3 Forms, Falsework, and

Reinforcement
Forms
Basic Form Requirements
Form Plans
Form Materials
Form Construction
Installation of Form Ties and Spreader
Chamfer Strips
Keyways
Preparation for Concrete Placement
Removal of Forms

Falsework

Reinforcement
Deformed Steel Bars
Identifying Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcement Details
Delivery, Storage, and Sampling
Installation of Reinforcement
Method of Measurement
Basis for Payment
CHAPTER THREE:
FORMS, FALSEWORK, AND
REINFORCEMENT

This chapter includes information on the inspection of two activities

common to the construction of a bridge substructure: the erection of forms
and falsework, and the installation of reinforcing steel.

The major topics of this chapter are:

1) Form and falsework requirements

2) Form and falsework materials and designs

3) Form and falsework installation

4) Identification of reinforcing steel

5) Delivery, storage, and sampling of reinforcing steel

6) Reinforcing steel installation

FORMS
Forms for concrete are like molds in that they shape and support concrete
until the concrete hardens sufficiently to stand without the forms. No
other factor has as much impact on the appearance of the substructure as
the quality of the formwork.

BASIC FORM REQUIREMENTS

Forms are required to meet the following four basic requirements:

1) They are required to be rigid enough to confine plastic
concrete at the lines, grades, and dimensions indicated on
the form plans without bulging or sagging under the load.

2) They are required to be constructed as mortar tight as

possible to prevent the loss of concrete ingredients through
the joints between form sections.

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 3) They are required to produce a uniform concrete surface
texture, including aesthetic or rustication details when such
a treatment is specified.

4) They are required to be easy to remove with minimal

damage to the concrete surface.

Figure 3-1. Bridge Forms

In addition to the above-noted general requirements, the Specifications

also require that excavation and pile driving operations be completed
before the Contractor begins to construct forms. This includes:

1) Completing excavations to the planned bottom-of-footing

elevation

2) Removing material displaced by pile driving

3) Cutting off or driving piling to the correct elevation

4) Completing any special foundation treatment such as the

placement of a specified backfill material or foundation
seal

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FORM PLANS

There are no plans for forms as such. The Contractor uses the detail sheets
of the plans to obtain the lines and dimensions of substructure units then
builds forms that produce those dimensions and lines.

In addition to producing the correct lines and dimensions, the forms are
required to also be capable of withstanding the pressure of plastic
concrete. The faster the concrete is poured, the greater the pressure and if
the concrete is poured too quickly, the walls of the form may fail. In
general, the pressure is greater in taller vertical forms than in horizontal
forms. Figure 3-2 gives the pressures of concrete poured into wall and
column forms at various pour rates in the number of feet poured per hour.

Notes: (a) Maximum pressure need not exceed 150h, where h is

maximum height of pour
(b) For non-vibrated concrete, pressures may be reduced 10%
(c) Based on concrete with a density of 150 lb/in2 and 4 in. slump

Figure 3-2. Concrete Pressures

FORM MATERIALS

Forms (Figure 3-3) for substructure concrete may be made from wood,
metal, fiberglass, and even cardboard and fiber. No matter what materials
are used, however, the important property of the forms is that they are
strong enough to confine plastic concrete at the dimensions indicated on
the plans without bulging, sagging, or failing under the load.

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 Figure 3-3. Concrete Forms

Form materials are required to be inspected for quality and condition. All
form material that is in contact with exposed concrete surfaces, except for
the undersides of girders, slabs, and arch rings, is required to be lined
with approved plywood, metal, or other material that produces the desired
surface texture. The lining is required to be clean and free of surface
defects, grease, rust, or anything else that could mar or discolor the
concrete. In addition, the interior faces of form panels are required to be
coated with a formulated form oil to make the forms easier to remove and
to prevent concrete from sticking to the forms.

