notes on evaluation in education

January 29, 2015

703 MODERN EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES

PART A EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION AND RESEARCH

UNIT 1 Evaluation in Education

Meaning of Evaluation

            Evaluation is process in which we assess or judge the value of something or assess the quality of
something. In the field of education, evaluation is a process of determining the extend o which the
educational objectives are attained. Evaluation is an important component of the teaching- learning
process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and learning. Evaluation is making
judgement about something. It is a systematic determination of a subjects’ worth, merit or significance.

            Evaluation involves assessment and measurement. It is a wider and more inclusive term than
assessment and measurement. It can be represented as

            Assessment refers to the process and products which are used to describe the nature and extent
of some attribute. Measurement is the process of assigning numerals to objects or qualities.

Evaluation and Measurement

            Evaluation is often confused with the term measurement and both terms are used synonymously.
But both are not the same. Measurement stands for measuring the performance of the student at a
particular scale. The pattern of measurement which mostly followed in our assessment system relates to
the marking in a scale of 0-100 marks.

Measurement   = quantitative description

Evaluation       = measurement + value judgement

Measurement is the science of collecting and ordering information about objects to be studied. As such
it should be objective and impersonal. Evaluation involves the use of information collected by the
process of measurement. If we use a ruler and determine that a desk is 5 feet long and 3 feet wide, that
is measurement. If we then say that the desk is too large to go through an 18 inch door, which is
evaluation.

Significance of evaluation

1.      Evaluation is an important component of teaching learning process

2.      Motivates students for better learning

3.      It diagnoses strength and weakness of students

4.      It judges effectiveness of instruction

5.      It helps in determining as to how far the learning objectives can be achieved
6.      It determines the rate of progress of students

7.      It helps in classifying students

8.      It provides base for certifying the students

9.      It predicts the success of students in future

Functions of evaluation

1.      Evaluation assesses r make appraisal of educational objectives, instructional materials,

performance of teachers and learners

2.      Evaluation enhance the quality of the teacher

a.       It help the teacher to find out how far they have succeeded in their teaching

b.      Evaluation helps the teacher to adopt appropriate instructional strategies

3.      Evaluation help in clarifying the objectives

a.       Teacher will get deeper insight into various aspects to the topic

4.      Evaluation motivates the learner

a.       Evaluation is continuous that gives immediate feedback and act as a reinforcement

5.      Guidance can be given on the basis of evaluation

a.       Evaluation makes the individual differences clear

b.      Specific difficulties can be identified

6.      Evaluation can help in bringing changes in the curriculum

Different types of evaluation

      In practice the following two major category of evaluation is used in classroom setting. They are

Formative and Summative Evaluation

      The evaluation that will continue with the instruction is formative evaluation and the evaluation
which is done at the end of a course of instruction is known as summative evaluation. The formative
evaluation is a feedback to the students as well as the teacher. It helps the students in monitoring the
progress of learning and teachers on the other hand can understand the efficiency of the teaching.

      The main purpose of formative evaluation is to determine the degree of mastery of a given learning
task. The learners and teachers are helped to improve the learning process.  Formative evaluation is
given at regular and frequent intervals.

      The aim of summative evaluation is not to monitor the progress of the students during instruction,
but it is to assess the overall performance of the students at the end of the course. It helps to assign
course grade or certify pupils’ mastery of the learning outcome. This ensures for the students’
promotion, selection etc. So summative evaluation is directed towards a much more general assessment
of the degree to which the larger and more general outcomes of learning has been obtained over the
entire course.

Scholastic and co-scholastic evaluation

      The evaluation procure which analyse the cognitive abilities of students are scholastic evaluation. For
example evaluation of knowledge, understanding, analysis, synthesis etc

      The evaluation procedure which analyses the factors like physical health, habits, interest and attitude
of students are co-scholastic evaluation.

      The evaluation system introduced in Kerala involves:

·         Evaluation of scholastic skills (subjects)

·         Evaluation of co-scholastic skills (art education, work experience, health and physical education)

·         Evaluation of personal and social qualities

Continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE)

            Evaluation has to be very comprehensive in system of evaluation which aims at many sided
development of the personality of the child. ‘The school of today’s’ concerns itself not only with the
intellectual pursuit but also with the emotional and social development of the child, physical and mental
health, his social adjustment and other equal 

It is now agreed that evaluation is a continuous process, forms an integral part of the total system of
education. Several important aspects of the students’ growth that cannot be measured by written
examinations and other methods such as observation technique, oral test and practical examinations
have to be devised for collecting evidence.

