Check out the Pesticide Education and Assessment Program web site at http://pesticide.umd.

edu

Mode of Action of
Insecticides and Related Pest Control
Chemicals for Production Agriculture,
Ornamentals, and Turf
Pesticide Information Leaflet No. 43

Amy E. Brown, Ph.D., Coordinator

Pesticide Education and Assessment Programs
Revised May 2006 (orig. pub. September 2005)

Introduction

To understand how pesticides work pesticides that work through similar

(their mode of action), it is necessary to mechanisms. Development of pest
understand how the pests’ targeted systems resistance can be avoided or delayed by
normally function. It is also helpful to rotating pest control chemicals that work
understand how human systems function in through different modes of action
order to see similarities and differences
between humans and the pests we try to Insecticides and miticides generally
control. target the nervous system, growth and
development, or energy production of the
Another reason it is important to pest. A description of these processes is
understand the modes of action of the presented in this leaflet, followed by a table
pesticides we use is to prevent development listing the mode of action of insecticides and
of pesticide resistance in the target pest(s). miticides commonly used in the production
Using pesticides with the same modes of of crops, ornamentals, and turf. Throughout
action contributes to this problem by killing the text, italics are used to indicate important
the susceptible pests and leaving only those physiological processes or terms, and bold
with resistance to the entire class of text is used to identify pest control
chemicals or classes of chemicals.

Educating People to Help Themselves

Local Governments ! U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating
The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State law and regulations on nondiscrimination
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Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director of Personnel/Human Relations, Office of
the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.
The Nervous System released from the end of the neuron. This
neurotransmitter crosses the synapse and
The nervous system functions as a fast- binds to a receptor on the receiving end of
acting means of transmitting important the next neuron. Binding to the receptor
information throughout the body. This causes the signal to be converted back into
system has two components: 1.) the an electrical charge in the second neuron,
peripheral nervous system to receive and and the signal is transmitted along the length
transmit incoming signals (taste, smell, of that neuron. After transmitting its
sight, sound, and touch) and to transmit message across the synapse, the
outgoing signals to the muscles and other neurotransmitter is resorbed back into its
organs, effectively telling them how to originating neuron, and the nerve cell is then
respond, and 2.) the central nervous system in a resting stage until the next signal is
(CNS) to interpret the signals and received.
coordinate the body’s responses and
movements. This process repeats over and over
until the signal has reached the CNS (the
A neuron is a single nerve cell. It brain and spinal cord in humans and a series
connects with other neurons and with of ganglia, or nerve bundles, in the insect) to
muscle fibers (the basic units of muscles) be interpreted. Impulses from the CNS to
through gaps at the end of each neuron. The the peripheral nervous system continue in
gap between neurons, or between a neuron the same way until the signal reaches the
and a muscle fiber, is called a synapse. appropriate muscles or organs.

Incoming signals (the pain from a sharp Both humans and insects have many
object, the sight of a predator, or the odor of different neurotransmitters that work at
food, etc.) are transformed by the neuron different sites throughout the nervous
into an electrical charge which then travels system. Some neurotransmitters are
down the length of the neuron. These excitatory (they result in the signal being
charged particles (called ions) move through sent on through the synapse to a connecting
channels in the membrane of the neurons. neuron), and some are inhibitory (they result
There are four main types of channels to in the reaction being blocked from traveling
allow different ions to move along the to a connecting neuron). In this way, the
neuron: sodium channels, potassium body ensures that the signal has the desired
channels, calcium channels, and chloride effect in each muscle or organ, since many
channels. Many of the channels have gates different reactions are involved in even a
that open or close in response to a certain simple movement.
stimulus, which is an important mechanism
through which some pesticides work, as Of the many neurotransmitters that
explained later in this leaflet. both insects and humans have, acetylcholine
(ACh) and gamma-aminobutyric acid
When an electrical charge reaches the (GABA) are important targets of some
end of the neuron, it stimulates a chemical insecticides. ACh can either excite or
messenger, called a neurotransmitter, to be inhibit its target neurons – depending on the

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particular neuron and the specific receptors body continually produces cholinesterase,
at the site, ACh can cause particular neurons although it may take several weeks to again
to “fire,” continuing the nerve impulse reach the desirable circulating level.
transmission, or it can cause the nerve
impulse to stop at that particular site. In Applicators using cholinesterase-
contrast, GABA is an inhibitory inhibiting pesticides regularly should
neurotransmitter – when GABA is the consider having their cholinesterase level
neurotransmitter activated at a synapse, the monitored. A simple blood test performed
nerve impulse stops. Some insecticides in the preseason and at intervals throughout
interfere with the normal action of these the application season predicts whether an
neurotransmitters. Other insecticides applicator is being exposed to too much
attacking the nervous system work by other organophosphate or carbamate. For more
means. The most common mechanisms are information, refer to Pesticide Information
explained below. Leaflet No. 7: Cholinesterase Testing and
No. 30: Cholinesterase Monitoring -- A
Cholinesterase Inhibition Guide for the Health Professional).