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Wood and metal are by far the most common form materials. A typical
wood form consists of assemblies of 4 ft by 8 ft plywood sheets that have
been braced vertically by studs and horizontally by wales (Figure 3-4). To
provide maximum rigidity, the plywood sheets are required to be installed
with their grain perpendicular to the studs. Studs are required to also be
placed over all joints between the sheets.

The Technician is required to observe that the lumber used is neither too
green or too dry. Green lumber tends to shrink after installation and create
gaps between form panels that allow mortar to leak out. Lumber that is
too old and dried out is subject to warping.

Figure 3-4. Wood Forms

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Many Contractors build and use reusable wood forms. Reusable wood
forms are acceptable until they become too flexible to hold the concrete at
the right lines. Surfaces of reusable forms are required to be checked
closely for old concrete and other surface defects.

Metal forms (Figure 3-5) may be used in the construction of footings and
the walls of piers and abutments. These forms consist of ribbed metal
panels that do not require additional studs and wales. When maintained in
good condition and kept clean, metal forms may be used over and over
again.

Figure 3-5. Metal Forms

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Round forms (Figure 3-6) made of metal, fiberglass, or heavy fiber are
used in the construction of round columns.

Figure 3-6. Round Forms

The sides of the vertical forms are held together by form ties (Figure 3-7).
There are a variety of designs, but most ties include three parts: a spreader
rod, bolts, and washers. Many Contractors use snap ties. The ends of
snap ties are designed to break off just below the surface of the concrete.

Figure 3-7. Vertical Form Ties

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FORM CONSTRUCTION

During the construction of the formwork (Figure 3-8), the Technician is

required to take measurements continually to insure compliance with the
approved form plans. Important measurements to take include:

1) Length, width, and height. These measurements are

compared to the dimensions indicated on the plans. Final
elevation and alignment is required to be checked by
contract personnel before approval.

2) Spacing of the studs and wales. Studs are typically spaced

12 in. apart center to center. The spacing of wales may
vary. For example, some Contractors space the wales near
the bottom of the form close together to provide additional
bracing against the pressure of the plastic concrete which is
greatest at the bottom of the form. Other Contractors may
use oversized wales to provide extra rigidity and space
them uniformly.

3) The clearance between the face of the forms and the

reinforcing steel. In most cases, the minimum clearance
between the form and the steel is specified in the General
Notes section of the plans and is typically 2 in.

Figure 3-8. Formwork

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INSTALLATION OF FORM TIES AND SPREADER

The interior dimensions of vertical forms are maintained by the use of

form ties and spreaders. The ties are inserted between the wales on one
side through the interior of the form, and then drawn through the wales on
the other side. The tie bolts are tightened to draw the sides of the forms
into the planned wall thickness.

The Technician is required to observe that the tie rods, which are left in
the concrete, are installed so that there is sufficient concrete cover over the
rod ends. One to two inches of concrete is typical. Insufficient cover over
the rod ends may cause staining and spalling of the concrete surface.

The threaded section of tie bolts is required to be coated with an approved

lubricant to make them easier to remove after the concrete pour. Only the
threaded section of the bolts is required to come into contact with the
concrete. If an unthreaded section of a bolt becomes embedded, the bolt
may not be removed without damaging the finished surface.

In addition to the form ties, the Contractor may also use temporary
wooden spreaders and struts to maintain the interior dimension of the
form. Spreaders are used most often in tall, narrow wall forms. Wooden
spreaders are not to be used, however, for inside walls that are less than 2
ft thick. All wooden spreaders are required to be removed prior to the
pour.

CHAMFER STRIPS

The Contractor is required to install 1 in. chamfer strips in all corners

where the concrete would form a sharp edge and at all other locations
indicated on the plans. Chamfer strips are narrow, triangular pieces of
wood. They provide the concrete with beveled edges which are less likely
to chip or crack. Chamfer strips are also typically installed at the top of
substructure units where they provide a beveled edge and serve to point
out the upper limit of the concrete pour.

KEYWAYS

Formwork often includes the construction of keyways (Figure 3-9).