Modern concept of evaluation suggests that it should be continuous. The students must be evaluated
continuously throughout the academic year. Project works, practical, collections, assignments, seminar
internal examination etc. to be considered while evaluating the students.

Evaluation also to be comprehensive in nature. The traditional examination system evaluate the
students achievements in scholastic area only but success of an individual depends upon his overall
development of the individuality. Hence co-scholastic area also to be considered while evaluating the
students. Students’ achievement in sports and games, arts and work experience etc. should give due
importance in evaluation. Personal and social qualities of the students also to be considered to evaluate
student’s performance.

The ‘continuous’ and ‘comprehensive’ evaluation implies two interrelated usages. Continuous means
evaluation of students throughout his academic career and comprehensive means evaluation of the all
aspects of the individual and group. However it does not de-emphasis the importance of term –end
evaluation. We can summarize the modern concept of continuous and comprehensive evaluation as
follows:
Norm referenced and Criterion referenced tests

            Testing is done to measure the students’ performance after teaching with a view to find out
whether the learning has take place. Students’ performance is generally reported in terms of mark or
grades. The common practice prevailing in educational institutions are to compare the performance of
student with certain norms ie, classroom, school, locality regional or national.

Norm referenced test

            The classroom test and standardised test that report the test performance in terms of an
individual’s relative position in the same group is called Norm referenced test. Most of our modern
testing theories are based on this norm; where in a good spread of marks is expected so that selection
and classification of students can be done.

            The aim of norm referenced testing is to rank the students in class rather than assess their
attainment of special curriculum objectives. In norm referenced measurement, a particular students
achievement is evaluated n terms of the comparison between his performance and performance of
other members of the group. It hardly gives any information regarding the attainment of objectives by
the individual learner.

Eg. PSC test

Criterion referenced test

            In criterion referenced test, the performance of student is described in behavioural terms without
any reference to the marks obtained by other students in the group. Since a criterion or standard rather
than a relative position in a normal group is used for describing test performance, such interpretation
are called criterion referenced.

            In the context of mastery learning, the method of measurement is known as criterion referenced
test was emerged. This type of testing emphasises that teachers should interpret the test results not a
comparison t the performance of the group, but in relation to a specific performance criterion.

Eg. NET exam, Bank Test

Objective Based Evaluation

            Evaluation based on pre-determined objectives are called objective based evaluation. Objective
based evaluation is designed to help teachers organise their curriculum and to present  reading to pupil
in small logically sequenced increments. Objectives of teaching constitute the pivot of any teaching
procedure. Objectives tell us what the pupil is expected to do that is the nature of learning experience
are determined by the objective under discussion. Hence learning experiences are objective based. So
developing learning experience is the second stage in the process of teaching learning. Objectives,
learning experiences and evaluation are interrelated to each other.

Objective based evaluation is based upon clearly defined objectives like knowledge, understanding,
application and the like.

Competency Based Evaluation

            Competency based evaluation focuses on outcomes of learning. CBE addresses what the learners
are expected to do rather than on what they are expected to learn about. CBE emerged in US  in 1970’s
and refer to an educational movement and advocates defining educational goals in terms of precise
measurable description of knowledge, skills, behaviours which students should possess at the end of the
course of a study.

            Competency based evaluation procedure is specifically constructed to check the proficiency of an
individual in performing a skill in different situations.
Module 1 Educational Technology

August 20, 2017

103 DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Module I- Educational technology concept, approaches and scope

1.1   Educational Technology

Educational Technology is a combination of two terms education and technology. Education refers to
the process of bringing up or leading out the inherent potentialities from the pupil. It is the process by
which the knowledge, skills and attitude are transmitted to the members of the community.

            Technology refers to the techniques as well as technical contrivances which enhance a process. It
is a systematic way of applying the techniques to achieve an objective. Therefore Educational
Technology can be defined as the systematic application of technology in the field of education. Like any
other term, Educational Technology has been defined variously. According to G.O.M. Leith ‘Educational
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of learning to
improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning’.

