Geology 

for Civil Engineering 

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Any pre-existing type of rock forming a part of the crust may or may not undergo any physical,
chemical or structural change for any time after its formation. This depends upon the environment
in which the rock exists. There will be, obviously, no change in the physical make up or the
chemical constitution of the rock if it has adjusted itself completely to the surrounding environment.
This theoretical state of no change may be explained by saying that the rock is in equilibrium with
the physical and chemical environment which surrounds it. But once there is a significant and
effective change in one or more of these surrounding conditions, the equilibrium is disturbed and the rock
is unable to exist in its original form: it has to undergo some changes to establish the equilibrium once
again. The surrounding conditions that play important role in this regard are temperature, pr:essure and
chemically active fluids. When there is a change in any one or more of these parameters around the rock
there must take place a corresponding change in the nature of the rock also. What kind of change will
take place in the rock? This will depend on the nature of rock under question and the extent of change
in the temperature-pressure-chemical environment set of conditions. The changed rock is called the
metamorphic rock and it will be stable under the new set of conditions till there is a further change in
those conditions.
METAMORHISM is the term used to express the process responsible for all the changes
that take place in an original rock under the influence of changes in the surrounding conditions
of temperature, pressure and chemically active fluids.

. 1.2. FACTORS OF METAMORPHISM

Metamorphic changes in the rocks are primarily the result of three main factors that are also
sometimes called as agents of metamorphism : heat (temperature), pressure and chemically active
.
 fluids. These agents may act individually or collectively. The metamorphic changes are most
pronounced when these factors operate collectively and in a big way.
Temperature
Rocks are made up of minerals that are normally stable at temperatures below 200°C. However,
when the temperature around these rocks changes due to one reason or the other, the mineral
composition of the rocks tindergoes some changes in order to adjust to the new temperature conditions.
Two common sources of heat for such a metamorphism to take place are the internal heat (increase
in temperature with depth: thermal gradient:) and the magmatic heat (rise in temperature around
magmatic intrusions). The internal heat becomes operative when rocks formed at surface (e.g.
sedimentary and volcanic rocks) are pushed downwards due to some geological process (folding,
faulting etc.) where they have to withstand much higher temperature. Similarly, when a magmatic
intrusion like a sill or a dyke invades the country rock from below, the host rocks around the margins
of intrusion suffer sudden and enormous changes in their temperature. They are also metamorphosed
in order to be stable under the new conditions.
It is believed that most metamorphic changes induced by the heat factor take place between
300°-850°C. Above 850°C, some components of rock may actually start melting and hence rocks
"formed from their resolidification shall be included in the category of igneous rocks.
 

Pressure
Many metamorphic changes are induced solely due to the pressure factor whereas in great
majority of cases pressure is the dominant factor and is assisted considerably by the heat factor.
Any given rock at some depth below the surface is subject to pressure from two sources: first, load
of the overlying burden and second, crustal movements during the convergence of the tectonic
plates. The first type of pressure acts generally in a vertical direction and the process of change in
the structure of the rock is often referred as load metamorphism. The pressure from orogenic
activity is generally lateral or horizontal and is commonly termed as directed pressure. Rocks
situated near the plate boundaries or within the geosynclinal belts are especially prone to directed
pressure and often show severest degree of metamorphic changes.
 

Chemical Environment
Presence or absence of chemically active fluids within the body of the rocks (the pore fluids)
or around them plays very important role in the process of all types of metamorphism. With the rise
in temperature, the pore fluids undergo expansion and become very active in disturbing or even
breaking the original crystal boundaries of the involved minerals. New minerals are created that
are stable in the changed conditions. This process is called recrystallisation that takes place essentially
in a solid state. Sometimes fluids present around the rocks also come in contact with them at
elevated temperatures and react with the minerals within the rocks producing many changes in their
composition and structure. This type of change is termed metasomatism. Among such chemically active
pore fluids and external fluids may be mentioned water, carbon dioxide, hydrofluoric acid, bromine
and fluorine. Water in the form of steam is considered the single most important agent. The water
may be present in the minerals as water of crystallisation or simply as pore fluid or it may be supplied
externally by magmatic bodies.
 
1.4.3. KINDS OF METAMORPHISM
Three major kinds of metamorphism differentiated on the basis of factor most dominant in
causing it are: thermal metamorphism, dynamic metamorphism and dynamothermal metamorphism.
 Geology for Civil Engineering 
A. Thermal Metamorphlsn1
It is a general term inclucling a variety of metamorphic
processes in which the heat factor has played an important
role. The pressure and chemically active fluids, though operating
1-r'-rt+ r--+ !-!-1
are attributed assisting roles.  
 
