000 psi generally
is reduced automatically to about half that value
for completion of the cavity fill and for holding
during cure. This secondary pressure generally
is termed the “hold” pressure. Fig. 8-6. Close-up of water-heated injection barrel, three
Following cure, the mold opens automati- temperature zones, on typical thermoset injection molding
cally, parts are ejected, and the mold closes. machine. (Courtesy Hull Curp.)
 INJECTION MOLDING OF THERMOSETS 243

use the maximum rated shot capacity of the that of other thermoset processes, particularly
machine. A rule of thumb for most materials for parts having inch wall section or greater
and machines is to use up to 80% of rated ca- (Fig. 8-7). Cycle-time reductions on the order
pacity. of 20 to 30% are common; even greater reduc-
Nozzles at the end of the barrel usually are tions have been reported.
water-cooled or temperature-controlled to Molding a thermoset material on an injection
maintain a proper balance between a hot mold molding machine involves approximately the
(350-40O0F), and a relatively cool barrel (150- same cost factors as molding a thermoplastic
200 O F ) . material. Machinery costs, plant space require-
ments, and labor costs are about the same.
PROCESS AND DESIGN Therefore, the costs that makes the difference
are the basic material price and the cycle time
CONSIDERATIONS
required.
Thermoset molding resins require curing by a
chemical reaction, or polymerization. Thus, the Materials
closer to the curing temperature the material is
when it fills the cavity, the shorter will be the Most materials are slightly modified from con-
in-cavity cycle time. The direct screw injection ventional thermoset compounds. These modi-
process substantially reduces cure time from fications are required to provide the working

'.*

Fig. 8-7. A 35-ton vertical injection molding machine highlighting BMC stuffer. (Courresy Gluco, Inc.)
244 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

timejtemperature relationship needed for screw

plasticating. Additionally, material formula-
tions may be altered according to the geometry
of the part being molded. The new compounds
are priced approximately the same as conven-
tional materials.
Although all thermosetting materials have
been molded by this technique, the most com-
monly used materials are the phenolics. These
materials were the first to be injection-molded,
and today it is estimated that approximately 400
million pounds are being processed by injec-
tion molding annually. Other thermoset mate-
Fig. 8-8. Shot from eight-cavity mold for double outlet
rials being molded by the process include wiring device, injection-molded with urea formaldehyde.
melamine, urea, polyester, alkyd, diallyl (Courresy Hull Corp.)
phthalate (DAP), polyurethane, and alloys such
as phenolic melamine and phenolic epoxy.
A wide variety of fillers can be used to
achieve the properties required in the finished
product. Except in a few special cases, the
choice of filler is of greater significance in end-
product properties than in the method by which
the product is molded.
The introduction of dust-free phenolic in pel- I
let form brought additional advantages to injec-
tion molding. The dust-free material eliminated
the former need for separate molding areas and
equipment for phenolics. Now these materials
can be molded side by side with a thermoplas-
tic operation, with minimum danger of contam-
ination. In fact, with a change of the barrel and
screw, the same machine often can be used for Fig. 8-9. Steam iron handle screw molded from phenolic.
both materials. (Courresy Wesringhouse Electric)
Applications particularly suited for the pro-
cess are automotive power brake, transmission, pattern, such parts are more similar to transfer-
and electrical parts; wet/dry applications such molded parts than to compression-molded
as in steam irons, washer pumps, and moisture parts.
vaporizers; and communications and electrical Shrinkage, in most parts, occurs slightly
distribution parts that require dimensional sta- more in the direction of flow than in the trans-
bility and electrical insulation. (See Figs. 8-8, verse direction. This difference is caused by the
8-9, and 8-10.) orientation of the filler (almost all thermoset
compounds contain a filler) as the compound
Process Effects on Design flows through the gate and into the cavity. Such
shrinkage is particularly evident in edge-gated
Proper design of injection-molded thermoset parts. To minimize the flow effect, center gat-
parts requires an understanding of the flow ing, which distributes the material more evenly,
characteristics of material within the mold. is recommended where optimum shrinkage
These characteristics affect some properties of control is required, such as in molding a round
the finished parts, and they vary somewhat with piece within dimensional tolerance. Technol-
the different materials. In that they have a flow ogy is now well advanced in the use of warm-
 INJECTION MOLDING OF THERMOSETS 245