Concept of Educational Technology

            Educational Technology is a wider term which is more than the sum of its parts. Educational
Technology is not a simple combination of these two words as shown below

o   Technology in Education

o   Technology of Education

Early developments referred to the role of technology in education which signifies the use of audio-
visual equipment that is hardware in educational process. Later development recognises the concept of
technology of education that is techniques and methodologies of teaching and learning. This is indeed
the software aspect of educational technology. Educational technology is also different from audio-
visual aids. Educational Technology is a vast subject concerned with the application of scientific
knowledge about learning and conditions of learning in order to improve the effectiveness of teaching,
learning and evaluation.

            Audio –visual aids are merely the aids or resources, i.e., materials which are employed to improve
the quality of the message. Audio-visual aids are only a part of educational technology.
Meaning of Educational Technology

            Educational Technology is a system of 5M’s in education in which machines, material ,men, media
and methods are interrelated and work together for the fulfilment of specific educational objectives.
Technology explosion has yielded several new machines, materials and media which have great
potential for use in the educational enterprise. An adequate knowledge of theory and practice of
educational technology and their proper use would enable the teacher to understand and effectively
discharge his new roles in the educational system in the age of ‘information explosion’, ‘knowledge
explosion’ and ‘expectation explosion’.

            Educational technology is branch of study in which the results of engineering techniques,
information science, natural science, behavioural science and human technology are to be used to
promote the efficiency of education.

            Broadly speaking educational Technology connotes three meanings. The first view which may call
educational technology I (ET 1) refers to the application of Physical Science and engineering technology
to provide mechanical or electro-mechanical tools, instruction or hardware which can be used for
instructional purposes. In this sense ,the reference is generally to the use of equipment for presenting
instructional material such as still and motion pictures, projectors, tape recorders, television, teaching
machine and computer based technology.

            The second view which may call educational technology 2 (ET 2) refers to the application of
scientific principles to instruction. Here psychological principles of learning are stressed. The third and
modern view of educational technology 3(ET3) incorporates both ET1 and ET2 through the application of
a system approach to education. According to this view education should be considered as a system in
which machines, materials, media, men and methods are incorporated parts and are organised in such a
way as they work together for the fulfilment specific educational objectives.

Nature and Characteristics of Educational Technology

         Educational Technology is the application of scientific principles to education

         It lays stress on the development of methods and techniques for effective teaching-learning

         It emphasis the designing of measuring instruments for testing learning outcomes

         It involves input, output and process aspect of education

         Educational Technology is not to be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids in education

         Educational Technology is a comprehensive term and is not to be viewed in terms of its parts or
processes. It includes instructional technology, teaching technology, programmed learning, micro
teaching and system etc..
Significance of Educational Technology

      The growing use of educational technology helps to release the teacher from the routine role of
‘information giving’ so that he can devote his time and effort to the more important tasks of planning,
arranging and evaluating learning experiences and outcomes. Another noticeable trend is the creation of
multi-media learning environments in classrooms which involve the use of a variety of interrelated
learning experiences.

The US Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) has listed the following important benefits of
educational technology.

         Technology can make education more individual

         Technology can make education more effective

         With the use of technology instructions can have more scientific base

         Technology makes instruction more powerful

         Technology provides immediate and equal  access to information

In spite of these the use of technology has the following benefits also.

         Involvement of maximum senses

         Utilise maxims of teaching

o   Proceed from known to unknown

o   Proceed from simple to complex

o   Proceed from easy to difficult

o   Proceed from concrete to abstract

o   Proceed from particular to general

         Attention compellers

         Motivating force

         Reduce verbalism and monotonous teaching

         Helps in clarifying concepts

         Substitute for direct experience

         Meets inadequate resources

         Develops scientific attitude

         Helps in better learning and retention

         Makes teaching-learning attractive inspirational and effective

         Cater to individual differences of students

Principles of Educational Technology

            While using educational technology in classroom teacher should consider the following principles.

1)      Principle of Purposiveness

          There shall be a definite purpose in using technological methods and devices in classrooms. Use of
it should not be considered as a substitute for teaching.

2)     Principle of Economy

            While suggesting a machine or method, the affordability must be considered.