Contact Metamorphism is a common type of thermal  
metamorphism observed in rocks existing close to the  
magmatic intrusions, injections and lava flows. In this case, Dyke
the heat from magmatic source travels tluꞏough the body of the Contact Matamorphism
surrounding rocks that undergo structural and mineralogical A = Melting B = Recrystallisation
changes depending upon their original composition and C = Baking D = No Change
 
intensity of the heating effects. Other things being the same, Fig. 1.1.
the effect is most intense in the immediate neighbourhood
of the magmatic source and decreases with distance from the contact points. (Fig. 1.1)
Pyrometamorphism is another.type of thermal metamorphism in which case a part of country
rock may actually get entrapped within a magmatic body. The effects result due to intense localized
heating (short of melting). It is illustrated by changes in a block of sedimentary rock that has
incidentally fallen in a body of flowing lava. The block may be so much heated up that its original
mineJals are forced to recrystallise and rearrange themselves in accordance with the conclitions
imposed by the acute rise in temperature.
Plutonic Metamorphism is a process of metamorphism that takes place due to equally important role
of imposed loads (due to burial at great depths) and very high temperatures that become natural at those
great depths. Such changes take place in rocks that are pushed down during crustal movements to positions
where high temperature and high pressure become almost a permanent feature. .
In all types of thermal metamorphism the change is generally in the direction of mineralogical
reconstitution. These processes may induce changes varying from simple baking effect (optalic
metamorphism) to complete or nearly complete recrystallisation of almost all of the original minerals.
B. Dynamic Metamorphism
It is also called clastic metamorphism, mechanical metamorphism or dislocation metamorphism
and is brought about by conclitions in which pressure factor plays a dominant role. Sometimes the
pressure is of the type of hydrostatic type such as load of the overlying rocks. The process is then
called load metamorphism.
In the dynamic metamorphism, there is no or very little formation of new minerals (compare with
the thermal metamorphism). These are the original textures and structures of the rocks that are partially
or totally obliterated. New textures and structures are imposed on the effected rocks.
C. Dynamothermal Metamorphism
This is also referred as REGIONAL METAMORPHISM and may be considered as the most
important as well as prevalent type of metamorphic processes. This involves development of
large-scale changes in the structural and chemical constitution of the pre-existing rocks under the
combined action of pressure, temperature and fluids. Such conditions were available during the
mountain builcling activity repeatedly in the histo1y of the Earth. The latest plate-tectonics theories also
postulate convincingly development of conditions leading to the large-scale regional metamorphic effects
at the margins of converging tectonic plates. Metamorphic rocks formed through regional metamorphism
occur in the form of extensive mountain belts and also as the core portions of many old eroded
mountain systems throughout the world. They bear evidence of formation of new minerals as well as
imposition of new textures and structures on an extensive scale.
 
1.4.4. METASOMATISM
It may be broadly deftned as a "metamorphic process involving essentially formation of new
minerals by the mechanism of chemical replacement of pre-existing minerals under the influence
of chemically active fluids."
The metasomatic replacement of minerals takes place at atomic level and in solid state. The
chemically active fluids may be provided:
(i) From within the rock, such as pore fluids, in which case the end result of metasomatic
change would be a mere replacement of the atoms, the total chemical composition of the
rock remaining the same. This is sometimes referred as mineral metasomatism.
(ii) From outside the rock, such as from magmatic emanations or ground water sources in
which case many new minerals may be formed in the rock by the interaction of the atoms
of the invading fluids with those of the rock. The net result would be a definite change
in the bulk chemical composition of the rock as a whole. This is, therefore, sometimes
referred as rock metasomatism.
The process of metasomatism is sometimes further distinguished into :
• hydrothermal - when the fluids are in the form of solutions;
• pneumatolytic - when the fluids ate in the form of gases or vapours;
• additive - when the net result of the process is addition of a new constituent; and
• expulsive - when some component gets removed from the original composition of the rock.
A common fact observed in the case of metasomatism is that the total volume of the rock
remains by and large unchanged after the process is completed. Further, the changes can take
place over a wide range of temperature and pressure and like other metamorphic processes are
completed essentially in solid state.
Metasomatism is quite common in silicate and carbonate rocks.
 
