B.

Background to language teaching

methodology
35 How people learn languages 1
1. Acquisition and learning
ACQUISITION= subconscious process
LEARNING= conscious process
 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION is a subconscious process;
 We acquired language thanks to EXPOSURE and opportunities to use it;
 Many children acquire more than one language in childhood;
 AGE= important factor in language acquisition;
 Children often acquire (and forget) languages easily, partly because they get such a lot of
exposure to them, and partly because of their DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES.

2. Why does the difference between acquisition and learning matter?

 the linguist Stephen Krashen suggested that people acquire language if they get
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT. This means that they are exposed to language that is
just above their own level but which they more or less understand. He suggested that
this is all they need.
 Many researchers questioned K.rashen's Input Hypotl1esis. They said it was difficult
to test because people cannot usually say if their language was acquired or learnt, and
if you can't say which it was, then the tl1eory cannot be proved or disproved.

3. Which way is best?

Best ways to get a new language: 1. live in a country where the language is spoken;
2. learn in classroom;
3. learn on your own
4. listening to the radio etc.
36. How people learn languages 2

Teaching methods often change as society itself changes and different students learn
differently, however some methods are worth discussing because they are either a) widely used,
b) talked about a lot or c) still have influence in modern teaching practice. These methods are:
1.GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION
2. AUDIO-LINGUAL METHODOLOGY
3. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH/ COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
4. TASK-BASED LEARNING

1. Grammar-translation : - presenting students with short grammar rules and word lists, and
then translation exercises in which they had to make use of the same rules and words;
- The danger with Grammar- translation, in other words, is that it teaches people about
language but doesn’t really help them to communicate effectively with it.
2. Audio-lingualism: It capitalised on the suggestion that if we describe the grammatical
patterns of English, we can have students repeat and learn them.
-students are quickly able to produce their own combinations of words, whether or not
they have heard them before;
-useful technique to use, especially with low-level students.

3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) :

CLT has two main guiding principles:
 the first is that language is not just patterns of grammar with vocabulary items slotted in,
but also involves language functions such as inviting, agreeing and disagreeing,
suggesting, etc., which students should learn how to perform using a variety of language
exponents.
 The second principle is that if students get enough exposure to language, and
opportunities for language use - and if they are motivated - then language learning will
take care of itself.
4. Task-Based Learning (TBL): the emphasis is on the task rather than the language.

Most teachers don't follow any one method, but use elements of many different approaches. This
ECLECTICISM seems to be the best response to different claims about how different students
learn. Everything will depend on the balance of exercises and activities -how we get students
ENGAGED, how we get them to study and the opportunities we provide for them to ACTIVATE
their knowledge.
 37. Students make mistakes

When people are learning a language, they never get it right first time: they make MISTAKES.
 Why do learners make mistakes?
 When people are learning a second language, they make DEVELOPMENTAL
ERRORS(learners are trying to work out how the language system works);
 When students are learning a second language, they often make
INTERFERENCE errors(they are (consciously or unconsciously) trying to use
their first language knowledge to speak the new language).
 There is a danger that if mistakes left uncorrected for too long - or if the learner is
unaware of them -they may become FOSSILISED. They are then more difficult to
put right.

 What kind of mistakes do students make?

SLIPS : -the result of tiredness;
-the students are speaking quickly and are careless;
- they know how to use the language correctly, but it just comes out wrong.
ERRORS:- they don’t know something;
- they have learnt something incorrectly;
- their knowledge of the language has been affected by developmental or interference
factors.
ATTEMPTS: - say things which are beyond their language knowledge.

 What do mistakes look like?

o Pronunciation mistakes;
o Grammatical mistakes;
o Word formation;
o Wrong/ inappropriate vocabulary.

!!When we are trying to encourage fluency, we probably won't correct quite so immediately
since the students are learning how to communicate.
38. Learning at different ages
YOUNG LEARNERS
Many people think that children are better language learners than other age groups.
 Children need a lot of good exposure if they are to acquire a language. One or two hours
a week is usually not enough for successful ACQUISITION.
 Children take in information from everything around them, not just what is being taught.
They learn from things they see, hear, touch and interact with.
Tips for teaching young learners:
•Change activities frequently.
• Combine learning and play.
• Use appropriate activities (including songs, puzzles, games, art, physical movement, etc.) for
different kinds of student.
• Make the classroom an attractive, light and convenient learning environment.
• Pay special attention to your own English pronunciation - children are good imitators I .

