Module 03

Topic STEEL
Lecture Video lecture by Arch. Joe Juson
Quiz BT 03 Metals
Student’s Study the following:
Assignment No. 3 1. Material Steel
(For self-study) 2. Structural Steel and Connections
3. Frame and Decking
4. Light Gauge Steel

Building Technology
Instructor: Arch. Jose B. Juson Jr.
JPT Review Center

METALS – strongest building materials presently in common use

PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. PLASTIC/ MELTING – can be liquefied by heating and will solidify as they cool
2. DUCTILE – can be hammered thin or drawn into wires
3. CONDUCTIVE – mostly metals are prone to conduct heat and electricity
4. CORROSIVE – most metals corrode by oxidation
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
 FERROUS – consisting primarily of IRON, ferrous metals are very easy and economical
to refine as iron ore is an abundant material. Thus, ferrous metals tend to be much less
expensive than non-ferrous metals. Besides, ferrous metals are also the strongest, but
most have a tendency to rust.
 NON – FERROUS – metals are more expensive, but are resistant to corrosion. Many
non-ferrous metals are also easy to work and attractive to the eye.
ALLOYS – metal mixed with other elements or other metals to modify its properties for a
particular purpose.
Ex. BRONZE = COPPER + small amount of TIN
STEEL – strong and stiff, is a material of slender towers and soaring spans. Precise and
predictable, light in proportion to its strength, it is also well suited to rapid construction, highly
repetitive building frames and architectural details that satisfy the eye with a clean, precise
elegance. Among the metals, it is uniquely plentiful and inexpensive. If its weaknesses, a
tendency to corrode in certain environments and a loss of strength during severe building fires –
are held in check by intelligent construction measures, it offers the designer possibilities that
exist with no other material.
- Steel any of range of alloys of iron that contain less than roughly 2% carbon
First all metal structure, a cast iron bridge – late 18th century in England (SEVERN RIVER
for more than 2 centuries after construction)
CAST IRON – produced from iron ore in a blast furnace
- Contains 2 -4% carbon
WROUGHT IRON – has been purified by beating it repeatedly with hammer
- Contains even less carbon than most steel alloys
*steel had been a rare and expensive material
Inexpensive steel
- BESSEMER PROCESS – air blown into a vessel of molten iron to burn out impurities.
By this means, a large batch of iron could be made into steel in about 20 mins, and the
structural properties of the resulting metal were vastly superior to those of cast iron
Economical steelmaking
- OPEN-HEARTH METHOD
* The process of converting iron ore to steel begins with smelting of the ore into cast iron. This is
done in a blast furnace, which is charged with alternating layers of iron ore, coke, and crushed
limestone
SLAG – containing various impurities that floats on top of the molten metal
IRON ORE – oxides of iron extracted from the earth in mineral from
COKE – coal whose volatile constituents have been distilled out, leaving only carbon
BASIC OXYGEN PROCESS – in this method, a hollow water-cooled lance is lowered into a
container of molten iron produced from ore along with recycled steel crap
 MANGANESE- gives resistance to abrasion and impact
 MOLYBDENUM – gives strength
 VANADIUM – imparts strength and toughness
 NICKEL & CHROMIUM – gives corrosion and resistance, toughness, and stiffness.
MINI MILLS – greater share of structural steel produced on this continent is made from virtually
100% scrap steel
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES PROCESS – these mills are miniature only in comparison to the
conventional mills that they have replaced; they are housed in enormous buildings and roll
structural shapes of any size and shape.