1.4. EFFECTS OF METAMORPHISM
A variety of changes may be caused in pre-existing rocks subjected to metamorphic processes.
This depends primarily on following two major factors :
(i) The type of rock involved in the process;
(ii) The kind of metamorphic process operating on those rocks.
Generally speaking, the metamorphic process may result in one or more of the following main
categories of effects on the involved rocks: recrystallisation, rock flowage, granulation and
metasomatic replacement.
Recrystallisation
All the changes in the direction of mineralogical reconstitution and textural pattern of rocks
during the process of metamorphism are collectively expressed by the term recrystallisation: This
process involves simultaneous growth of new crystals from the existing ones by atomic restructuring
due to rise in temperature with or without concurrent rise in pressure but facilitated by pore fluids
in most cases. The change takes place essentially in a solid state. This effect is most notable in the rocks
adjoining the magmatic intrusions or those coming in contact with lava flows. In such cases following
conditions control the extent of recrystallisation:
(a) The size of the igneous intrusion or the lava flow which serves as the source of heat.
(b) The initial temperature of the magma or lava and also its rate of cooling; the higher the
initial temperature, the greater is the effect; again, the slower the rate of cooling, greater
is degree of recrystallisation.
 Geology for Civil Engineering 
(c) The nature of magma or lava - magmatic melts rich in chemically active fluids will induce
a greater degree of recrystallisation as compared with those which are poor or free from these fluids.
(d) The nature of rock - it is the single most important factorꞏ in that the same rock under
different conditions may suffer different set of changes during the process of recrystallisation.
Chemical composition and original texture define the susceptibility of a rock to recrystallisation.
Rock Flowage
By rock flowage is understood actual movement and reorientation of the mineral constituents
of rock under the influence of loads acting during the metamorphic processes. The term should not
he taken to give the impression that rocks change their physical state (from solid to liquid) and
start flowing when subjected to pressure. Rock flowage is simply the slippage of the grains or
crystals essentially in solid state making them orient themselves in such a way as not to offer any
further resistance to the applied forces. This may result in flattening of mineral constituents, their
gliding over one another and development of peculiar structures like rock cleavage and foliation.
Rock flowage is believed to be a common process at greater depths, near the roofs and walls of
magmatic boundaries and also along margins of tectonic plates.
Granulation
Sometimes under the influence of dominant stress rocks develop granulation which signifies
the birth of very fine fractures within the body of rock involving even the individual minerals. The
pressure being of confining type, the mineral fragments bound by these fractures retain their solidarity
in the natural state. But as soon as the rock is removed from its original place, and a little pressure
applied, it crumbles into fragments, e.g. in schists. Granulation is favoured by hard and insoluble
character of the constituent minerals as well as by higher confining pressures.
Metasomatic Replacement
Metasomatism, as already defined, is essentially a process of simultaneous replacement at
atomic level by which minerals of a rock are changed into other minerals by addition or
subtraction of atoms under the influence of chemically active fluids from the surrounding
environment. Silicate and carbonate rocks are easily altered by metasomatic changes. The process
may involve exchange of, addition to or expulsion of metallic or non-metallic compounds from an
original rock. Thus it may be alkali metasomatism, sulphur metasomatism and so on.
When the attacking fluids are in vaporous state, the process is distinguished as pneumatolytic
metasomatism or simply as pneumatolysis. Vapours of water, boron, fluorine and many alkali
metals emanating from magmatic bodies take active part in changing the mineralogical composition
of rocks surrounding these bodies. Thus a granite rock attacked successfully by water vapours in
combination with boron and fluorine gases may suffer a mineralogical change whereby original felspars
(e.g. KaAISip8) may get partially or completely changed into a new mineral tourmaline (borosilicate of
aluminium). The original granite rock is thus changed metasomatically into a tourmaline-granite (when
the replacement is only partial, i.e. some felspar is still left unchanged) or into a schorl rock (when all
the felspar of granite is changed into tourmaline).
Similarly, when a granite rock is attacked by steam and fluorine vapours only, felspars are
altered to lithium mica and the new rock is called Greisen. This metasomatic change is sometimes
termed as Greisening. Kaolinisation is another such process where felspars are converted to kaolin
under the influence of steam vapours. Dolomitization is a metasomatic conversion of limestone into
ꞏdolomite {CaMg(C03)2 } in the presence of Mg++ rich solutions.
 
1.8. EXAMPLES OF METAMORPHIC CHANGES
Metamorphic processes cannot be either observed directly or demonstrated practically. They
are very gradual, large-scale processes involving geological times measurable in terms of millions
 

of years. It is only through the study of their effects on the rocks that conclusions can be drawn
regarding the nature of the process through which those rocks have passed. Different rocks behave
differently under given conditions of metamorphism. Metamorphic effects on many different types of
rocks exposed in different areas of the world have been studied in sufficient details by many petrologists.
It will be practically in1possible to present even a summary of such changes in this book; many excellent
references are available on metamorphic petrology. The following examples indicate only trends of
changes observed in some common rock types as illustrations.
 
1.6.1. Igneous Rocks
(i) Acid Igneous Rocks. These rocks are rich in free silica in the form of quartz (Si0 2 ).
Granite is a typical example of this group of igneous rocks. Granites are generally very hard and
resistant rocks. They are effected only slightly under normal metamorphic conditions but when the
degree of metamorphism is very high, quite a few new types of rocks are formed from granite.
Under conditions of dynamic metamorphism, granites are simply broken and crushed forming
a newly structured rock called crush breccia. ln other cases, the hard minerals
of granite like quartz and felspars may be flattened and elongated under the
imposed loads so that ultimately they remain embedded in the finely crushed
ground mass produced due to crushing of other minerals of granite. Such
metamorphosed granites are called tlaser granites. Similar changes may be ........,=--....,..=-----==..
produced in gabbros and other coarse grained igneous rocks. Mylonite- Cataclastic
In many cases, the crushing effect due to imposed loads may be Structure
 