Organophosphate and carbamate Acetylcholine Receptor Stimulation

insecticides are known as cholinesterase
inhibitors. They bind to the enzyme that is Neonicotinoid insecticides act as
normally responsible for breaking down agonists of the acetylcholine receptor. That
ACh after it has carried its message across is, they mimic the action of the
the synapse. When an insect has been neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh).
poisoned by a cholinesterase inhibitor, the Although cholinesterase is not affected by
cholinesterase is not available to help break these insecticides, the nerve is continually
down the ACh, and the neurotransmitter stimulated by the neonicotinoid itself, and
continues to cause the neuron to “fire,” or the end result is similar to that caused by
send its electrical charge. This causes cholinesterase inhibitors – overstimulation
overstimulation of the nervous system, and of the nervous system leads to poisoning and
the insect dies. death. Fortunately, the neonicotinoids are a
closer mimic for the insect’s ACh than for
Like insects, humans also use ACh as a human ACh, giving this class of insecticides
neurotransmitter and cholinesterase to break more specificity for insects and less ability
it down, and cholinesterase poisoning in to poison humans.
humans can be very severe. Upon each
exposure to an organophosphate or Spinosad is also an acetylcholine
carbamate insecticide, more cholinesterase receptor agonist. The exact mechanism of
becomes bound and is unavailable to do its spinosad is somewhat different than that of
job. Although cholinesterase inhibition by the neonicotinoid class, but the end result is
carbamates is somewhat reversible, the same.
organophosphate poisoning is not reversible.
This means the insecticide does not release
the bound cholinesterase. Fortunately, the

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Chloride Channel Regulation Pyrethroids are synthetic versions of
pyrethrins, specifically designed to be more
Avermectins are derived from a soil stable in the environment (although still
microorganism and belong to a group called lasting only days or weeks), and thus
the macrolactones. Avermectins bind to the provide longer-lasting control.
chloride channel. This channel normally
blocks reactions in some nerves, preventing Pyrethrins and pyrethroids act on tiny
excessive stimulation of the central nervous channels through which sodium is pumped
system (CNS). Avermectins activate the to cause excitation of neurons. They prevent
chloride channel, causing an inhibitory the sodium channels from closing, resulting
effect, which, when excessive, results in the in continual nerve impulse transmission,
insect’s death. tremors, and eventually, death.

Organochlorine insecticides of the Pyrethrins and pyrethroids are well-

cyclodiene type affect the chloride channel known irritants of humans’ respiratory
by inhibiting the GABA receptor. As systems as well as of the skin and eyes.
explained above, the GABA receptor has an Applicators who have an allergic reaction to
inhibitory function at its site. When a these insecticides must either increase the
cyclodiene insecticide binds to the GABA amount of personal protective equipment
molecule, the neurotransmitter can no longer worn during handling, or stop working with
close the chloride channel for which it acts this class of insecticides.
as a gate. Thus there is nothing to stop the
electrical charge from continuing down the
neuron. The end result is overstimulation of Growth and Development
the nervous system.
Unlike humans, insects must shed their
Bifenazate affects the GABA-gated skin in order to grow and to develop into
chloride channel as an agonist. That is, it their next life stage. Insects’ skin is a hard
causes the gate to have the same action as exoskeleton, also called the cuticle, which
GABA would cause, which closes the gate. provides both protection and structure.
Nerve impulses are then unable to travel Molting is necessary not only for the insect
down the chloride channel. to grow, but also for the insect to reach the
adult stage so that it can reproduce.
Sodium Channel Modulators
Hormones play various roles in
Pyrethrins are naturally-occurring molting. Disruption of, or interference with,
compounds derived from members of the any of these hormones inactivates the
chrysanthemum family. While they have a molting process. Some insecticides target
quick knock-down effect against insects, the insect’s growth and development
they are unstable in the environment, so may processes through interfering with
not last long enough to kill the pest. hormones, and others through blocking the
production of a structural component of the
exoskeleton.