INTERMEDIATE STEEL PRODUCTS

  INGOT – mass of metal cast into a convenient shape for storage or transportation before
further processing
 BLANK – place of metal ready to be drawn, pressed, or machined into a finished object.
 BLOOM – bar of steel reduced from an ingot to dimensions suitable for further rolling
 BLOOMING MILL – mill for rolling ingots into blooms
 BILLET – narrow, generally square, bar of steel, forged or hot-rolled from an ingot or
bloom
MILD STRUCTURAL STEEL – known as ASTM designation of A36, was for decades the
predominant steel type used in building frames
HIGH –STRENGTH, LOW ALLOY STEELS – designated ASTM A992 or ASTM a572, o
WEATHERING STEEL – ASTM A588 for structural shapes and A606 for thin sheet
STAINLESS STEEL – greater corrosion resistance – and coating significantly more than
conventional structural steel – can be produced
- Addition of nickel and chromium to steel
GALVANIZING – application of a zinc coating
QUENCHING – rapid cooling
TAMPERING – partial heating, to give the steel an optimized balance of strength, toughness,
and weldability characteristics
PRODUCTION OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES
STRUCTURAL MILL / BREAKDOWN MILL – where beam plank is reheated as necessary
and then passed through a succession of rollers that squeeze the metal into progressively more
refined approximation of the desired shape and size
COOLING BED –where segments are cooled
ROLLER STRAIGHTER – corrects any residual crookedness

STRUCTURAL STEEL PRODUCTS

METAL
 W-SHAPE –
 See visual dictionary
CAST STEEL – vast majority of structural steel is produced as rolled shapes
- well suited for production of custom-shaped connections for steel structures that are stronger,
lighter, and more attractive than with those fabricated conventional rolled steel
COLD-WORKED STEEL – can be cold-worked or cold-formed) rolled or bent in a cold state (at
room temperature). Cold working causes steel to gain considerable strength through a
realignment of its crystalline structure
- light gauge steel sheet is formed into C-shaped sections to make short-span framing members
- steel sheet stock is also rolled into corrugated configurations utilized as floor and roof
decking in steel-framed structures
- heavier steel or plate stock may be cold-formed into square, rectangular, round, and
elliptical hollow shapes that are welded along the longitudinal seam to form hollow
structural sections (HSSs). Called structural tubing
OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS – made from hot and cold-rolled shapes, the most common is the
open-web steel joist (OWSJ), a mass produced truss used in closely spaced arrays to support
floor/roof decks.
1. K- SERIES – joists are for spans up to 60ft (18m) and range in depth from 8-30 inches
(200-760mm)
2. LH SERIES joists – designated as LONGSPAN, span as far as 96 ft (29m). Their depths
range from 18-48 inches (460-1220mm)
3. DLH DEEP LONGSPAN – series of open-web joists (for roofs only) are 52-72 inch
deep (1320 1830 mm) and can span up to 144 ft (44m)
4. CJ COMPOSITE JOISTS – rated for composite floor construction
JOIST GIRDERS – prefabricated steel trusses designed to carry heavy loads, particularly bays of
steel joists. They range in depth from 20 to 72 inches (500-1800mm). they can be used instead of
wide-flange beams and girders in roof and floor structures where their greater depth is not
objectionable. Open-web joists and joists girders are invariably made of high strength steel.

BOLTS
CARBON STEEL BOLTS (ASTM A307). Also called unfinished or common bolts
HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS (ASTM A325 and A490)
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE AMOUNT OF TENSION IN A BOLT
BEARING-TYPE CONNECTION – bolts need only be installed to a snug-tight condition.
Movement between the joined members is resisted by the bolts themselves as sides of bolt holes
in the connected members bear against the bodies of the bolts.
SLIP-CRITICAL (or friction-type) CONNECTION – bolts are preloaded (tightened during
installation) to such an extent that friction between the adjoining faces of the steel members (the
faying surfaces) resists movement between the members.
- under normal load conditions, bolts in bearing-type connections are stressed primarily in shear;
while those slip-critical connections are stress in tension.
* bolts are inserted into holes 1/16 inch (2mm) larger than the diameter of the bolt. Depending on
variety of factors, the hardened steel washers may be inserted under one or both ends of the
fastener.
* Bolts are usually tightened using a pneumatic or electric impact wrench
TURN-OF-NUT METHOD – each bolt is tightened snug, then turned a specified additional
fraction of a turn. Depending on bolt length, bolt alloy, and other factors, the additional
tightening required will range from one-third of a turn to a full turn.
DIRECT TENSION INDICATOR (DTI) – load indicator washer; placed under the head or nut
of the bolt. As the bolt is tightened, protrusions on the washer are progressively flattened
CALIBRTED WRENCH METHOD- less frequently used to verify bolt tension; in which a
special torque control wrench is used to tighten the bolts
TENSION CONTROL BOLTS – bolts have protruding splined ends that extend beyond the
threaded portion of the body of the bolt. The nut is tightened by a special power-driven shear
wrench that grips both the nut and the splined end simultaneously, turning one against the other.
LOCKPIN AND COLLAR FASTENER/ SWEDGE BOLT – bolt like steel pin with annular
rings that relies on a steel collar in lieu of a conventional nut to hold the pin