practically complete involving all the constituents. Such extremely crushed Fig. 1.2.
metamorphic rocks are described as mylonites. (Fig. 1.2)
Contact Metamorphism of granites involves, most commonly, simple recrystallisation of
the constituent minerals. In regional metamorphism, however, when the heat factor is actively
associated with pressure and chemically active fluids, granites and other related igneous
rocks show very considerable and conspicuous changes. They may pass through a flaser-rock
type stage under the influence of directed stress and suffer simultaneous and substantial
recrystallisation due to intense heating and interplay of chemically active f luids. The net
result may .be a new foliated coarse-grained rock called gneiss.
(ii) Basic Igneous Rocks. Formation of new minerals and imposition of new textures and
structures are major changes shown by basic igneous rocks that have been subjected to metamorphism.
Under contact metamorphism, only mineralogical reconstitution is observed while the original
textures and structures are retained. Rocks like gabbros and dolerites having suffered such changes
are described as meta-gabbros and meta-dolerites.
ꞏ Under dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism, however, complex mineralogical changes
are associated with development of foliation, crushing and granulation of mineralogical constituents.
Rocks like gneisses and schists of great variety are produced. Hornblende schists and amphibolites
are a few important examples.
 
1.6.2. Sedimentary Rocks
(i) Argillaceous Rocks. These are extremely fine-grained sedimentary rocks made up of fine
particles of clays, felspars, quartz and micas. Clays and shales are typical examples of this group.
Contact metamorphism of shales leads to the formation of new minerals in them like corundum,
rutile, andalucite and cordierite etc. through the process of recrystallisation. The resulting rocks are
classed under the group name of hornfels. Under the conditions of optalic metamorphism, the
 

shales simply. get indurated (baked without much recrystallisation) and change into an exceedingly
hard rock called bornstone.
When the shales are highly siliceous in nature, these are completely recrystallised into a very
hard metamorphic rock called novaculite.
Under dynamic metamorphism, shales behave differently. As stress factor is dominating, not
much new mineral formation takes place. The original constituents, however, rearrange themselves in
such a way that a perfect orientation is introduced into the rock in which the maximum, medial and
minimum diameters of the constituent grains all lie in parallel positions. This type of perfect parallelism
at the grain-axis level results in a typical slaty cleavage. When shales develop such a cleavage due to
intense pressure and good amount of heating, they result into a new rock type called slate.
When subject.!d to dynamotbermal (regional) metamorphism, -_the changes in shale proceed
a step or two ahead of the slate stage; there is new mineral formation as well. The resulting rock
becomes coarsely crystalline, the effect of recrystallisation becomes pronounced with the formation
of micas, in addition to growth of crystals of garnet, staurolite, andalucite and other minerals. This
rock with pronounced rough parallelism of flaky and platy minerals is called schist, the structure
being known as Schistose and the new property is called Schistosity. At an intermediate stage
between schist and slate, the metamorphosed shale is known as phyllite. This rock is characterised
by a good amount of micaceous minerals, which may not be as coarsely crystallized as in schists.
(ii) Arenaceous Rocks. These are sedimentary rocks composed chiefly of siliceous grains
ranging between 2 rom and 1/16 mm in diameter. Sandstone is a common example of an arenaceous
rock. When subjected to conditions of contact metamorphism, sandstones generally recrystallize
into a new rock called Quartzite (para-quartzite, to distinguish it from sedimentary rock of similar
composition, which is called ortho-quartzite).
Metamorphism of impure sandstone, like those containing argillaceous or calcareous cement
results in Schistose-grits and other schistose rocks.
Under Dynamic metamorphism, sandstones are either deformed or crushed depending upon the
quality of the rock and the magnitude of the stress. The resulting rock may be a crush-breccia or
a microbreccia or a mylonite.
(iii) Carbonate Rocks. Metamorphism of limestones and other carbonate rocks is of considerable
importance and interest. Three broad conclusions may be drawn from the cases so far studied.
First. When pure, limestone simply recrystallizes under conditions of contact metamorphism
without any new mineral formation but with a definite change in grain size to a granular texture. The
perfectly recrystallised granular metamorphic equivalent of limestone is the so well known rock-MARBLE.
 