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Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSIs) circulating throughout its body and sending
the signal to stay in the current stage.
Chitin is an important component of
the insect’s cuticle. Some insecticides, Another hormone important in
called chitin synthesis inhibitors, block the metamorphosis is ecdysone. The insecticide
production of chitin. An insect poisoned tebufenozide interferes with the production
with a CSI cannot make chitin and so cannot of ecdysone, causing the insect to be unable
molt. Because molting must take place for to molt.
the insect to reach the adult stage, a CSI-
poisoned insect also cannot reproduce. Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) is
Eventually, the insect dies. another insect development hormone. The
insecticide azadirachtin, which is derived
Because humans do not make chitin, from neem oil, interferes with synthesis of
CSIs are not considered toxic to humans. PTTH. Besides its ability to kill through
However, CSIs are very toxic to any interfering with growth and development,
organism that has an exoskeleton, such as azadirachtin also acts as a feeding deterrent,
crustaceans (shellfish), and should be used as discussed later in this leaflet.
with great care, if at all, in areas where they
could contaminate the environment. Humans do not make or use the
hormones insects use in molting. Because
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) of this, IGRs are considered to have little
human toxicity.
Insect Growth Regulators, or IGRs,
attack the insect’s endocrine system, which Nonspecific Growth Regulators
produces the hormones needed for growth
and for development into an adult form. The exact mode of action of the mite
Insects poisoned with IGRs cannot molt or growth regulator hexythiazox is not well-
reproduce, and eventually they die. understood. Hexythiazox kills the eggs
before the mites hatch and also some
Many of the currently available IGRs immature mites. Adult mites are not killed,
mimic a special protein called juvenile although adults exposed to residues may lay
hormone. In a normal insect, juvenile eggs that are not viable.
hormone is circulated throughout the
insect’s body and “tells” the insect to stay in
its current stage. After a certain amount of Energy Production
time, the insect stops producing juvenile
hormone, and the insect metamorphoses, or All organisms must generate energy
changes, into its next life stage. When an from the food they take in. As organisms
insect is poisoned by an IGR that mimics digest the nutrients in the food they
juvenile hormone, the insect doesn’t receive consume, they store the energy from those
the signal to metamorphose because, even nutrients in molecules known as adenosine
though the insect may have stopped triphosphate (ATP). The energy stored in
producing juvenile hormone, the IGR is still the ATP molecules can then be used to do

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the body’s work such as thinking, moving, Metabolism
growing, or synthesizing chemicals and
structures that the body needs. Some insecticides block feeding.
Different classes of insecticides work
Some insecticides inhibit or disrupt through different mechanisms, as described
energy production. Initially, the insect can below.
mobilize enough stored energy to continue
its basic functions. While it can eat and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a
digest food in the initial stages after being microbe that produces a crystal with a toxic
poisoned, it cannot produce more energy effect against some insects. When Bt is
from the food. Eventually, the insect “runs eaten by a larva, it attacks the lining of the
out of steam,” stops eating and even moving, insect’s midgut and causes it to stop feeding
and dies. Two main processes in energy and ultimately to die. Different strains, or
production, electron transport and oxidative varieties, of Bt produce slightly different
phosphorylation, which are normally linked crystals which have selective toxicity against
together, are described below. various insects.

Electron Transport Inhibition Azadirachtin acts as both a feeding

deterrent and a growth regulator. In this
Electron transport is an important case, feeding is affected through
process in the production of energy in plants azadirachtin’s interference with
and animals. When this process is phagostimulants, which play a role in
disrupted, oxidative phosphorylation is normal feeding behavior of insects and
inhibited, and energy (ATP) cannot be related arthropods.
stored for later use. OrganoRevised
January 2006 (Orig. Pub.chlorine Cryolite, an inorganic insecticide, is a
insecticides of the aliphatic type interfere non-specific feeding blocker. Its exact
with electron transport, effectively shutting mechanism of action is not yet well
down the target organism’s ability to understood.
produce energy from its food.

Oxidative Phosphorylation Disruption

Oxidative phosphorylation is the

process through which ATP is synthesized
in plants and animals. Organotin miticides
inhibit oxidative phosphorylation directly,
while pyrroles work by uncoupling
oxidative phosphorylation from electron
transport. The end result for both groups is
that the cell is unable to produce ATP for
energy.