ADULTS AND OLDER LEARNERS

 Many adult learners have strong opinions about how learning should take place,
often based on their own schooldays. They sometimes dislike teaching methods
that are either different from those they are used to or which remind them of
earlier learning.
 Many adults (but not all) understand what they want and why they are learning.
This means that even when they are a little bored, they can still keep working .
ADOLESCENTS
 For many teachers, ADOLESCENT students are the most exciting - but also the most
challenging - people to have in classrooms.
 Depending on their stage of development, teenagers can start to think in abstract terms.
In other words, they can talk about ideas and concepts in a way that younger children
probably cannot.

39. Student-centred teaching

  The right priorities
The most important thing in a classroom is not how the teacher teaches, but whether (and how)
the students learn.
There are things we can do to help our students have some control over their own learning:
 PERSONALISATION
 AGENCY
 LEARNER TRAINING

1. PERSONALISATION :

-one of the most important stages of any learning cycle.

- students use new language to talk about themselves, or to say things that matter to them;
-they have to think about the right language to use to express their own ideas and to talk
about their own lives and what interests them.
2. AGENCY:
- learners have some responsibility for their own learning;
- they are more likely to be engaged than if they are just doing what the teacher tells them to.
3 LEANER TRAINING:
- how they learn;
- getting them to think of the best ways of doing things, such as writing words down to
remember them, what to do in conversation when you don't know a word, or how to
take notes.

EXERCISES

35. How people learn languages 1

Revise
1 For questions 1–7, decide whether the statements describe acquisition(A), learning (L) or
noticing (N).
1 ‘I’ll never forget all the lists of characters! They gave us a test every Friday. But even though I
am not Chinese I can write pretty well, thanks to that.’ - L
2. ‘I was born in Japan – my parents are Japanese – but I went to the USA when I was about four
because my father got a job there. I did all my primary education there. Some people think I
sound like an American!’ - A
3. ‘In my school in Turkey the teacher used to stand at the front of the class and explain grammar
rules and we wrote down what he said in our notebooks. My English grammar is good thanks to
him! At least I think it was thanks to him.’ - L
4. ‘It was only after the first two lessons that I managed to hear what the teacher was saying –
hear the different sounds and words. That’s when I started to learn!’ -N
5. ‘Yeah, well after I left university in the UK I worked on a farm in Cuba for ten months and I
kind of picked up quite a lot of Spanish. Not many of the people there spoke any English.’ -
A
6. ‘At first when I listened to the radio, it just sounded like noise. But gradually I started being
able to tell different sounds and combinations of sounds – and that’s when I started getting
the language, I think.’ - N
7. ‘I fell in love with a really great Polish guy. We’re married now. Yes, my Polish is pretty
good! I just kind of picked it up.’ - A

Research
2 Interview someone who speaks more than one language.

1 What languages do they speak?

I speak Romanian, English, German and Italian.
2 Did they acquire or learn their languages? How do they know?
Most languages are focused on learning. I leant languages in classrooms. I haven’t the
opportunity to in a foreign country, but studying it at school gave me a big amount of exposure
to the language.
3 Which was the best way for them to ‘get’ a language?
I think that the best ways to get a languages are listening to radio, using special apps, talking in
that language with another people, watching TV shows and practise it at school.

Reflect
3 Think of the language(s) that you studied at school.

1 Did your teacher use methods that focused on learning, or did he/she try and promote
acquisition?
Students are different, so they learn differently. Most of my teachers used methods like
grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology, communicative language teaching or task-
based leaning that focused on learning. I think that the most useful method was the
communicative language teaching (CTL) because it concentrates on how we ca communicate,
rather than we are speaking or writing correctly.
2 What did you do to help yourself get the language?
I think that the most important aspect was the fact that I was engaged and motivated to learn that
language.
3 What one thing most helped you to get the language successfully?
As far as my personality is concerned, I learnt English by watching a lot of serials. I liked to give
the volume to the maximum, not to have subtitles and to concentrate very much on what people
say
4 What was the thing you liked most about language learning at school? What was the thing you
liked least? If/when you next ‘get’ a new language, how would you most like to get it?
I enjoy discovering a new language, how it works, learn a lot about the cultures that I am not
familiar with. My purpose of learning the language is to communicate with people from foreign
countries and to know more about the things I do not know. It’s really an interesting process and
once I know how fascinating it is, I can’t stop doing it.