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS (WELDING)

WELDING – can join the members of a steel frame as if the were a monolithic whole. Welded
connections, properly designed and executed, are stronger than the members they join.
BOLTING – quick and easy for field connections that need only resist shearing forces, and it can
be accomplished under conditions of adverse weather or difficult physical access that would
make welding impossible
 Often welding and bolting are combined in the same connections to take advantage of the
unique qualities of each.
TYPES OF WELDING
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING – conceptually simple. An electrical potential is
established between steel pieces to be joined and a metal electrode held wither by a
machine or by a person

 TYPICAL WELDS
o SLOT/PLUG or PUDDLE WELD – non structural
o FILLET WELD – non structural
o GROOVE WELD – structural weld (stronger)
WELDING FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL
1. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
2. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) can be gas or self shielded
3. Submerged arc welding (SAW)
4. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
5. Electroslag welding (ESW)
DEMAND-CRITICAL WELDS – welds in structural connections that may be subjected to very
high stresses during a seismic event and that are critical to maintaining the stability of the
building structure.
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS

SHEAR
CONNECTION – type of connection,
which joins only the web of the
beam, but not the flanges,
- Capable of transmitting vertical forces (shear) from beam to a column. However, because it
does not connect beam flanges to the column, it is of no value in transmitting bending forces
(bending moment) from one to the other.
MOMENT CONNECTION – one capable of transmitting bending forces between and column, it
is necessary to connect the beam flanges strongly across the joint, most commonly by means of
penetration groove weld.
- STIFFENER PLATES – installed inside the flanges of the column to better distribute
these forces into the body of the column
AISC TYPES OF CONNECTION
 TYPE 1 – MOMENT CONNECTION
 Rigid
 Fully-restrained
 TYPE 2- SHEAR/SIMPLE CONNECTION
 Non – Rigid
  Unstrained
 TYPE 3 – SEMI-RIGID CONNECTION
 Partially restrained
FULLY-RESTRAINED (FR) MOMENT CONNECTIONS)- sufficiently rigid that the geometric
angles between members will remain virtually unchanged under normal loading
PARTIALLY-RESTRAINED (PR) MOMENT CONNECTIONS – not as rigid as FR
connections, but nonetheless possess a dependable and predictable moment-resisting capacity
that can be used to stabilized a building frame
SIMPLE CONNECTIONS, otherwise known as shear connections – are considered to be
capable of unrestrained rotation under normal loading conditions and to have negligible moment-
resisting capacity.
WELDED MOMENT CONNECTION (fully restrained) – joining a beam to a column flange.
This type of connection that would be used instead of the shear connection if moment connection
were required
- the bolts hold the beam in place for welding and also provide shear resistance
- small rectangular backup bars are welded beneath the end of each beam flange to prevent
the welding arc from burning through
- clearance hole is cut from the top of the beam web to permit the backup bar to pass
through
- if the column flanges are not stiff enough to accept the moments from the beam, stiffener
plates are welded between the column flanges,
- dog-bone configuration to create a zone of the beam that is slightly weaker in bending
than the welding connection itself.