Keyways are areas of raised or depressed concrete that are formed on top
of footings and at construction joints where one section of concrete ties
into the next section. The locations and dimensions for keyways forms is
included in the plans.

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 Figure 3-9. Keyways

PREPARATION FOR CONCRETE PLACEMENT

Prior to the concrete pour, forms are required to be checked with survey
instruments for proper alignment and elevation. All trash and construction
debris is required to be removed from the interior of the forms. When a
form is too tall or narrow to permit easy worker access to the interior, the
Contractor is required to build access panels near the bottom of the form
to permit the removal of trash.

REMOVAL OF FORMS

Forms may not be removed until the concrete is strong enough to stand
without damage. On some contracts, the specific time required may be
determined by the results of concrete beam or cylinder tests. On other
contracts, the following periods, except for days when the temperature is
below 40° F, may be used as a guide:

Centering under beams 15 days

Roadway slabs 7 days
Walls, columns, sides of beams,
and all other parts 12 hours

All forms are required to be removed carefully so as not to damage the

concrete. The removal of forms is done at the Contractor's risk.
Permission to remove the forms may be withheld if the PE/PS considers
that their removal may lead to damaging the structure.

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FALSEWORK

Falsework is temporary wooden or metal framework that is built to

support the weight of a structure during construction. In bridge structures,
falsework is used primarily to prevent form movement during and after
concrete placement. Suitable jacks and other devices are often necessary
to adjust and maintain the position of falsework during a pour. Once the
concrete in the structure hardens enough to be self-supporting, the
falsework may be slowly removed.

Falsework may range from very simple to very complex. Examples of

simple types of falsework include brackets and friction collars which may
be attached to columns to support forms for a pier cap (Figure 3-10).

Figure 3-10. Falsework

A more elaborate example of falsework is a false pier (Figure 3-11) that is

used to support a span between two permanent piers until the concrete slab
or parapets harden sufficiently to stand on their own without serious
deflection. Falsework that bears on the foundation requires the use of mud
sills, false footings, or temporary piling to provide additional support.

3-11
 Figure 3-11. False Piers

The Contractor is required to submit working drawings that indicate the

plans for the use and construction of falsework. These drawings are
required to be approved. Approval of the falsework plans, however, does
not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for constructing safe and
accurate falsework.

The Technician should never take for granted that the falsework is
adequate. The falsework is required to be monitored throughout the
concrete pour and the curing period. Simple devices called tell tales
(Figure 3-12) may be attached to the falsework to measure any settlement
that may occur. If movement on the tell tales occurs during the pour, the
Contractor is required to stop the operation and provide additional bracing.
In some cases, a bulkhead or a construction joint is necessary and the
falsework is required to be modified before continuing the pour.

Figure 3-12. Tell Tales

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 Section 702.14(b) describes the conditions necessary to permit falsework
removal. The procedure includes primarily the time and temperature
requirements regarding specific parts of a structure. Removal of
falsework may also be controlled by concrete beam test results.

The removal operation is required to be done slowly to allow the concrete

to take on the weight gradually and uniformly. Like the removal of forms,
the removal of falsework is done at the risk of the Contractor.

REINFORCEMENT

While formwork gives concrete the shape and texture, reinforcement gives
the concrete strength. Specifically, reinforcement provides concrete with
tensile strength, the ability to withstand bending stresses without cracking.
Earth movement, wind stresses, and the movement of the superstructure
because of expansion and contraction with temperature changes are
examples of forces that may twist and bend substructure units. Without
reinforcement, most concrete structures would crumble to the ground.

DEFORMED STEEL BARS

The most common type of reinforcement used in bridges is deformed steel

bars. Deformed refers to the raised lines or ribs on the surface of the bars.
These ribs enable the concrete to bond to the bars so the concrete may take
advantage of the tensile strength of the steel. Smooth reinforcing steel
bars would not provide as good a bond.

Bars are fabricated according to a bending schedule. The fabricator

produces the required number of bars at the diameters, lengths, and shapes
indicated on the detail sheets in the plans.