36. How people learn languages 2

Revise
1 For questions 1–9, match the descriptions with the terms A–I. AK
A Audio-lingual methodology F Scaffolding
B Behaviourism G Task-based learning
C Comprehensible input H The communicative approach
D Grammar translation I Target language
E Eclecticism

1 A method which is sentence-based and where students compare two languages. GRAMMAR
TRANSALTION
2 Teaching is not organised around grammar and vocabulary, but instead on things that the
teacher asks the students to do. TASK-BASED LEARNING
3 A teaching approach that relied on behaviourism – and so was based on repetition. – AUDIO-
LINGUAL METHODOLOGY
4 Students are given chances to use the language in the classroom. Their success is judged on
how well they achieve their objectives using the language. –THE COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH
5 A psychological theory which suggested that learning is based on habit formation (and that
habits are formed through our responses to certain stimuli). - BEHAVIOURISM
6 The support that teachers can give to students to help them learn. -SCAFFOLIDING
7 The language that the students are studying. –TARGET LANGUAGE
8 When teachers use techniques etc. from a number of different approaches and methods.
-ELECTISCISM
9 Spoken or written language which students can understand even if it is above their own
language production level. –COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT

Research
2 Using your knowledge of your own country, complete the chart below.

Child learning their home Teenager/adult learning a

language language at school
How many hours exposure do 10 hours 15 hours
they get to the language a week?
Where do they get their input from? TV, radio, family, friends, Books, teachers, classmates
social media etc.

How do they get a chance to -Spending time on social -communicate with teacher/
practise the language? media; classmates;
-watching movies; -reading;
-listening to the radio etc. -writing.
What reasons do they have -desire to develop unknown - enhances listening skills and
for speaking and ‘getting’ the words; memory;
language? - International travel is made - Dealing with another
easier; culture;
- dealing with abstract -new opportunities to find a
concepts; job.

Reflect
3 Imagine you are going to learn a new language and you can choose one teacher from a list of
four (see below). Which one would you choose and why?
1 Ms Grammar Translation
2 Ms Audio Lingual
3 Mr Communicative Approach
4 Mr Task-based Learning

As far as I’m concerned, I would choose Mr Task-based Leaning because he can give me large
tasks such as writing a newspaper article, giving an oral presentation, creating an online film
reviews page or arranging a meeting, rather than concentrating only on the language. I think we
should not put as much emphasis on perfect grammar, as on research, on communication, on
practice.

37. Students make mistakes

Revise
1 For questions 1–6, choose the best option (A, B or C) to complete each statement.
1 When language learners make mistakes because of their first language, we call these
mistakes…
A developmental errors.
B overgeneralisation.
C interference errors.

2 When language learners take a rule they have learnt and use it with everything – and make
mistakes because of this – we call it ...
A developmental errors.
B overgeneralisation.
C interference errors.

3 When students make mistakes because they are trying to say something they have never tried
to say before, we call these mistakes...
A slips.
B attempts.
C errors
4 When we correct all the mistakes that students make because we want them to concentrate on
language form, we call this ...
A slips.
B fluency work.
C accuracy work.

5 When students make mistakes because they are not thinking carefully enough, we call these
mistakes...
A slips.
B attempts.
C errors.

6 When students make a mistake by putting the wrong word with the wrong word, we call the
mistake ...
A a word order error.
B a collocation error.
C a word formation error.

Reflect
3 If you were learning a foreign language, which would be more important for you: to be a fluent
speaker or to be an accurate speaker? And what about writing? How important would that be for
you?
A student who is more fluent than accurate can be more successful at communication than
someone who is more accurate than fluent. As for me, I think that the most important is the
communication. Fluency plays an important role in my view, so communicating my ideas as
naturally as possible is very important. I like to use every opportunity in class to speak in
English. When expressing my views, I prefer being very clear about the message I want to
communicate and I don’t worry about making mistakes because in this way I practise my
language and every mistake is an opportunity to learn new things and to improve my language
level.
As for writing, accuracy plays an essential role. It is important not to make grammatical mistakes
and be consistent in expression.

