UNIT-II

Cultivation, Collection, Processing and storage of drugs of natural origin

Cultivation:
Medicinal plants are cultivated based on modern scientific information. Even though,
cultivation of medicinal plants offers wide spectrum of advantages over their wild
sources, it may be an uneconomical proposition for certain types of crude drugs which
occur abundantly in their natural habit e. g. nux vomica, acacia, myrobalan, etc.
On the other hand, crude drugs like cardamom, clove, Indian hemp, popy latex, tea,
cinchona, ginger, linseed, isabgol, saffron, peppermint, fennel, etc. are obtained from
cultivated plants.

The cultivation of vegetable drugs involves various factors such as soil, climate, rainfall,
irrigation, altitude, temperature, use of fertilizers, pesticides, genetic manipulation and
biochemical aspects of natural drugs.

Advantages of cultivation:
1.It ensures quality and purity of medicinal plants. If uniformity is maintained in all
operations during the process of cultivation, drugs of highest quality can be obtained.
Cultivation of rhizomes demands an adequate quantity of fertilizers and proper irrigation.
If the cultivated plants are kept free of weeds, the contamination of crude drugs can be
conveniently avoided.

2.Collections of crude drugs from cultivated plants give a better yield and therapeutic
quality if it is done by skilled and well-experienced person. For example, collection of
latex from poppy capsules, if done by experienced persons, can result in better yield of
crude drugs. Preservation of green colour of senna leaves and minimizing the
deterioration of cardiac glycosides in freshy collective leaves of digitalis can be achieved
only by highly skilled labour.

3.Cultivation ensures regular supply of a crude drug. Planning of cultivation regularizes

its supply and as a result the industries depending upon crude drugs, do not face problem
of shortage of raw material.

4. The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants also leads to industralisation to a

greater extent. The cultivation of cinchona in W. B. has led to the establishment of the
cinchona alkaloid factory near Darjeeling. The Govt. owned opium factory at Gaziabad is a
eloquent testimony to the significance of well planned cultivation of poppy.

5.Cultivation permits application of modern technological aspects such as mutation,

polyploidy and hybridization.

Disadvantages:
The high cost of cultivated drugs as compared to wild sources and the losses due to
ecological imbalances such as storms, earthquakes, floods, droughts,etc. are major
disadvantages of cultivation.

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Medicinal plants are propagated by two usual methods as:-
a) Sexual method or seed propagation eg. Castor seeds, Indian Senna
b) Asexual method of vegetative propagation eg. Bulbs – squill &
garlic, rhizomes – ginger & turmeric.
c) Aseptic methods of micropropagation in which the plants are developed in an artificial
medium under aseptic conditions from very fine pieces of plants like single cell, callus,
seeds, embroyos, root tips, shoot tips, pollen grains,etc. They are provided with
nutritional and hormonal requirements.

Collection: Irrespective of the type of crude drug and area of collection, the drugs are
collected suitably when they contain maximum concentration of active constituents.

The drugs which constitute leaf and the flowering tops of plants are collected just before
they reach their flowering stage (maturity) e.g., senna, digitalis, vinca, belladonna, etc.,
while the leaves of aloe are collected when they are sufficiently thick.

Flowers need to be collected just before pollination or many a times, before their full
expansion, e.g. saffron, clove buds, arnica, etc.

Barks are generally collected in spring or early summer when cambium is active, as it is
easy to detach them from the stem. Sometimes, they are collected in autumn (wild cherry)
or in rainy season (cinnamon).

Fruits are collected depending upon the part of fruits which is pharmaceutically
important. They are collected either ripe or half ripe, but fully grown. For example,
cardamom fruits are collected just before their dehiscence; bale and tamarind, after their
full maturity, while coriander, caraway and fennel are collected when they are fully ripe.

The roots are collected in spring, before the vegetative process stops. Usually, the roots
are sliced transversely or longitudinally to facilitate drying.

Rhizomes are collected, when they store ample of reserve food material & also contain
maximum content of chemical constituents.

The unorganized drugs such as resins, gums, lattices are collected, as soon as, they ooze
out of the plant. Acacia gum is collected 2-3 weeks after making incisions on the bark of
the tree and when it is sufficiently hard. Opium and papaya latics are collected after
coagulation of latex. Terpentine oleo resin and balsam of peru are collected when the
plant is about 8-10 years old.