To protect reinforcing steel from rust, many contracts now require the use
of epoxy-coated bars in locations throughout the structure. In the past,
epoxy-coated bars were reserved for areas that were more subject to
moisture penetration, such as bridge decks. Researchers have discovered,
however, that reinforcing steel rusting is more pervasive than previously
believed. As a result, more and more contracts require the use of epoxy-
coated reinforcing steel in other areas of the structure.

IDENTIFYING REINFORCING STEEL

Like many other construction materials, reinforcing steel has undergone a

process of standardization. Bars are now manufactured and fabricated in
the same standard sizes, weights, and grades of strength all over the
country. The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has
developed an identification system for reinforcing steel (Figure 3-13).

3-13
 Figure 3-13. Reinforcing Bars

The ASTM identification system has designations for bar sizes that are
approximately equal to the number of 1/8 inches in the diameter of the bar.
For example, a #3 bar has a diameter of 3/8 of an inch, a #4 bar has a
diameter of 4/8 or half an inch, a #6 bar has a diameter of 3/4 of an inch, a
#8 bar has a diameter of one inch, and so on.

Also note the column listing the weight of each size bar in pounds per
foot. This weight is used in determining the Contractor's payment for
reinforcing steel delivered and used on the job-site.

The continuous line and number systems (Figure 3-14) are the two ASTM
systems used for bar identification. Both systems include standard
markings on the bars which are used to identify the bar producer, the bar
size, the type of steel used, and the bar grade. The first mark is typically
the initial of the mill that produced the bar. The second mark is the bar
size (#3-#18). The third mark indicates the type of steel (new billet, axle,
or rail). The difference between the two systems of bar identification is
the way the bar grades are identified.

Figure 3-14. ASTM Bar Identification Systems

3-14
 In the continuous line system, the grade of steel is indicated by one or two
lines located between the main ribs of the bar. One line between the main
ribs indicates the steel is Grade 60 (60,000 lb/in2 strength) and two lines
indicate the steel is Grade 75 (75,000 lb/in2 strength). Lower grades of
steel have no grade marks.

American Standard Bar Marks

Lower-strength bars indicate only 3 marks (no grade mark):

1st mark -- Producing Mill (usually an initial)

2nd mark -- Bar Size Number (#3 through #18)

3rd mark -- Type (N for New Billet; A for Axle; l for rail)

High-strength bars are required to indicate grade marks: 60 or one line for
60,000 psi strength, 75 or two lines for 75,000 psi strength. Grade mark
lines are smaller and between the two main ribs, which are on opposite
sides of all American bars.

In the number system, grades are stamped on the bars numerically. Again,
anything below Grade 60 does not have a grade mark.

Unless otherwise specified on the plans, all reinforcement is required to be

deformed billet steel grade 40 or 60, rail steel grade 50 or 60, or axle steel
grade 40 or 60.

REINFORCEMENT DETAILS

The responsibility of the Technician for the installation of reinforcement

(Figure 3-15) begins with a thorough review of the detail sheets for each
unit of the substructure. These details indicate exactly what bars go where
in the structure. Unless the plans say differently, all dimensions indicated
for spacing and clearance of the reinforcing steel apply to the centers of
the bars.

Figure 3-15. Reinforcing Steel

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Reinforcement information is located in the Bill of Materials section on
the detail sheets (Figure 3-16). This section lists the sizes, lengths, and
quantities of all bars required for a particular unit of the substructure.
Straight bars are identified by their size (for example, #10). Bent bars are
identified by a three- or four-digit bar mark.

Figure 3-16. Bill of Materials

The first digit or first two digits of a bar mark indicate the bar size, from
#3 to #18. The last two digits indicate the mark. The mark number, 01-
99, is used to differentiate between bent bars of the same size and shape
but of different lengths. The detail sheets also include drawings that
illustrate the shapes of all bent bars to be used.

