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Unit 2: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses how society functions and becomes an influence in the
development of the self. Sociology is among the disciplines contributory to the
understanding of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The
perspectives of the self by Mead and Cooley, as a product of modern society, will be
explored.

ENGAGE

To have a feel of what will be covered in this unit, take some time to reflect on
the following:
✓ What social influences have contributed to the formation of
yourself /identity?
✓ What “social mirrors” were most reflective of your self-concept
today?
✓ Who are the significant others that helped shape your values and
perspectives?
✓ What are the Filipino socialization contexts that are most relevant?

EXPLORE

In order to understand the succeeding theories, let us look into the different
sociological perspectives.

SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM FOCUS

Structural Functionalism How each part of the society functions together to

contribute to the whole

Conflict Theory How inequalities contribute to social differences and

perpetuate differences in power

Symbolic interactionism One-to-one interactions and communications

EXPLAIN

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Now, let’s look into the different sociological perspectives of the self.

EMILE DURKHEIM: SOCIAL INTEGRATION and MORAL INDIVIDUATION

“To love society is to love something beyond us
and something in ourselves.” (Emile Durkheim)

Before we were born, there are already societal influences on us that

shape our life and personalities. While alive, the societal influences continue
to have an impact on us, and even beyond our lifetime. Durkheim has
worked on a lot of theories to emphasize this. Some of his works include
how people get to live together peaceably and in organized manner
(Division of Labor), how culture, roles and norms bind people together in
synchronized behaviors, feelings and thoughts (Social Integration), how the
rights and dignity of the individual are based on the principles of equality and
Justice (Moral Individualism). Such theories shall anchor the structuralist and
functionalist perspective in answering the question “Who am I” in the social
context.

Durkheim proposed that the task of sociology is to analyze social facts.

Social Facts – conditions and circumstances external to the individual that,
nevertheless, determine the individual’s course of action. Durkheim argued that
social facts can be ascertained by using collective data such as marriage and
divorces rates. This means that through systematic collection of data, the
patterns behind and within an individual behavior can be uncovered.

Another example of social fact can be exemplified in this instance: When you
fulfill your obligation as a son/daughter, student, brother/sister, or citizen, you
perform duties which are defined, externally to yourself and your actions, in law
and in custom. This means that even if you “do these things” (do your tasks in
school, do your duties as a son or daughter) because it conforms to your
sentiments and feel their reality subjectively, such reality is still objective. We did
not create these realities (duties and responsibilities of a child or citizen); we
merely inherited them through our education (formal and informal). That, or
rather, these realities, are social facts.

***REFLECTION:
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What are the prevailing social facts of your time? What do these collective data
“say” about your possible patterns of behavior? What can you say for instance,
about the fact that more young people prefer not to ‘get married”, and less
want to have children of their own compared to the previous generation?

Durkheim emphasized that the society is not a result or an aftereffect of

individual conduct; rather, it (society) exists prior to, and thus, shapes
individual action. In other words, individual lines of conduct are the
outgrowth of social arrangements.

Social Integration is the degree to which an individual is connected to the

society. Social Integration results from a collective consciousness or a shared
way of understanding and behaving in the world in terms of norms, beliefs, and
values. Those who have weak social connections are more prone to self-
destructive behaviors, or deviancy, because they are unable to balance their
desires with what is considered appropriate by the society. People who are able
to form strong social ties have a deeper sense of belonging, form more
cohesive groups and are able to reduce conflicts. It is synonymous with Social
Solidarity. Social solidarity described the social ties that bind a group of people
together such as kinship, shared location, or religion.

***JOURNAL ENTRY # 3:
To which group do you feel the strongest social
solidarity
with? What are you willing to do or sacrifice for this
group?
In a short bond paper, paste or draw a picture of this group to
which you experience the strongest social integration. Below this picture,
describe this group and explain what you are willing to do or sacrifice for this
group.

Moral Individualism – the doctrine that rationality leaves room for the
individualities of personalities of subjects to express themselves in the moral realm
in an autonomous choice between idealism and fulfilment-maximization. It
involves a morality of cooperation and a profound respect for humanity. It is not
the glorification of the self, “but of the individual in general” (Durkheim, 1898).

Moral Individualism and the experience of the SACRED

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Moral individualism, “is a religion in which man is at once the worshiper and
the god” (Durkheim [1898]1973:46). The “sacred” dimension of the modern
individual finds its expression in the unique respect granted to him and in the
protection of his rights. But there is no such thing as inherent rights and liberties.
Modern society has “consecrated,” him, granted him rights, and made him
“worthy of respect” ([1906]1953b:72, [1906]1953a:58). Each individual embodies
the universal values of humanity, each individual consciousness carries
“something divine” and it is “marked with a character which renders it sacred and
inviolable to others” ([1898]1973:52). Durkheim is optimistic that moral individualism
will become the “moral catechism” and the source of a new morality. He claims
that the “cult of the individual” has become one of the most distinctive
characteristic of modernity, and that it is replacing all other religions.
Moral individualism has to be distinguished from the “utilitarian egoism of
Spencer and of the economists.” It involves a morality of cooperation and a
profound respect for humanity. It is not the “glorification” of the self, “but of the
individual in general” (Durkheim [1898]1973:44, 48). At its “most abstract level,”
scholars have noted, it refers to humanity in general rather than to individuals of
any particular nation-state (Giddens 1986:21). It stresses “freedom and dignity, not
happiness, as highest social ends” (Terrier 2006:294).

***REFLECTION:
What do you think about Moral Individualism?
How do you feel about Durkheim’s view on Moral Individualism?