Pure Limestone Co nta ct m et a m orphism
Marble
Second. When the limestone is impure, recrystallisation may involve formation of many new
minerals in the resulting rock depending upon the nature of the impurities and also the temperature
and pressure conditions. The underlying principle in all such chemical changes is that calcium
oxide (CaO) is formed at the first step from dissociation of calcium carbonate due to beat
factor. The calcium oxide so formed reacts with the impurities in the second step whereby many
new minerals may be formed.
Thus, when limestone contains silica as the sole impurity, a new mineral called wollastonite (calcium
silicate) may result as a metamorphic product. However, when alumina (Alz03) and magnesia (MgO)
are present as impurities, minerals like anorthite and an amphibole respectively may be the end products
due to recrystallisation. Following chemical reactions may show these changes :
 

(i) CaC03 + Si02 = CaSi03 + C02

Calcite + Silica = Wollastonite + Carbon dioxide
 
(ii) CaC03 + Al 203.2Si02.2H20 = CaA12Si206 + 2H20 + C02
calcite + kaolin = anorthite
 

Third. When limestone is originally dolomitic in composition, metamorphic changes of different

varieties may take place depending upon the type of the impurities present in the dolomite. This
process of breaking down of dolomite accompanied by reconstitution of calcite is known as
dedolomitization (compare dolomitization ). The changes involved in the process are expressed by
the following equation :
 
(i) C g(C03)2 = CaC03 + MgO + C02
Dolomite Mctamorph Calcite + (periclase)
 
     
 
  (ii) 2CaMg(C03)2 + Si02 = 2CaC03 + MgSi04 + 2C02
dolomite Si lica Metamorphism + Forst erite
+ Calcium carbonate    
 
1.7. METAMORPHIC GRADES, ZONES AND FACIES
 
1.7.1. Metamorphic Grades
The approximate extent or degree - qualitatively speaking - to which an original rock has been
changed due to metamorphism is expressed by the term metamorphic grade. Three terms are used
to express the grades: low grade, medium grade and high grade. These grades are indicated by
the presence of a set of minerals that are called the index minerals. These minerals are stable only
within the temperature-pressure range considered characteristic of that particular grade. Main features
of these three grades are broadly &ummarized as follows: ꞏ
(a) Low Grade. It prevails within a temperature range of 200°-400° C and a large pressure
range. Important index minerals are: laumoflite, prehflite, and lawsoflite.
(b) Medium Grade. This grade prevails up to a temperature range of 650°C and is indicated
by the index minerals like staurolite and cordierite. Pressure variations play an important
role in determining the stability of various minerals formed in this grade.
(c) High-Grade. It is believed to begin at temperatures around 580°C under pressure of 3.5 kb
and continues up to temperature of 800°C and above. A typical example indicative of high-
grade metamorphism is provided by the breakdown of muscovite mica in the presence of
quartz and plagioclase. Hypersthene is a typical index mineral of high-grade metamorphism
and granulites are the common resulting metamorphic rocks.
lsograd
It is defined as a line on a geological map of metamorphic rocks joining the points of same
grade of metamorphism as indicated by the presence of same type of index minerals. This concept
has been found very convenient in tracing the prog ess of metamorphism in the given region. In
practice, an assemblage of index minerals rather an individual mineral is used for drawing isograds.
Another term isoreaction grade is sometimes used when similar reactions as indicated by
mineral assemblages at different places in a metamorphosed area are clearly understood.
 

1.7.2. Metamorphic Zones

The grade of metamorphism generally increases with depth for the simple reason that both
temperature and pressure factors become strong and stronger at deeper levels within the crust of the
earth. This fact has given birth to the concept of Metamorphic Zones that signify the range of
metamorphic effects at different depths below the surface. In other words, zones indicate depth-
wise extension of particular grades of metamorphism in a general way.
The three metamorphic zones are: epizone, mesozone and ketazone.
(i) The Epizone. It is the near surface zone and is characterised by a low temperature
(generally less than 300°C) and strong shear stress. Rocks in this zone are, therefore,
metamorphosed chiefly under the influence of dynamic metamorphism. The common
rocks resulting in this zone are Slates and Mica Schists.
(ii) The Mesozone. It is the middle zone in which the temperature factor becomes rather
moderate (300°-500°C) and the pressure factor is of both the types: shear as well as
hydrostatic type. Dynamothermal metamorphism is the typical process of this zone and
high-grade schists like biotite-garnet schists are chief rocks formed.
(iii) The Ketazone. It is the high temperature and great depth type metamorphic zone
where hydrostatic stresses are quite dominant. Plutonic metamorphism is the representative
kind and rocks formed in this zone include great variety of Gneisses.
 
1.7.3. Metamorphic Facies
It has been found possible to classify metamorphic rocks on the basis of metamorphic environment
through which these rocks have passed. An association of metamorphic rocks that have formed
under a closely related metamorphic environment (that is within a range of temperature-
pressure-chemically-active fluid conditions) is termed as a metamorphic facies. A metamorphic
facies may be characterized by a set of minerals or typical rocks.
The concept of metamorphic facies simplifies the classification of metamorphic rocks in that it
eliminates the necessity of knowing the nature of the parent rocks and their original characters.
P. Eskola originally proposed this idea in 1915 who recognized eight facies in metamorphic rocks.
Later workers have greatly improved upon the diagnostic characters and even expanded the number
of facies. At present ten metamorphic facies as proposed by Myashiro in 1973 are often considered
sufficient. These are named below alongwith their typical mineral assemblages:
 

TABLE 1.1. Metamorphic Facies

 