Fig. 8-10. Two-cavity shot from conventional injection mold, large electrical switchgear housing, BMC polyester
material. (Courtesy GE Plastics)

runner molds (equivalent to hot-runner molds advantages. A smaller gate gives a cleaner gate
as used with thermoplastics), which, when used break that requires little or no hand finishing.
with center gating, provide a substantial reduc- A gate can be placed in an area where previ-
tion in material consumed in the sprue and run- ously the appearance of a larger gate mark
ner-a cost saving over conventional thermoset would have been objectionable. A small gate
molding. also contributes to faster cure cycles because it
The flatness required in the finished molded increases frictional heat within the molding
part is another design parameter affected by compound during filling. However, the impact
process capabilities. Long, narrow parts that properties of compounds containing long-fiber
have to be flat may be difficult to mold because reinforcement degrade when the material passes
of the variation in shrinkage. Similarly, a non- through a small gate. When such materials are
uniform wall section may warp as a result of specified, close cooperation between the ma-
nonuniform shrinkage. The choice of gate lo- terial supplier and the molder is necessary.
cation sometimes can compensate for such con- Other physical properties such as tensile and
ditions; close cooperation with the mold de- flexural strength can also be controlled by gate
signer is recommended at this stage. geometry.
The surface finish on molded parts also dif-
fers from that of traditionally molded thermo- Injection-Compression Molding
sets. The greater the distance of material flow
required, the more likely it is that flow marks To minimize fiber orientation, and thereby im-
will occur. Avoiding large, flat, polished areas prove the impact strength of injection-molded
helps reduce rejects and keeps molding costs fibrous compounds, the conventional injection
down. Here, too, gate location is a factor. If molding process is often modified to allow the
large, flat areas are necessary, such areas can mold to remain slightly open-perhaps $ inch-
be textured or patterned to mask slight irregu- during cavity fill. When the cavity is essen-
larities. A rough surface texture generally is not tially full, the mold is closed and held under
desirable, however, because it may cause stick- full clamp pressure until cure is completed. In
ing in the mold cavity. this process, the final mold closing acts like
Gates used for thermoset injection molding compression molding, permitting the fibers to
usually are smaller than those needed for trans- shift from a longitudinal flow orientation to a
fer molding. This difference provides several more random orientation. The design and con-
246 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

struction of the mold must be such that it pre- Venting of gases from the cavity must be
vents escape of the injected material to mold done in the short time available during the fill-
parting surfaces during the cavity filling step. ing of the cavity. The most effective vent is the
Frontal flanges are incorporated to effectively parting line of the mold; so try to visualize the
close off the cavity when the mold is partially material flow from the gate to the most distant
closed. The injection-compression process point of the part where the gases will collect.
often reduces the clamping force required, as If this point is on a mold parting line, then the
compared to conventional injection molding. part is well designed for venting. Avoid long,
dead-end comdors of flow and trapped wall
sections that prevent venting. Vacuum venting,
Part-Design Considerations
as described in Chapter 9, is readily adapted to
As in most other molding processes, wall-sec- injection molding when complex shapes cannot
tion uniformity is important. Molding cycles, be adequately vented from the patting line.
and therefore costs, depend upon the cure time Molded-in inserts commonly are used with
of the thickest section. Therefore, cross sec- thermosetting materials. However, because the
tions should be as uniform as design parame- injection process is automatic, the use of post-
ters allow, with a minimum wall thickness of assembled inserts rather than molded-in inserts
EI
inch. A good working average for wall thick- is recommended. Molded-in inserts require
;
ness is to & inch. Nevertheless, as part re- holding the mold open each cycle to place the
inserts. A delay in manual placement destroys
quirements dictate, heavy walls favor the use
of thermosets because the cure rate of thermo- the advantage of uniformity and consistency of
setting materials is considerably faster than the the automatic cycle, affecting both production
cooling rate of thermoplastics. A rule of thumb and quality.
for estimating cycle times for a $ inch wall sec- Tolerances of parts molded by the injection
tion is 45 seconds for thermoplastics and 30 method are comparable to those produced by
seconds for thermosets, when injection mold- compression and transfer methods. Tolerances
ing is used. have been held as low as rtO.001 in./in., but
Generous radii and fillets are recommended, ordinarily, tolerances of k0.003 to 0.005
as in other plastic processes, for maximum in. /in. are economically practical for produc-
strength. Most plastic materials are somewhat tion. See Chapter 28 for recommendations.
notch-sensitive, so avoiding sharp comers is All mold techniques and variations such as
important. Generous fillets are less likely to cams and movable die sections used in other
cause sink marks in the low-shrinkage ther- forms of molding are adaptable to thermoset in-
moset materials than they are in some of the jection molding. Therefore, parts can include
thermoplastics, so more freedom is available in such features as molded-in side holes, threads,
the use of reinforcing fillets. and undercuts. These refinements increase mold
Draft to allow the release of the molded part cost, of course, so the decision of how many
from the cavity and force plug (core) should be refinements to build into a mold is usually an
io
at least per side; greater draft is preferred if economics problem rather than a technical one.
possible. Because the injection method is au-
tomatic, ease of mold release is essential for COLD RUNNER MOLDING
rapid ejection with minimum distortion of the
part. Provision should be made in the part for Standard injection molds for thermoset mate-
the placement of ejector pins for this purpose. rials are very similar to standard mold designs
The use of knockout pins as large as possible for thermoplastics. Because one cannot grind
;
(at least inch in diameter) consistent with part and reuse the thermoset runner system, there is
design and aesthetic considerations will pro- always interest in reducing the amount of ma-
vide trouble-free processing, which ultimately terial in a runner system required to produce
is reflected in lower costs. parts on a production basis.
 INJECTION MOLDING OF THERMOSETS 247