3-16
 The letter "E" following a bar size or mark in the Bill of Materials section
indicates that the bar is to be epoxy-coated. Alternately, since many
contracts are requiring the use of epoxy-coated bars throughout the
structure, there may be a note on the plans indicating that all reinforcing
steel is required to be epoxy-coated instead of the "E" in the Bill of
Materials.

Other useful information located in the Bill of Material section includes the
quantity of each bar size and mark number required, the lengths required,
the total weight of each size bar, and the total weight of all bars. Sheet
703-BRST-01 of the Standard Drawings for bridges contains additional
notes on reinforcing steel.

DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND SAMPLING

Reinforcing steel is typically delivered to the job-site in bundles

containing bars of the same size, mark, and lengths. Each bundle is
identified by a tag that lists the number of bars in the bundle and their size.
The Technician is required to check individual bundles to ensure the
proper quantities and sizes have been delivered.

Care is required to be taken to keep bundles intact and separated from

other types and sizes of bars. The bars are required to be stored off of the
ground with enough supports that longer bars do not sag and shorter bars
do not fall through. All bars are required to be covered for protection
against harmful rust, dirt, and water. As bars are removed from the
bundles, the Contractor is required to re-stack the remaining bars and
protect them with some type of cover.

Epoxy-coated bars require careful handling and storage. Nicks and cuts
that go through the coating may allow moisture to penetrate and
eventually rust the bars. Any damaged area larger than 1/4 in. by 1/4 in. is
required to be repaired before visible rusting occurs. Extensive damage to
the coating may be cause for rejecting the bar. Section 703.04 defines
extensive damage.

Furnishing reinforcing steel to a contract may be done by one of two

procedures. One procedure allows certified manufacturers and coaters
selected from approved source lists. When a supplier furnishes
reinforcing steel from certified manufacturers and coaters, the steel may
be incorporated into the work immediately without job-site sampling. The
other procedure allows non-certified manufacturers or coaters. Under this
procedure, a shipment of reinforcing steel is job-site sampled in
accordance with the Frequency Manual. Samples of each bar size, grade,
and deformation from each manufacturer are required to be obtained and
submitted to the Office of Materials Management for testing. The
Frequency Manual requires samples to be at least 72 in. long and be taken
from each 30 tons of bars delivered to the job-site.

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INSTALLATION OF REINFORCEMENT

Inspecting the installation of reinforcement is required to ensure that the

Contractor installs the right bars in the right locations. All bars are
required to be properly secured to maintain the spacing and clearances
indicated on the plans.

The Contractor may install the reinforcing steel piece by piece or assemble
the steel into a cage or mat that may be lifted and placed inside the forms.
When the steel is assembled outside the forms, the Technician is required
to ensure that the bars are tied securely to prevent displacement during the
installation.

As the installation proceeds, the Technician is required to take

measurements at random locations to ensure that the required laps,
spacing, and clearances are maintained. The bars are required to be
counted as used to ensure that the planned amount of reinforcement is
being used.

Once the reinforcing steel is in place, the steel is not disturbed. Personnel
are discouraged from walking on the mats unnecessarily. Any loose,
broken, or missing ties are required to be replaced.

Tying Reinforcing Steel

Reinforcing steel is held in place by fastening intersecting bars with

approved wire ties. Welding bars are not allowed. The Specifications
require the steel to be wired rigidly at sufficient intervals to hold the steel
in place during concrete operations. Approximately 50 % of all
intersections are required to be tied. In all cases, the ends of the wire ties
are required to be bent away from exterior surfaces so they do not come
into contact with the finished concrete surface where they could rust and
cause discoloration.

Clearances

The clearance between the reinforcing steel and the sides of the forms
determines the amount of concrete cover over the steel (Figure 3-17). Too
little cover may lead to rusting of the steel. Rust weakens the steel and
may also cause the concrete to crack and spall. As rust forms, the rust
takes up space and creates pressure inside the concrete.