S.No Facies Name Typical Mineral Assemblage

   
I. Greenschist Chlorite + actinolite + albite + epidote + quartz
2. Epidot -Amphibolite Hornblende + epidote + albite + garnet(almandine) + quartz
3. Amphibolite Hornblende + andesine + quartz
4. Pyroxene-Hornfels Clinopyroxene + Labradorite + quartz
5. Granulite Clinopyroxene + Labradorite + Orthopyroxene + quart z
6. Sanidine Clinopyroxene + labradorite + quartz
7. Glaucophane Schist Glaucophane + Laawsonite + quartz
8. Eclogite Pyrope garnet + omphacite
9. Zeolite Smectite + zeolite
10. Prehnite-pumelyite PrehnJte + pumellyite

fghYl , identified before a

It is essential that all the minerals in an assemblage mtJ: be thoro
metamorphic rock is placed into a proper facies. Thus, presencf of pyrope, garnet and omphacite is
essential for placing a rock into Eclogite facies. ,
1
 

1.8. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 
1.8.1. Definition
Metamorphic rocks are defined as those rocks which have formed through the operation
of various types of metamorphic processes on the pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks
involving changes in textures, structures and mineralogical compositions. The direction of
change depends upon the type of the original rock and the type of metamorphic process that
operates on the rock.
Heat, pressure and chemically active fluids are the main agents involved in metamorphic processes.
Plastic deformation, recrystallisation of mineral constituents and development of parallel orientation
are typical characters of metamorphic rocks.
They are megascopically distinguished from other types of rocks by the development of features
like cleavage, foliation, schistosity and granulation and by the presence of such minerals that are
known to be end products of metamorphic recrystallisation.
 
1.8.2. Mineralogical Composition
Metamorphic rocks exhibit a great variation in their mineralogical composition that depends in
most cases on
(i) the composition of the parent rock;
(ii) the type and degree of metamorphism undergone by the rock.
Many metamorphic rocks simply consist of reconstituted minerals of the parent rock. For instance
marble, a metamorphic rock, is made up of recrystallised calcite; (CaC0 3) from sedimentary rock,
limestone. Similarly, sandstone, another sedimentary rock made up mostly of quartz, (Si02), may
get metamorphosed to a rock quartzite made up mostly of recrystallised silica. The hosts of new
minerals formed due to metamorphism are essentially stable under the changed conditions of
temperature, pressure and chemical environment. Two broad groups of minerals formed during
metamorphism are: stress minerals and anti-stress minerals.
 
• Stress Minerals
Those minerals, which are produced in the metamorphic rocks chiefly under the stress factor,
are known as stress minerals. They are characterised by flaky, platy, lamellar, flattened and elongated
forms. Examples of stress minerals are kyanite, staurolite, muscovite, chlorite and some amphiboles.
These minerals are formed mostly under conditions of dynamothermal metamorphism.
 
• Anti-Stress Minerals
These are metamorphic minerals produced primarily under the influence of temperature factor. Such
minerals are generally of a regular equidimensional outline. Examples are sillimanite, olivine, cordierite
and many pyroxenes. These minerals are quite unstable under high stress conditions. Plutonic
metamorphism favours development of these minerals in metamorphic rocks.
 
1.8.3. Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
These can be broadly grouped under two headings :
''•''(a) Crystalloblastic Textures which include all those textures that have been newly imposed
upon the rock during the process of metamorphism and are, therefore, essentially the product of
metamorphism .
 

(b) Palimpsest (Relict) Textures that include textures which were present in the parent rock
and have been retained by the rock despite metamorphic changes in other aspects.
Ampng the crystalloblastic textures, Porphyroblastic and Granoblastic types are most common. In
the first case, the fine-grained ground mass of the metamorphic rock shows in it idioblastic crystals (that
is, ꞏcrystals with perfect outlines) of stronger minerals. In the granoblastic texture, the rock is made of
equidimensional recrystallised minerals without there being any fme grained ground mass.
Palimpsest textures are similar in essential details as in the parent rock with little or no
modifications taking place during metamorphism. These are described by using the term blasto-
as a prefix to the name of the original texture retained by the rock. Thus, the porphyritic texture
retained by an igneous rock even after having undergone metamorphism may be named as
blastoporphyritic.
 
1.8.4. Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
Some of very common structures found in metamorphic rocks are discussed briefly as follows.
(i) Cataclastic Structure. It is characterised by the development of extremely fine rock mass
under the influence of severe crushing and shearing effects of stresses operating during
metamorphism. The effect may be observed in rocks spread over wide areas. Rocks like
crush breccia, mylonite and slate show this type of structure.
(ii) Schistose Structure. The rock with schistose structure is made up of broadly parallel or sub-
parallel layers or bands of flaky, platy or rod-like minerals making it very weak in the direction
of parallelism. Rocks named as Schists typically show this structure (Fig. 1.3).
(iii) Gneissose Structure. In this structure, bands orfolia of platy and flaky minerals alternate
with those of equidimensional and granular minerals. These bands are generally of
contrasting colours, composition and textures. The gneissose texture is indicative of an
advance degree of metamorphism under combined action of high temperature, high pressure
and active participation of fluids. (Fig. 1.4)
Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
 

Schistose Gneissose Structure Maculose Granulose

Structure (Mica Schist) (Banded Gneiss) Structure(Homfels) Structure (Marble)
     
Fig. 1.3. I Fig. 1.4. Fig. 1.5. Fig. 1.6.
 