3)     Principle of ease in the use of an aid

            When a teacher selects one aid from among a possible set, he should have the competency to
handle it. It is better to avoid complicated gadgets.

4)     Principle of Availability

            Availability must also be considered while selecting a hardware or software.

5)     Principle of Simplicity

            Easy to use or simple methods are recommended than the complicated ones. It should not
confuse the minds of pupil.

6)     Principle of Stimulation

            The technology used in the classroom should be inspirational. They are meant to supplement oral
and written presentation.

7)     Principle of Self-preparation

            It is preferred to use self- prepared learning materials and method for the transparency in
preparation.

Scope of Educational Technology

            The scope of Educational Technology is as wide as education itself. The scope includes the use of
hardware and software and system analysis in various educational operations. The possibility of using ET
in almost all areas of education has been and is being explored. As such the scope of ET encompasses
educational objectives, media and their characteristics, criteria for selection of media and resources,
management of resources, as well as their evaluation. ET increases the output of the entire system of
education.

Ø  ET tries to study the phases of teaching, skills of teaching and learning, principles of teaching, maxims
of teaching etc.

Ø  ET as a discipline strives for the formulation of objectives and goals of education based on individual
and social needs.

Ø  ET includes planning of curricular and non-curricular inputs on the basis of goals and objectives of
education. It also highlights the ways and means of content selection, transaction and sequencing of
teaching learning activities.

Ø  ET develops tools of evaluation to provide feedback and based on this modifications are incorporated
in the process.

Ø  ET has its scope for the development of the course content, curriculum, the development of teaching
learning materials etc.

Ø  Training of teachers, teacher-training programme, development of suitable strategies and techniques

of teaching.

Ø  Selection and use of appropriate audio-visual aids for making the  teaching-learning process more
meaningful and realistic.

Ø  Effective use of hardware, software and mass media

Ø  Individualized instructional technology

Ø  Programmed learning

Ø  Models of teaching

Ø  Multimedia approach to teaching

Ø  Communication technology

Ø  Task-analysis, preparation of modules

Ø  Computer, internet, E-mail, teleconferencing, virtual classrooms, satellite instruction etc.

Ø  Micro teaching, simulation, and other training techniques  

Approaches to Educational Technology

HARDWARE APPROACH:
The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing electro-
mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching
machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Hardware approach mechanises the process of teaching so that teachers would be able to deal with
more students with less expenditures in educating them.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

§  Preservation,

§  Transmission and

§  Development

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines started.
The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved in the libraries,
tape recorders and films.

The second aspect of human knowledge is its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to
his pupils. Now a days, transmission of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and
television. With these, thousands of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made for
research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of data. For
this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence, all the three
aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. In short, the teaching process has been mechanized.
The mechanization of teaching process is termed as the Hardware Approach.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a complex
repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural sciences and their
applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provides solid technology for
bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves the cause of education of laying
down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices. The
pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner and other behaviourists. The programmes
which such a technology produces are often called software. Software Approach is also termed as
Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books,
magazines, educational games, flash cards may also form part of software. Software approach is
characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies,
immediate reinforcement of responses and constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms, principles of
teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback, reviews and evaluation.
Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of technology, i.e. Input, Process and
Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology Software Technology

1. Software technology has its origin in

1. Hardware technology has its origin in behavioural sciences and their applied
physical sciences and applied engineering. aspects concerning psychology of learning

2. Here we try to make use of psychology of

2. Here we are more concerned with the learning for the production and utilization
production and utilization of audio visual aid of software techniques and materials in
material and sophisticated instruments and terms of learning material, teaching-
mass media for helping teacher and learners in learning strategies and other devices for
their task. smoothening the task of teaching learning.

3. It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. 3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented

What is produced through software technique or approach for the production
technology in the shape of teaching-learning of teaching-learning material and
material and strategy in being utilized by the strategies. The material produced here is
hardware instruments and gadgets for made available for being used by the
effective teaching learning. hardware application.