SHEAR TAB connection– this is a shear connection (AISC simple connection) and not a
moment connection, because the flanges of the beam are not rigidly connected to the column

FRAMED CONNECTION – beam is connected to the column by angles, plates or tees fastened
to the web of the beam

SINGLE-TAB SHEAR (AISC simple frame)- connection is an economical alternative when the
load on the connection is relatively light.
- single connector plate is welded to the column in the shop, and the beam is
bolted to it on the construction site.

SEATED BEAM-TO- COLUMN WEB CONNECTION – beam flanges are connected to the
column by a seat angle below and a stabilizing angle above, this is a shear (AISC simple
connection, not moment connection, because the two bolts are incapable of developing the full
strength of the beam flange.
 - this seated connection is used rather than a framed connection to connect to a
column web because there is usually insufficient space between the column flanges to
insert a power wrench to tighten all the bolts in a framed connection

WELDED BEAM-TO-COLUMN WEB MOMENT (fully restrained connection) – a rigid

connection is required
o vertical shear tab, welded to the web of the column at its centerline, serves to
receive bolts that join the column to the beam web and hold the beam in place
during welding.
o The horizontal stiffener plates that are welded inside the column flanges are
thicker than the beam flanges and extend out beyond the column flanges to reduce
concentrations of stress at the welds.
WELDED/BOLTED END PLATE BEAM-COLUMN connection
- this is a semi-rigid (AISC partially-restrained connection
- with more bolts, this can become a rigid, AISC fully restrained connection, and could be
used to support a short cantilevered beam. This plate is welded to the end of the beam
bolted to the column on the building site
COPED BEAM-GIRDER SHEAR (AISC simple) connection
- a girder is a beam that supports the other beam. This connection may also be made with
single tabs rather than angles if the load is not too great.
- The top flanges of the beam are cut away (coped) so that the tops of the beams and the
girder are all level with one another, ready to receive the floor or roof decking.
BOLTED COLUMN – COLUMN
- Connections for column that are the same size. These plates are bolted to the lower
section of the column in the shop and to the upper section on the site. All column
connections are made at waist height above the floor
- Column sizes diminish as the building rises, requiring frequent use of shim plates at
connections to make up for differences in flange thicknesses
PARTIAL-PENETRATION WELDING – allows one column to rest on the other prior to
welding.
- is welded at the base of the upper column is made on the site
WELDED BUTT PLATE – connection is used where a column changes from one nominal size
of wide flange to another
STABILIZING THE BUILDING DRAME
- to understand the roles of shear and moment connection in the building structure, it is
necessary to understand the means by which large buildings are made stable against the
lateral forces of wind and earthquake
THREE TYPES OF STABILIZING ELEMENTS
 1. BRACED FRAMES – uses diagonal bracing to create stable triangular configurations
within the unstable rectilinear geometry of the frame
a. ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME – the ends of the diagonal braces are
offset some distance from each other where they connect to horizontal members.
These connections introduce greater energy-absorbing capacity or reliance into
the building frame, important for resistance to severe the earthquake stresses
2. SHEAR WALLS – very stiff walls made of steel, concrete or reinforced concrete
masonry.
3. MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES – have neither diagonal bracing nor shear walls. They
rely instead on stronger or stiffer moment connections between beams and column to
provide lateral stability
BRACING ARRANGEMENTS FOR TALL BUILDINGS
 RIGID CORE – a pair of concrete core structures leads the construction, followed by
concrete column and floor plates and finally the enclosing curtain
 RIGID PERIMETER – diagonal bracing, shear walls, or (less frequently) beam-to-
column moment connections are incorporated into the outer walls of the building frame
and the entire interior structure is assembled with simpler shear connections
o Also called tube structures – can be more efficient than rigid core structures, since
the stabilizing elements are spread further apart and act over a great area in plan.