(iv) Maculose Structure. It is characterised by a spotted appearance of the rock that may be
caused due to the formation of large-sized crystals (called the porphyroblasts) within an
otherwise fine grained rock. This structure is typical product of thermal (contact)
metamorphism and results generally due to incomplete recrystallisation of the constituent
minerals. (Fig. 1.5)
Augen Structure is broadly similar to maculose type and is typical of metamorphic rocks
in which the effects of crushing under pressure are clearly associated with recrystallisation.
In this structure, some resistant minerals get defortiled into thin, lenticular, lense like shapes
giving a characteristic appearance to the rock.
 

(v) Granulose Structure. It is a typical structure of metamorphic rocks like marble and quartzite
and is characterised by an essentially granular character of the constituent minerals. The
individual grains may be irregular in outline but are interlocking. Foliation is absent or
negligible. Rocks with granular structure are termed as granulites. (Fig. 1.6)
Some of the above structures are developed on such a large scale in the metamorphic rocks that
these become easily the most important distinguishing features of those rocks. These large-scale
structural features are then specially referred as rock cleavage, schistosity and foliation. Each term
deserves a clarifying statement.
 
'
1.8.5. Rock Cleavage
It is an important and typical structural feature of metamorphic rocks and may be defined as the
capacity of the rock to split along certain directions yielding parallel or subparallel smooth surfaces.
Two types of rock cleavage are distinguished theoretically:
(a) Flow Cleavage. It is also called slaty cleavage because of its development in slates. This
cleavage is developed during metamorphism by parallel arrangement of highly cleavable flaky
and platy minerals like mica, talc and chlorite which make the bulk of the original shales or clays.
Sometimes this gives the appearance of bedding planes in the rock out actually in most cases it is
developed cutting across the bedding planes. Traces of bedding planes may be found as relict
structures in some slates. The slaty cleavage is the result of severe type of dynamic metamorphism
of clays and shales.
(b) Fracture Cleavage. This type of cleavage is developed due to parallel orientation of very
fine fractures, often called microfractures, that may be developed in minerals of a rock undergoing
dynamic metamorphism.
It is often difficult to distinguish between two types of cleavage in hand specimen. The
cleavage structure is of great importance in field mapping of metamorphic rocks as it provides
very useful information about structural feature like folding.
 
1.8.6. Schistosity
It is a structural feature of many metamorphic rocks caUed Schists and signifies that the rock is made
up of parallel or subparallel bands or layers of platy and flaky minerals like mica, chlorite, tourmaline
etc. Within these bands may be found enclosed grains or crystals of some other minerals like garnets and
hornblende. Schistosity results due to combined effect of heat and pressure during metamorphism involving
both recrystallisation and reo1ientation of platy minerals as inꞏegular layers or bands. In other words this
structure is the product of combined action of thermal and dynamic metamorphism on a variety of rocks
such as shales, rhyolites, granites and basalts.
 
1.8.7. Foliation
It is a broader term explaining layered structure in metamorphic rocks and is often understood
to include cleavage and schistosity. However, foliation in particular expresses segregation of minerals
in an alternating manner: the granular minerals make one layer followed by another layer of flaky
or platy minerals both downwards and upwards and the str ucture is repeated in three dimensions in
the entire rock mass. It may be regarded as an advance stage of dynamothermal metamorphism in
which the rock is further segregated into bands of alternating mineralogical composition.
Foliation generally results due to dynamothermal metamorphism in coarse-grained igneous
rocks like granites and sandstones and metamorphic rocks like schists.
 

1.9. CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks have been variously classified on the basis of texture and structure,
degree of metamorphism, mineralogical composition and mode of origin etc.
A very general two-fold classification based on the presence or absence of la yered structure or
FOLIATION as defined above is as follows:
(a) Foliated Rocks. All metamorphic rocks showing development of conspicuous parallelism
in their mineralogical and structural constitution falling under the general term foliation are grouped
together as foliated rocks. The parallelism indicating features include slaty cleavage, schistosity and
gneissose structures.
Typical rocks included in this group are slates, phyllites, schists and gneisses of great variety.
(b) Non-Foliated Rocks. Included in this group are all those metamorphic rocks characterised
with total or nearly total absence of foliation or parallelism of mineralogical constituents.
Typical examples of non-foliated rocks are quartzites, hornfels, marbles, amphibolites and
soapstone etc.
 