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Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
abamectin B1 (Advert, Avermectin Nervous system Chloride channel activator
Affirm, Agri-Mek, Avid,
Clinch, Vertimec, Zephyr)

acephate (Orthene) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

acetamiprid (Assail, Chipco, Neonicotinoid Nervous system Acetylcholine agonist (mimic)

Pristine)

aldicarb (Temik) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

aldoxycarb (Standaz) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

azadirachtin (Azatin, Botanical from neem oil Growth and Prothoracicotropic hormone
Neemex, Trilogy) development / (PTTH) inhibitor;
Metabolic Phagostimulant disruptor
processes

azinphos-methyl (Guthion) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt, Microbial Metabolic Insect midgut membrane

Dipel) processes disruptor

bendiocarb (Garvox) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

bifenazate (Acramite, Hydrazine carboxylate Nervous system GABA-gated chloride channel

Floramite) agonist (mimic)

bifenthrin (Brigade, Capture, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Empower, Talstar)

buprofezin (Applaud, Thiadiazine-type Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

Courier) development

carbaryl (Sevin) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

carbofuran (Furadan) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

carbosulfan (Advantage) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

chlorfenapyr (Alert, Pirate, Pyrrole Metabolic Oxidative phosphorylation

Pylon) processes / Energy disruption – uncoupler
production

chlorpyrifos (Lorsban) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

chlorpyrifos methyl (Reldan) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

cinnamaldehyde (Cinnacure, Botanical Energy production Exact mode of action not well
Cinnamite) understood; possibly
interference with glucose
uptake or utilization

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Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
clofentazine (Apollo, Tetrazine mite growth Growth and Unknown or non-specific
Ovation) inhibitor development mode of action

clothiamidin (Poncho) Neonicotinoid Nervous system Acetylcholine agonist (mimic)

cryolite Inorganic – sodium Metabolic Non-specific feeding blocker

aluminofluoride processes

cyfluthrin (Baythroid, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Countdown, Cylense, Laser,
Tempo)

cyhexatin (Plictran) Organotin Metabolic Oxidative phosphorylation

processes / Energy disruptor – inhibitor
production

cypermethrin (Ammo, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Barricade, Cymbush, Cynoff,
Ripcord)

cyromazine (Larvadex, Substituted melamine Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

Trigard) (Triazine) development

deltamethrin (Decis, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

DeltaDust, DeltaGard,
Flythrin, Suspend)

diazinon Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor )

dicofol (Kelthane) Organochlorine Energy production Electron transport inhibitor –

(Diphenyl aliphatic type) Site II

diflubenzuron (Adept, Benzoylurea Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

Dimilin, Micromite) development (CSI)

dimethoate (Rebelate) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

disulfoton (Di-Syston) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

emamectin benzoate (Denim, Avermectin Nervous system Chloride channel activator

Proclaim)

endosulfan (Thiodan, Chlorinated hydrocarbon Nervous system GABA-gated chloride channel

Thionex, Phaser) – cyclodiene antagonist
organochlorine

esfenvalerate (Asana, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Hallmark)

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Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
ethyl parathion (Parathion) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

fenamiphos (Nemacur) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

nematicide

fenbutatin oxide (Vendex) Organotin Metabolic Oxidative phosphorylation

processes / Energy disruptor – inhibitor
production

fenitrothion (Sumithion) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

fenoxycarb (Comply) Insect growth regulator Growth and Juvenile hormone mimic
(IGR) development

fenpropathrin (Danitol) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

fenpyroximate (Akari, Pyrazole Metabolic Electron transport inhibitor –

Dynamite) processes / Energy Site I
production

fenthion (Baycid, Baytex) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

fipronil (Regent) Phenylpyrazole Nervous system Chloride channel modulator

flucythrinate (Cybolt, Payoff) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

fluvalinate (Mavrik) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

gamma-cyhalothrin (Proaxis) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

halofenazide (Mach 2) Diacylhydrazine Growth and Ecdysone agonist/disruptor

development

hexaflumuron (Conhex) Benzoylurea Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

development (CSI)

hexythiazox (Hexygon, Carboxamide mite Growth and Unknown or non-specific

Onager, Savey) growth inhibitor development mode of action

horticultural oils Petroleum-based Metabolic Mechanical suffocation by

products processes blocking the breathing
apparatus, or by disruption of
cellular membranes

hydramethylnon (Amdro, Amidinohydrazone Metabolic Electron transport inhibitor –

Siege) processes / Energy Site II
production

hydroprene (GenTrol) Insect growth regulator Growth and Juvenile hormone mimic
(IGR) development