SPRUE BUSHING

HEATER
l v
CAVITY

CAVITY MANIFOLD

MANIFOLD RETAINER

Fig. 8-11. Exploded view of a cold runner mani,fold. (Courtesy Stokes Div., Pennwult Corp.)

Toward this end, molds may be designed to INJECTION MOLDING REINFORCED

maintain thermoset material in a plastic state in POLYESTERS
the runner without ejecting it from the mold.
This cold runner technique is not too different A popular material increasingly used in ther-
from “hot runner” thermoplastic mold de- moset injection molding is polyester reinforced
signs, except that heated water is used to main- with glass or other fibers. This material gen-
tain a “runner” temperature of between 150 erally is referred to as bulk molding compound
and 210”F, and cartridge heaters are used to (BMC) in the United States and as dough mold-
maintain proper cavity and force temperatures ing compound (DMC) in Europe. Because it is
for curing. This type of mold is known as a doughlike in consistency at room temperature,
“cold runner” thermoset mold, or sometimes it does not feed from a hopper but requires a
a “warm runner” mold (see Fig. 8-11). Parts special stiiffing mechanism on the injection ma-
may be separated from the runners right at the chine for automatic molding.
part surface; or short subrunners may be ejected Although BMC often is molded by using a
with the parts, leaving most of the runner ma- conventional reciprocating screw, many BMC
terial in the warm manifold, to be used in the injection machines use a simple plunger to force
next shot. the material from the barrel to the mold. The
A multicavity standard injection mold for plunger is used to lessen shear degradation of
small thermoset parts may have 50 to 150% the fibers as well as to prevent back slippage of
runner or waste material. Using a cold runner material during the injection and hold part of
mold, this waste can be reduced to as little as the cycle.
10%of the shot. The stuffer mechanism includes a loading
248 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

chamber, which is generally manually loaded

with up to several hundred pounds of com-
pound. The stuffer chamber has a large-diam-
eter piston, air- or hydraulically driven, to force
the room-temperature material into the injec-
tion barrel upstream of the reciprocating screw

T
or downstream of the plunger, depending on
which injection method is used.
Because the BMC is already plasticized at PLUNGER
room temperature, it needs a minimum of heat-
ing in the barrel and relatively low pressures,
6000 to 10,000 psi, for rapid injection. Also,
because BMC reaches the molder from the sup-
plier in a fully homogenized state, no mixing
in the barrel is necessary.