1.10. IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 
(1) Slate
Definition. Slate is an extremely fine-grained metamorphic rock characterized by a slaty cleavage
by virtue of which it can be readily split into thin sheets having parallel smooth surfaces. The slaty
cleavage is due to parallel arrangement of platy and flaky minerals of the slate under the dominant
stresses operating during the process of metamorphism.
Composition. Mineralogically, slate is made up of very fine flakes of mica, chlorite and
microscopic grains of quartz, felspar, oxides of iron and many other minerals, all of which cannot
be easily identified even under microscope because of their fine grain size.
Origin. Slate is a product of low-grade- regional metamorphism of argillaceous rocks like clays
and shales.
 
Dyoamothermal metamorphism
Clays/Shales Slates
 
When slate is subjected to further action of dynamothermal metamorphism, recrystallisation
leads to the development in number and size of some minerals, especially micas. Such metamorphic
rocks with conspicuous micaceous constituents and general slaty appearance are termed PHYLLITES.
The phyllites on further metamorphism change into rocks called SCHISTS that show megascopically
crystalline texture and foliated structure.
Uses. Slate is used locally (where available) for construction purpose as a roofing a nd paving
material only.
(2) Schist
Definition. Schists are megascopically crystalline foliated metamorphic rocks characterised
by a typical schistose structure. The constituent flaky and platy minerals are mostly arranged in
parallel or subparallel layer.s or bands.
Texture and Structure. Schists show wide variation in their texture and structure. Most varieties
are coarsely crystalline in texture and exhibit a typical schistose structure. Microcrystalline schists
are also not uncommon. Quite a few types show lineation and porphyroblastic fabric.
Composition. Platy and rod-like acicular minerals form the bulk of most of the schists. Micas
(both muscovite and biotite), chlorite, hornblende, tremolite, actinolite and kyanitc are quite common
 

constituents of most of the schists. Quartz and felspars are comparatively rare but not altogether
absent. Porphyroblasts of granular minerals like staurolite, garnet and andalucite make their appearance
in many schists.
Varieties. Specific names are given to different types of schists on the basis of predominance
of any one or more minerals. Thus some commonly found schists are: muscovite schists, biotite -
schists, sericite- schist, tourmaline- schist etc. Sometimes schists are grouped into two categories
on the basis of degree of metamorphism as indicated by the presence of index minerals:
(a) Low-grade schists. Formed under conditions of regional metamorphism at low temperamre.
These are rich in minerals like albite, muscovite and chlorite that are unstable at high temperature.
Mica-schist, chlorite-schist and talc-schist are a few examples from this group.
(b) High-grade schists. These are formed under conditions of regional metamorphism and are
rich in minerals that are stable at high temperatures such as andalusite, cordierite, garnet, staurolite
and sillimanite etc. Garnet-schists, cordierite-schists and staurolite-schists are common examples.
Origin. As mentioned above slates and schists are generally the product of dynamothermal
metamorphism of argillaceous sedimentary rocks like clays and shales. These indicate the final and stable
stage in the metamorphism of shales through the intervening stages of slates and phyllites :
 
Shale Metamorphism Slate Metamorphism ) Phyllite Metamorphism Schist
 
Some schists like chlorite-schists and talc-schists may also be formed from basic and ultra basic
igneous rocks respectively.
 
(3) Gneiss
 
Definition. A gneiss (pronounced as neis) is a megascopically crystalline foliated metamorphic
rock characterised by segregation of constituent minerals into layers or bands of contrasting colour,
texture and composition. A typical gneiss will show bands of micaceous minerals alternating with
bands of equidimensional minerals like felspars, quartz and garnet etc.
Composition. Gneisses are generally rich in the minerals of parent rocks that are simply
recrystallised during the process of metamorphism. Felspar and quartz are more common in gneisses
than in schists. Dark minerals of pyroxene and amphibole groups are also common, as are the typical
metamorphic minerals like staurolite, sillimanite, garnet, kyanite and epidote etc.
Texture and Structure. Gneisses show a variety of textures and structures, the most common
being coarsely crystalline texture and the gneissose structure (already described). The so-
called augen-gneisses show a typical cataclastic structure in which the hard minerals are
flattened and elongated.
Varieties. Specific names of gneisses are generally basd on their mode of origin and structure
rather than on their mineralogical composition (as in schists). Important types are:
(i) Orthogneiss formed as a result of metamorphism of granites and other igneous rocks.
'I
ꞏ' ,t
(ii) Paragneiss these are formed from the metamorphism of sedimentary 'rocks like sandstones;
(iii) Banded gneiss typical gneiss in which the tabular and flaky minerals are segregated in very
conspicuous bands of alternating dark and light colours.
(iv) Augen gneiss. It is a gneissic rock formed as a result of dynamic metamorphism of granites
and sedimentar1 tocks showing a typically cataclastic structure. In this rock stronger
minerals are elongated in the form of lense-like form under operating stresses.