3-18
 Figure 3-17. Form Clearance

The plans indicate the amount of concrete cover required over the steel.
Typical coverage is 1 in. to 2 1/2 in. The required clearances may be
maintained by the use of approved metal supports or chairs (Figure 3-18)
that are placed between the steel and the forms. The chairs are embedded
by the concrete pour. Approved chairs have non-corrosive tips to prevent
the tips from rusting and staining the exterior surface.

Figure 3-18. Form Chairs

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 The clearance between the bottom layer or mat of steel in a footing and the
bottom of the footing is required to be maintained. Appropriately sized
chairs may also be used there; however, some Contractors use mortar
blocks instead. The blocks are required to be made of the same mortar
mixture that is used in the footing pour. Other materials such as wood,
stones, or broken concrete are not permitted to support the bottom mat of
steel.

Bundling and Splicing Bars

The plans may call for bars to be tied together vertically in pairs. This
procedure is called bundling. In effect, bundling doubles bar strength.
Bundled bars are generally found in the lower parts of tall forms where
bending stresses are the greatest. Bundled bars may be tied together every
3 ft as a minimum.

While bundling bars is done to increase strength, splicing bars is done to

increase length. Splices are made simply by overlapping two bars then
tying them together (Figure 3-19). The length of the overlap is the critical
factor.

Figure 3-19. Overlapped Bars

The plans are required to indicate the length of the bar splice. If the plans
do not indicate this length, and there is no other splice length given, the
general rule is that spliced bars are required to overlap one another by at
least 32 times the bar diameter. For example, # 6 bars have a diameter of
0.75 in. Therefore, the minimum overlap for two # 6 bars is 32 times
0.75 in. or 24 in.

For spiral reinforcement in columns, the typical lap requirement for

splices is one and a half turns.

The Contractor is required to have the permission of the PE/PS to splice

bars in any location other than that shown in the plans. Because splices
are relatively weak connections, too many splices in the same general area
may weaken the concrete. The Contractor is required to stagger splice
locations so that they are well distributed throughout the structure and
located at points of low tensile stress.

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 Splices are not permitted at points with less than 2 in. of clearance
between the spliced bars and the nearest adjacent bar. In general, bars that
are size 14 and over may not be lapped spliced, but may be welded or
mechanically spliced in some special cases. Section 703.06 states that
construction joints may not be used within the limits of a spliced bar.

Dowels

Lap requirements are especially critical for bars that function as dowels
(Figure 3-20). These vertical bars are used to connect one section of the
substructure to another, forming an integral unit. They are commonly
used to tie a footing into a wall or column. If the dowels do not project
into the upper section by the planned amount, the connection between the
sections is weakened. The length of the bars and the distance they project
into the upper section is shown on the plans.

Figure 3-20. Dowels

Bridge Seats

The spacing of the reinforcing steel in the bridge seat area is critical. Bars
that are out of position could interfere with the placement of the anchor
bolts for the bearing devices.

METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

Reinforcing steel, except for welded wire fabric, is measured by the pound
based on the theoretical number of pounds in place as indicated on the
plans or placed as ordered. The quantitiy of materials furnished and
placed is based upon the calculated weights of the reinforcing steel
actually placed in accordance with the Specifications. The weights may
be calculated using the figures from the table in Section 703.07 (Figure 3-
21).

3-21
 Figure 3-21. Reinforcing Steel Weights

BASIS FOR PAYMENT

Both plain and epoxy coated reinforcing steel are paid for by the pound at
the contract unit price. Only bars that have been accepted for quality of
material and installation are paid for, and no additional payment is made
for wire, clips or other material used for fastening the steel in place. The
cost of those items has been included in the contract unit price.

If the Contractor elects to use larger bars than the ones required in the
plans, #10 bar instead of #8 bar for example, payment is based on the use
of the planned size.

If the Contractor elects to use shorter bars simply to make transporting the
bars easier and then uses unplanned but approved splices to obtain the
necessary lengths, the weight that is paid is still based on the lengths
shown on the plans. No additional payment is made for the extra length
needed to obtain the required lap.

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