4. Software technology does not provide

4. It is based on the concept of service direct services to its users as provided by
meaning hereby that it provides services in the hardware technology and applied
field of education much in the same way as engineering. It helps in the production of
provided by telephone, electric heater, bulb software material being used by the
etc. in the sphere of our day to day life. In this hardware applications and gadgets for
sense hardware technology clearly stands for delivering their service to the users i.e.
making use of technology in education. teachers and learners.

5. As examples of the appliances and gadgets 5. As examples of the material produced

being used in hardware technology service we through software technology we can name,
can name radio, television, tape recorder, programmed learning material teaching
video, slides and film projectors, teaching learning strategy on psychology of learning
machines and computer etc. (put into practice in the shape of charts,
 pictures, models, slides filmstrips, audio
and video cassettes, software packages etc.)

6. Hardware technology needs the services of

software technology for its use and 6. Software technology proves most useful
functioning. It can’t go without the aid of and productive in the case if it is assisted
software technology e.g. computer hardware and made into use by the hardware
in the shape of a machine like device is of no applications and gadgets. However, it can
use if it does not make use of software go alone for delivering its services to the
services both for its operation as a machine users without calling aid from the hardware
and its multi-dimensional utilities. The use of technology i.e. you can make use of
application and utility software is in fact must programmed learning material a graph a
for taking any service from the hardware text, etc. directly for the individualized as
technology of the computer. well as group instructions.

7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal 7. Software technology has no such wide
and utilization. It can contribute a lot in application and appeal to masses as found
handing over the educational benefits to in the case of hardware appliances like
masses with greater case and economy. radio, telephone, computer application, etc.

8. Hardware technology has resulted in

improving the efficiency of educational, means 8. Software technology also works for
and reducing the cost of education. A teacher increasing the efficiency of the teachers as
may handle a big class with the help of well as learning. However, it lags behind in
hardware appliances like microphone, slide the task of improving efficiency and
and film projectors etc. reducing the cost of education.

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific
objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of
items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an
example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every
component of the digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a
whole.

In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and parts, namely,
pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The teaching-learning
process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the components of a system. In
this case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a programme of instruction, all in a
particular pattern of interaction.
The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and
effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of
providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction
including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the
organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the
total system fulfilling the objectives.

In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected
resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the
subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their
learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of
learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably
modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.

Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and  defining instructional goals,

2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to  take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available  alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and  supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in  student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’  learning.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.

ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for
attaining the defined goal.

iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and
other factors.

iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in
terms of student learning.

v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be
made.

LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or
approach.
ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school
personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.

iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach.
Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.

CONCLUSION. From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic attempt
to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means planned and
organised use of all available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to achieve the desirable
learning objectives by the most efficient means possible.

Multi-sensory learning

            The idea that learning experienced through all the senses is helpful in reinforcing memory has a
long history in pedagogy. From the earliest teaching guides (Montessori 1912), educators have
embraced a range of multi-sensory techniques in order to make learning richer and more motivating for
learners. The term is used to refer to any learning activity that combines two or more sensory strategies
to take in or express information. Multisensory approaches have been particularly valuable in literacy
and language learning, for example, in relationships between sound and symbol, word recognition, and
the use of tactile methods such as tracing on rough or soft surfaces. The Department for Education and
Skills (DES, 2004) defines multi-sensory as: ‘using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic modalities,
sometimes at the same time’. Kinaesthetic refers to perceiving through touch and an awareness of body
movements. Teachers working with dyslexic learners have found multi-sensory approaches particularly
valuable, as they help learners to make sense of information in a range of ways. Activities that harness
all the senses are also an excellent way to include learners with disabilities.

What is a multisensory approach?

            A multisensory approach, "also known as VAKT (visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile) implies that

students learn best when information is presented in different modalities (Mercer & Mercer, 1993). The
belief is that students learn a new concept best when it is taught using the four modalities. A
multisensory approach is one that integrates sensory activities. The students see, hear, and touch.
"Activities such as tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing represent the four modalities". This gives
multiple pathways for the information to reach the brain. It is diagnostic as it involves constant testing
and reflection on the knowledge of the student.