Processing: Before marketing a crude drug, it is necessary to process it properly, so as to

preserve it for a longer time and also to acquire better pharmaceutical elegance. This
processing includes several operations as follows.

Drying: Drying consists of removal of sufficient moisture content of crude drug, so as to

improve its quality and make it resistant to the growth of microorganisms. Drying inhibits

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practically enzymatic reactions. Drying also facilitates pulverizing or grinding of crude
drug. The slicing and cutting into smaller pieces is done to enhance drying, as in case of
glycyrrhiza & squill.

Depending upon the chemical constituents, drying can be of two types-

1. Natural (Sun drying) 2. Artificial.

1.Natural drying (Sun drying): In case of natural drying it may be either direct Sun-
drying or in the shed. If the natural colour of the drug (dIgitalis, clove, senna) and the
volatile principle of the drug(peppermint) are to be retained, drying in shed is
preferred. If the content of the drugs are quite stable to the temperature and sunlight,
the drugs can be dried directly in sunshine (gum acacia, seeds & fruits).

2. Artifificial Drying: drying by artificial means includes:

a) Tray dryers: The drugs which do not contain volatile oils and are quite stable
to heat or which need deactivation of enzymes are dried in tray driers. In this
process, hot air of the desired temperature is circulated through the dryers and
this facilitates the removal of water content of the drugs. Belladonna roots,
cinchona bark, tea, raspberry leaves & gums are dried by this method.

b) Vacuum dryers: The drug which are sensitive to higher temperature are dried
by this process e.g. tannic acid & digitalis leaves.

c) Spray dryers: Few drugs which are highly sensitive to atmospheric conditions
and also to temperature of vacuum drying are dried by spray drying method.
The technique is followed for quick drying of economically important plant or
animal constituents, rather than the crude drugs, Example of spray drying are
papaya latex, pectin, tannin etc.

Dressing (Garbling): The next step after drying is garbling. This process is desired when
sand, dirt and foreign organic parts of the same plant, not constituting drug; are required
to be removed. Drugs constituting rhizomes need to be separated carefully from roots and
rootlets and also stem bases. Pieces of bark should be removed by peeling in gum acacia.

Packing: The morphological and chemical nature of drug, its ultimate use and effects of
climatic conditions during transportation and storage should be taken into consideration
while packing the drugs.

Aloe is packed in goat skin, colophony and balsam of tolu is packed in kerosene tins,
while asafetida is stored in well closed containers to prevent loss of volatile oil.

Cod liver oil, being sensitive to sunlight, should be stored in such containers, which will
not have effect on sunlight, whereas, the leaf drugs like senna, vinca and others are
pressed and baled.

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The drugs which are sensitive to moisture and also costly at the same time need special
attention, e.g. digitalis, ergot and squill. Squill becomes flexible, ergot becomes
susceptible to the microbial growth, while digitalis looses its potency due to
decomposition of glycosides, if brought in contact with excess of moisture during
storage. Hence, the chemicals which absorb excessive moisture from the drug are
incorporated in the containers.

Colophony needs to be packed in big masses to control auto-oxidation. Cinnamon bark,

which is available in the form of quills, is packed one inside the other quill, so as to
facilitate transport and prevent volatilization of oil from the drug.

The drugs like roots, seeds and others do not need special attention and are packed in
gunny bags, while in some cases bags are coated with polythene internally. The weight of
certain drugs in lots is also kept constant eg. Indium opium.

Storage: Preservation of crude drugs needs sound knowledge of their physical and
chemical properties. A good quality of the drugs can be maintained, if they are preserved
properly.

All the drugs should be preserved in well closed and, possibly, in the well filled
containers. They should be stored in the premises which are water proof, fireproof and
preferably rodent proof.

A number of drug absorb moisture during their storage and become susceptible to the
microbial growth, increases the bulk of the drug and also cause impairment in the quality
of the crude drug. The excessive moisture facilitates enzymatic reactions resulting in
decomposition of active constituents eg, digitalis leaves and wild cherry bark. Gentian
and ergot receive mould infestation due to excessive moisture.