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Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
imidacloprid (Admire, Neonicotinoid Nervous system Acetylcholine agonist (mimic)
Advantage, Confidor,
Gaucho, Marathon, Merit,
Premier, Provado)

indoxacarb (Avaunt, Oxadiazine Nervous system Voltage-dependent sodium

Steward) channel blocker

insecticidal soap (M-Pede, Fatty Acids Metabolic Membrane disruption

Safer’s Insecticidal Soap) processes

isofenphos (Oftanol, Pryfon) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

kaolin (Surround) Repellent General Nontoxic attack/feeding

/ protectant barrier

lambda-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

(Demand, Karate, Matador,
Scimitar, W arrior)

lindane Benzenehexachloride Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

isomer

lufenuron (Zyrox) Benzoylurea Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

development (CSI)

malathion Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

methamidophos (Monitor) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

methidathion (Supracide) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

methiocarb (Mesurol) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

methomyl (Lannate) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

methoprene (Apex) Insect growth regulator Growth and Juvenile hormone mimic
(IGR) development

methoxychlor Organochlorine Nervous system GABA-gated chloride channel

(Cyclodiene type) antagonist

methoxyfenozide (Intrepid) Diacylhydrazine insect Growth and Ecdysone agonist/disruptor

growth regulator (IGR) development

methyl parathion Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

(Penncap-M)

mevinphos (Phosdrin) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

monocrotophos (Azodrin) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

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Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
naled (Dibrom) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

neem oil extract (Azatin,

Neemix, Trilogy) – see
azadirachtin

novaluron (Diamond, Benzoylurea insect Growth and Chitin synthesis inhibitor

Pedestal, Rimon) growth regulator (IGR) development (CSI)

oxamyl (Vydate) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

oxydemeton methyl Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

(Metasystox-R)

permethrin (Ambush, Astro, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Coopex, Outflank, Pounce,
Pramex, Talcord)

phorate (Thimet) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

phosmet (Imidan) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

prallethrin (Etoc) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

promecarb (Carbamult) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

propathrin (Danitol) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

propoxur (Baygon) Carbamate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

pymetrozine (Chess, Pyridine azomethine Nervous system; Selective feeding blocker

Endeavor, Fulfill, Plenum) Metabolic
processes / Energy
production

pyrethrins Pyrethrins Nervous system Sodium channel modulators

pyridaben (Nexter, Pyramite, Pyridazinone Metabolic Electron transport inhibitor –

Sanmite) processes / Energy Site I
production

pyriproxyfen (Archer, Nylar, Insect growth regulator Growth and Juvenile hormone mimic
Distance, Esteem, Knack) (IGR) development

rotenone Botanical insecticide Metabolic Electron transport inhibitor –

processes / Energy Site I
production

spinosad (Entrust, Spinosyn Nervous system Nicotinic acetylcholine

NaturaLyte, SpinTor, receptor agonist (mimic)
Success, Tracer)

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 Common name and Class of pesticide Targeted Mode of action
examples of trade system/process
names1
sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane) Fumigant Metabolic Disruption of the glycolysis
processes / Energy and fatty acid cycles
production

sulprofos (Bolstar) Organophosphate Nervous system Cholinesterase inhibitor

tau-fluvalinate (Mavrik) Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

tebufenozide (Confirm) Diacylhydrazine insect Growth and Ecdysone agonist/disruptor

growth regulator (IGR) development

tebufenpyrad (M asai, Pyrazole Metabolic Electron transport inhibitor –

Pyranica) processes / Energy Site I
production

tefluthrin (Evict, Fireban, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Force, Raze)

thiacloprid (Calypso) Neonicotinoid Nervous system Acetylcholine agonist (mimic)

thiamethoxam (Actara, Neonicotinoid Nervous system Acetylcholine agonist (mimic)

Cruiser, Platinum)

tralomethrin (Scout X-TRA, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Tralex)

zeta-cypermethrin (Fury, Pyrethroid Nervous system Sodium channel modulator

Mustang)

1
Trade names are provided solely as an aid to the reader. No assurance is made that the list is inclusive of all trade
names for a given active ingredient.

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Gilkeson, LA and RW Adams. (Undated.) Integrated Pest Management Manual for Structural
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Goodell, PB. 2004. :Insecticide resistance management and quality cotton.” UC Statewide IPM
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04/06/2005.

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