38. Learning at different ages

Revise
1 For questions 1–12, decide whether the following advice to new teachers would be especially
appropriate for teaching adults (A), teenagers (T) or young learners (YL). There may be more
than one possible answer.
1 Change activities frequently.-YL
2 Combine learning and play.YL
3 Discuss the best ways of learning so that students can learn how to learn.-T
4 Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and not leave everything to the
teacher.-T
5 Encourage students to work on developing their own opinions and to use their powers of
analysis to think critically.-T
6 Plan clear, short-term goals so that even if students find it difficult to return to learning, they
can have frequent success.-A
7 Even though they are still often child-like, treat them as if they were grown up.-T
8 Use puzzles.-YL
9 Use songs.-YL
10 Use student interests and past life experience to help you decide what to teach.-A
11 When there are discipline problems, always behave in the same way. Students will trust you
more because of it.-T
12 Don’t try to explain abstract grammar rules.-YL

Reflect
3 If you could choose which age group to teach (this might mean changing the age group you
actually do teach), which would it be and why? Use the chart to help you come to a decision!
Good points Less attractive things
Teaching young learners -take in information from -find abstract concepts (such
everything around them; as grammar rules) difficult to
-acquire information much understand;
faster; - find it difficult to
- children are good imitators. concentrate on the same thing
for a long time;
Teaching teenagers - think in abstract terms; -discipline problems;
- have a large amount of -find it irritating when adults
energy; continue to teach them as
-Be super-organised. children;
Teenagers like to know what -find the learning
they are doing and why. compulsory.
Teaching adults - think in abstract ways; - sometimes dislike teaching
- have some knowledge of methods;
what we are talking about; -less interactive;
- strong opinions; -much more serious;
- good memories; -they do not have as much
 - behave well in class; patience as young learners.
- even when they are a little
bored, they can still keep
working.

If I had the opportunity to choose the age group to teach, I would choose teaching teenagers. I
consider adolescent students the most exciting, but also the most challenging people to have in
classroom. Teenagers are more passionate about the things that interest them, have a large
amount of energy and think in abstract terms, which means that they can talk about ideas and
concepts in a way that younger children probably cannot. More, I think that teenagers are super-
organised; they like to know what they are doing and why.

39. Student-centred teaching

Revise
1 For questions 1–7, match the descriptions with the terms A–H. There is one extra option that
you do not need to use.
A Agency
B Learner training
C Personalisation
D Recycling
E Self esteem
F Translation
G Outcome
H Homework

1. It is a good idea if students ‘take charge’ of their own learning – in other words, they make
some decisions about what they are going to learn and how they are going to do it.-AGENCY
2. Teachers like to know what the possible/probable result of their teaching will be.-OUTCOME
3. Teachers try to make sure that students use the language they have been studying on various
occasions after they have studied it.-RECYCLING
4. Teachers often get students to use the language they are learning to talk about themselves.-
PERSONALISATION
5. Teachers think that students, especially teenage students, need to feel good about themselves.-
SELF-ESTEEM
6. Teachers often talk to students about what the best ways of learning are so that students can
choose how to study for themselves.-LEARNER TRAINING
7. Teachers can use the students’ L1, and have them go from that to English and back again.-
TRANSLATION

Reflect
3 Think about when you were at school (both primary and secondary).
1. How much control (agency) did you have over your own learning – either in small ways
or in big ways?
The ability to make a decision triggers a greater investment of interest and motivation.
When I was at school (both primary and secondary), I hadn’t much control over my own
learning. I hadn’t the opportunity to choose the homework or activities I considered
useful.

2. How concerned were your teachers with the students’ (you and your classmates) self-
esteem? How did you know they were? How did you know they weren’t?

I think that my teachers were concerned with the students self-esteem. They didn’t do
anything that made us feel vulnerable or embarrassed in front of our peers. For instance,
instead of making us read aloud from a text we have never seen before, they let us choose
what we want to read and give us a chance to practise reading it so that when we do, we
can have some confidence that we will be successful.