Radiation due to direct Sun-light also causes destruction of active chemical constituents,
eg, ergot, cod liver oil and digitalis.

Form or shape of the drug also plays very important role in preserving the crude drugs.
Colophony in the entire form (big masses) is preserved nicely, but if stored in powdered
form, it gets oxidized or loses solubility in petroleum ether. Squill when stored in
powdered form becomes very much hygroscopic and forms rubbery mass on prolonged
exposes to air.

Atmospheric oxygen is also destructive to several drugs and hence they are filled
completely in well closed containers, or the air in the container is replaced by inert gas
like nitrogen eg, shark liver oil, papain etc.

Preservation against insect or mould attacks is also important. Different types of insects,
worms, moulds and mites infect the crude drugs during storage. They can be prevented

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by drying the drug thoroughly before storage and also by giving treatment of fumigants.
The common fumigants are methyl bromide, carbon disulphide, and hydrocyanic acid.

Temperature is also very important factor in preservation of the drugs, as it accelerates

several chemical reactions leading to decomposition of the quality. Hence, most of the
drugs need to be preserved at a very low temperature.

The costly phytopharmaceuticals are required to be preserved at refrigerated temperature

in well closed containers. Small quantities of crude drugs could be readily stored in
airtight, moisture proof containers such as tin, cans, covered metal tins or amber glass
containers.

Wooden boxes and paper bags should not be used for storage of crude drugs.

Factors influencing cultivation of medicinal plants:

The factors which are given special attention for cultivation are listed
below;
1. Altitude, temperature & humidity
2. Rainfall or irrigation
3. Soil & soil fertility
4. Fertilizers
5. Pest & pest control

1.Altitude, temperature & humidity: Altitude is a very important factor in cultivation

of medicinal plant. Cinchona & eucalyptus are cultivated favourably at an altitude of
1000 – 2000 meters, while senna can be cultivated at sea level. Temperature is another
factor affecting the growth of a plant. Excessive temperature as well as frost also affects
quality of medicinal plants adversely. Camphor & coffee cannot withstand frost, whereas
saffron needs only cold climate and pyrethrum requires dry weather for cultivation.

2. Rainfall or irrigation: Except the xerophytic plants like aloe, acacia and few others,
most of the plants need either irrigation or sufficient rainfall for their favourable
development. In few cases, well distributed rainfall throughout the year is desired.

3. Soil & soil fertility: Soil is the most important natural resource as it supports growth
of all plants. It consists of mineral matter, air, water and organic matter. It is the mineral
matter which makes a lot of difference in various forms of soil. A soil good for plant
growth should have half of the pore spaces filled with water and the rest with air, since
good aeration is essential for root development.
The pH of soil decides favourable growth of plants and presence of microorganisms.
Ground nut, sunflower oil seeds, cotton and rice grow better in alkaline soils only. Acidic
pH is disadvantageous as it solubilizes more iron. Some of the plants like tobacco,
cinchona, tea, potato grow well only in acidic soils.

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Soil fertility is the capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in
balanced proportion to plants. Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of animal
manures, nitrogen fixing bacteria or by application of chemical fertilizers.

4. Fertilizers: For the vegetative growth plants need CO2, sunlight, water and mineral
matter. Plants are also need nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium & in small quantities of
Mg, Ca, S, Cu, Mn, I, Boron, Molybdenum & Zinc. Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen &
Chlorine are provided to plants from water and air. Every element has to perform some
specific function in growth & development of plants. Its deficiency is also characterized
by certain symptoms.

5. Pest & pest control: The different types of pests infesting medicinal plants are fungi,
viruses, weeds, insects & non-insect pests including rodents. It may be control by
following ways:
i) Mechanical method: It employs manual labors along with devices for collection and
destruction of pest.
ii) Agricultural method: It covers advanced plant breeding techniques capable of inducing
genetic manipulation resulting in production of pest resistant species.

iii) Biological control: The method is practiced by combating the pests, mostly the
insects, with other living organisms. The latter is frequently the parasite form.

iv) Chemical control: The control of pests is brought about with the use of chemical
pesticides, which include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and rodenticides.

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