Injection Molding Presses

There are a number of injection molding presses
specifically designed to handle thermoset
polyester operations. All require stuffing cyl-
inders because of the physical characteristics of Fig. 8-12. Sketch of material stuffer for BMC materials.
the material. Most FRP is puttylike (BMC) or The stuffer usually consists of a cylinder with a plunger
a fiberlike coated material, neither of which that maintains pressure against the polyester material while
flows freely through normal hopper systems the screw is rotating. When the stuffer cylinder is nearly
(Fig. 8-12). empty, the plunger is withdrawn and additional material is
deposited into the stuffer. (Courtesy Stokes Div., fennwult
On some machines the material or compound Corp.)
is forced from the stuffer cylinder from the top
or side into the rear of a conventional screw
injection cylinder. The screw acts only as a
conveyor that moves the material to the front Regardless of their basic design, machines
of the cylinder instead of providing a plasticat- should be capable of accurately controlling
ing function. Then, the screw acts as a plunger. temperatures and pressures throughout the
It does not turn as it pushes the material into molding cycling with as little glass degradation
the mold. as possible.
On other machines a plunger instead of a
screw pushes the material into the mold. This Temperature Control
type densifies material as it pushes it into the
mold cavities. The object of controlling temperatures is to
Screws and plungers can be interchanged warm the material in the barrel enough to per-
within the same machine frame, requiring only mit free flow to preheat it as it goes through the
changes in electricals. nozzle and runners, and to cure it as fast as
Another type is the coaxial plunger machine. possible after it has stopped flowing in the cav-
Material is dropped into a stuffer cylinder in- ity. Because of the temperature sensitivity of
line with a smaller cylinder that pushes the ma- thermoset materials, control is very critical.
terial into the mold. Advantages claimed for Typical settings are: rear zone of barrel, 125"F,
this structure include the short distance that the front zone, 150°F; cold runner, 175°F; and
material has to flow. Angles and comers around both halves of the mold, 335°F. As a practical
which the material must move have been elim- limit, material coming out of the nozzle should
inated. not be more than 200°F. The mold tempera-
 INJECTION MOLDING OF THERMOSETS 249

Fig. 8-13. Schematic of sprueless mold for BMC polyester injection molding. (Courtesy Hull Corp.)

tures for most materials are between 300 and Another significant difference between ther-
400°F. moplastic and thermoset injection molds is the
Experience shows that the cure time of a i- need for harder runner, gate, and cavity sur-
inch section should be within 15 to 45 seconds, faces because of the extreme abrasiveness of
depending on part size. most thermoset materials. Typical hardnesses
Other typical press conditions are screw rpm, are 56 to 58 Rockwell C,and such surfaces are
20 to 75; back pressure up to 100 psi; injection often hard-chrome-plated for further resistance
time 1 to 5 seconds; injection pressure, 5000 to wear.
to 20,000 psi during injection, and as little as The low-shrinkage characteristic of BMC
half that during cure; and clamp pressure, 3 makes ejection of pieces more difficult than
tons/sq. in. max (based on cavity projected with thermoplastics. Liberal draft, where pos-
area). sible, and provisions for positive ejection on
Besides presses specifically designed for both sides of the mold generally are required.
thermoset molding, conversion kits also are Properly hardened molds should wear well,
available to change over machines originally but gate areas are susceptible to wear. Design-
designed for thermoplastic operations. ing them as replaceable inserts makes their re-
Tooling requirements are similar to those for pair and replacement less costly.
thermoplastic injection molding. The major dif- Gates should be located so as to minimize
ference is that adequate provision must be made effects of knit lines that form after material has
for heating the molds. Molds should be fully flowed around an obstruction in the mold. Also,
hardened, polished, and chrome-plated. Tool multiple gates should be avoided to reduce the
steels such as AIS1 H13 are recommended. number of knit lines that form where materials
250 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

from gates join. Eliminating knit lines reduces cases they are water-cooled to somewhat below
chances of rejects. Large-area and short-length mold temperatures. A typical temperature for
gates and runners give the strongest parts. them is about 175°F. Thus the material ac-
The mold should permit the material to flow tually gets a useful amount of preheating in the
so that it pushes air ahead of it into places where “cold runner.” Runners should have relatively
it can be vented out at parting lines or knockout large diameters to provide for easier material
pins. Vacuum extraction of air is another useful flow and less degradation. Center-gated, three-
technique for venting. plate molds should be considered for parts re-
Sharp comers, restricted orifices, and gates quiring maximum impact strength if cold run-
that cause glass degradation should be avoided ners are not used.
if possible. Problems of flashing common to compres-
Because low-shrink BMC can stick in con- sion molding to not occur with properly de-
ventional sprue bushings after curing, cold run- signed and maintained injection molds. The lit-
ners and sprues can be used. These elements tle flash that occurs is paper-thin and easily
can be oriented in different ways, but in all removed.