The foregoing, illustrates how such concepts as simple as norms, roles and
culture in the society in which one belongs determines to a great and profound
extent to which the self is embedded in the society – that the self is not just a
construct accorded with an identity all its own. To be, the self has to be defined
also in its social dimension. Think for example how such concepts profoundly
affect gender norms, family dynamics, religion and politics and our day-to-day
interactions. Even the field of psychology acknowledges that in solitude or
amongst others, an individual’s thoughts, behaviors, perceptions and emotions
are affected by his imagined or real influence coming from other people.

The next sociological theories define the self along the symbolic
interactionism paradigm.

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CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

Self-concept is formed through our impressions on

how other people see us.
Cooley proposed that one’s self grows out of one’s
social interactions with others. The degree of personal
insecurity displayed in social situations is determined by
what one believes other people think of him/her. Simply
put, the “Self” is how we believe others see us.
The process:
1. We imagine how we present ourselves to others
2. We imagine how others evaluate us
3. Finally develop some sort of feeling about ourselves such as respect or
shame as a result of these impressions

Critical Evaluation:
What if we imagine wrongly? What if there are
varied and contradictory mirror reflections?

The LABELING BIAS

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This occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of
us are affected by that labeling. For instance, your professor hears your
classmates call you “matalino”, you are labeled as “yung matalino”. Your
professor might then have higher expectations from you wherein he may
expect you to have the highest scores in class.

SELF-LABELING

This occurs when we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, and
we adopt other’s labels explicitly into our self-concept

This may lead to internalized prejudice, when individuals turn prejudice

directed toward them by others onto themselves. They may tend to view
themselves more negatively, thus, also affecting their self-esteem.

On the other hand, positive reclaiming may also take place when labels
are used by society to describe people negatively. Those who are negatively
labeled may claim these labels more positively to feel better about themselves.
To illustrate: After labeling, minority group members evaluated the labels (e.g.
“queer”, “torpe”, “lost”) less negatively, and reported feeling more powerful.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: STAGES OF THE SELF

According to Mead, the conception one holds about
the self in one’s mind emerges from social interaction with
others. The self is neither present at birth nor at the beginning
of social interaction. It is constructed and re-constructed in
the process of social experience.

Two components of the self:

1. “Me” - objective element; represents the expectations and

2. attitudes of others (the “generalized other”) organized into the social self;
the internalized generalized other becomes the instrument upon which
society has control over the actions of its individual members

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3. “I” - subjective element; the response to the “me”or the person’s

individuality, e.g., The “I” can decide to cross the street on a red light as
he sees that there is no approaching car or a traffic police

The stream of thought between the knower (“I”) and the known (“Me”) is
the essence of the development of identity as influenced by the social context.

STAGES BY WHICH THE SELF EMERGES:

1. PREPARATORY STAGE (1-3 years old)

• children merely imitate the people around
them
• then they understand the symbols (gestures,
language, and objects that form the basis for
their capacity to communicate with people
around them
• as a result they become aware of roles that people
play in their immediate environment
2. PLAY STAGE (4-7 years old)
● as a result of the above stage, they now do pretend
play of different characters or roles (Role playing)
● they become more aware of social relationships; they
can mentally assume the perspective of another and
respond from that imagined viewpoint (Role taking)

3. GAME STAGE (8-9)

• begins to consider several actual
tasks and relationships
simultaneously
• grasp not only their social position
but also those of others around
them
• perspective taking becomes less
egocentric as they begin to
understand and accept that many people have different
perspectives and develops greater concern about the
reactions of others

***REFLECTION:

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Did you ever insist on what you want without taking the
perspective of others? What does it mean to develop a consideration of
the generalized other? Who are the significant others who have helped
shape your perspectives?

ELABORATE

How do we integrate the theories we discussed in the context of Filipino

socialization? Let’s look at a synthesis of an article by Clemen Aquino.

An article written by Clemen Aquino of the Department of Social

Sciences
in the University of the Philippines, “Mula sa Kinaroroonan: Kapwa, Kapatiran and
Bayan in Philippine Social Science”, articulates on the relevant concepts of
“kapwa”, “mag-anak”, “kapatiran” on ugnayan (relations) in Philippine society.

Salient points of the article:

• Santiago’s early studies show kapwa and pakikipagkapwa as the broad
basis of social interaction among Filipinos. The kapwa does not
discriminate between the “ibang tao” and “di ibang tao.” In kapwa, self-
identity is part of one’s perception of others, so there is a unity or integral
relation of the sarili (self) to ibang tao (others).
• The concept of mag-anak is embedded in Filipino relationships. It does
not only refer to the nuclear family (father, mother, children) but
encompasses the extended family, hence, an older woman in the
community is called “Aunty” even if not a kin by consanguinity.
• Kapatiran is reflected in religious and other organizations. The strong
bond of ingroup relations determines ugnayan and pakikipag-ugnayan
within the group as compared to how they interact with those who are
not part of the kapatiran.

References:
Aquino, C. (2004). Mula sa Kinaroroonan: "Kapwa, Kapatiran" and "Bayan" in Philippine
Social Science, Asian Journal of Social Science, 32 (1), 105-139.
Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's Way:
Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.

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Cristi, Marcela (2012). Durkheim on Moral Individualism, Social Justice, and Rights: A gendered
Construction of Rights. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 37 (4), 409 - 438
Introduction to Sociology (2013), Openstax College, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston,
Texas.
Villafuerte, S., Quillope, A., Tunac R., and Borja, E. (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd., Rm. 413 Villasi Mansion, N. Domingo St., Brgy. Kunlaran,
Cubao, Quezon City, Philippines.

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