SUMMARY:
- shear connections between beams and columns are sufficient to transmit vertical loads
through the building frame, but they are not, on their own, capable of providing adequate
resistance to lateral forces.
- Lateral force resistance may be provided by the introduction of diagonal bracing, shear
walls, beam to column moment connections, or some combinations of these elements into
frame.
- Braces frames and shear walls tend to be more structurally efficient than moment frames
and are usually the preferred choices for stabilizing structures that are very tall or
otherwise subject to high wind or earthquake forces.
THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
1. Structural engineer
2. Specifier
3. Steel detailer
4. Fabricator
5. Erector – where the fabricator’s job ends, the erectors job begins. The erector is
responsible for assembling into a frame on the building site the steel components
furnished by the fabricator.
a. The erector’s workers, by tradition are called ironworkers
BASE PLATE CONNECTION – thin steel plate is leveled on bed of grout prior to erection of
the column
LEVELING NUTS – on the anchor bolts support the baseplate and column before grouting
COMPOSITE DECKING – acts as steel reinforcing for the concrete topping installed over it.
SHEAR STUDS – welded every few inches to the top of each beam, using a special electric
welding gun. The purpose of the studs is to create a strong shear connection between the
concrete slab and the steal beam.
CELLULAR STEEL DECKING – used for under floor electrical and communications wiring.

STRUCTURAL STEEL FIREPROOFING & LONG-SPAN STRUCUTRES

SPRAY-APPLIED FIRE-RESISTIVE MATERIALS (SFRM) – commonly referred as to as
spray-applied fire proofing, have become the most prevalent type.
LONGER SPANS AND HIGH-CAPACITY COLUMNS
Standard wide flange beams – suitable for the range of structural spans normally encountered in
offices, schools, hospitals, apartment buildings, hotels, retail stores, warehouses, and other
buildings in which columns may be brought to earth at intervals without obstructing the activities
that take place within
LIGHT GAUGE STEEL FRAMING CONSTRUCTION
-non combustible equivalent of wood light frame construction
- term “light gauge” refers to the relative thinness (gauge) of the steel sheet from which the
members are made
- sheet steel is fed from continuous soils through machines at room temperature that cold- work
metal and fold it into efficient structural shapes
 Structural steel framing – hot worked/ hot-rolled
 Light-gauge steel framing – cold worked/ cold-formed
C-SECTION – for wall, floor and roof framing, the steel is formed into stud or joist section
TRACK SECTIONS – used for top and bottom plates. They are slightly oversized so that stud or
joist members can nest into them
CHANNEL SECTIONS and FURIING CHANNELS – are used for lighter bracing and framing
task
Light gauge steel members are identified using a standard nomenclature, similar to that used
with hot-rolled steel structural shapes
STANDARD ACCESSORIES FOR LIGHT GAUGE STEEL FRAMING
 End clips – used o join members that meet at right angles
 Foundation clips – attach the ground-floor platform to anchor bolts embedded in the
foundation
 Joist hangers – connect joists to headers and trimmers around openings
  Web stiffener – two piece assembly that is inserted inside a joist and screwed to its
vertical web to help transmit wall loads vertically through the joist.

GYPSUM SHEATHING – panels applied over metal stud framing on an noncombustible

building
METALS – are dense, lustrous materials that are highly conductive of heat and electricity
FERROUS – consist primarily of iron
NONFERROUS- all metals
ALLOYS – combines copper with a small amount of tin known as bronze
HEAT TREATMENT – treatment of metals that can be changed
QUENCHED – heated red –hot and then plunged in cold water, becomes harder but brittle
TEMPERED – heating to a moderate degree and cooling it more slowly, making it both hard and
strong
ANNEALING – steal that is brought to a very high temperature and then cooled very slowly
COLD WORKING – another way of changing the properties of a metal
GALVANIZED – coating it with zinc to protect against corrosion
ELECTROPLATING – widely used to coat metals such as chromium and cadmium onto steel to
improve the appearance of the steel and protect it from oxidation
ANODIZE ALUMINUM – adding a thin oxide layer of controlled color and consistency to the
surface material
NON METALLIC COATINGS – paints, lacquers, organic coatings, porcelain enamel, and
thermosetting powders