            For example, to teach spelling Graham and Freeman (1986) use a strategy that incorporates the
four modalities. Students say the word, write the word, check the word, trace the word, write the word
from memory and check, and then repeat the entire process. Thus it treats sound-symbol knowledge,
oral language (grammer & pronunciation), written language conventions and hand writing in an
organized and integrated fashion. In essence, a multisensory approach incorporates the learning styles
for visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile learners. This approach doesn't single out a specific learning
style for a specific student. A multisensory approach is an eclectic approach that teaches all children
regardless of their preferred learning style.
            Multisensory teaching is effective for all students. In general, it means presenting all information
to students via three sensory modalities: visual, auditory, and tactile. Visual presentation techniques
include graphic organizers for structuring writing and pictures for reinforcing instruction; auditory
presentation techniques include conducting thorough discussions and reading aloud; tactile
presentation techniques include manipulating blocks and creating paragraphs about objects students
can hold in their hands. Overall, implementing a multisensory approach to teaching is not difficult; in
fact, many teachers use such an approach. It is important, however, to be aware of the three sensory
modes and to plan to integrate them every day. Effective teachers select and use the most appropriate
approach for the learning task and the learners’ situation. In particular, multimedia resources can
promote inclusive learning if accessibility features are built in. This can enable learners with hearing or
visual impairments to use the same resources as others.

            Multimedia provides a complex multi-sensory experience in exploring our world through the
presentation of information through text, graphics, images, audio and video, and there is evidence to
suggest that a mixture of words and pictures increases the likelihood that people can integrate a large
amount of information (Mayer, 2001).

            Multisensory techniques are frequently used for children with learning differences. Multisensory
teaching techniques and strategies stimulate learning by engaging students on multiple levels. They
encourage students to use some or all their senses to:

• Gather information about a task

• Link information to ideas they already know and understand
• Perceive the logic involved in solving problems
• Learn problem solving tasks
• Tap into nonverbal reasoning skills
• Understand relationships between concepts
• Store information and store it for later recall

            Using a multisensory teaching technique means helping a child to learn through more than one
sense. Most teaching techniques are done using either sight or hearing (visual or auditory). The child’s
sight is used in reading information, looking at text, pictures or reading information based from the
board. The hearing sense is used to listen to what the teacher says. The child’s vision may be affected by
difficulties with tracking or visual processing. Sometimes the child’s auditory processing may be weak.
The solution for these difficulties is to involve the use of more of the child’s senses, especially the use of
touch (tactile) and movement (kinetic). This will help the child’s brain to develop tactile and kinetic
memories to hang on to, as well as the auditory and visual ones.

Multimedia Approach

What is Multimedia?

            Multimedia is one of the important innovations in the field of educational technology to improve
the process and product of teaching – learning. The multimedia approach consisting of the use of many
appropriate and carefully selected devices, techniques and media in such a combination as to yield in
the most effective realization of the teaching- learning objectives in a best possible way . In other words,
multimedia is the combination of various digital media, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive
application or presentation to convey information to an audience.

Multimedia approach

            The term multimedia approach to teaching – learning may be referred to the use of appropriate
and carefully selected varieties of learning experiences which when presented to the learner through
selected teaching strategies will reinforce and strengthen one another in such a way that the learner will
achieve predetermined objectives in an effective way. Multimedia approach to teaching – learning can
be classified in different ways. These media are so selected and planned as to yield in best possible
results in a most appropriate economical combination. Multimedia helps students to construct
knowledge actively, work in group and use multi-senses at a time. Multimedia is very effective and
advanced approach in higher education.

Definitions

            The term multimedia by definition means ‘more than one media’. According to Hofstetter (2001),
multimedia is the use of computer to present and combine text, graphics, audio and video with links and
tools that let the user navigate, interact, create and communicate.

            Multimedia is characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video; some
or all of which are organized into some coherent program (Phillips, 1997).

            Multimedia approach is an approach of teaching in which different mediums are incorporated to
make the teaching-learning more effective, enthusiastic, inspirational, meaningful & interesting.      

Nature of Multimedia Approach

Multi - Many

Media - Techniques /methods.

Ø  Multimedia approach uses a number of media, devices, techniques, in the teaching learning process.

Ø  Multimedia approach has come out of researches and experiments in educational technology that
have been undertaken in order to improve the process of teaching learning.

Ø  Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful learning experiences via a mix of media in order
to achieve predetermined objectives.

Ø  The choice of the media has to be done carefully so that one does not hamper or reduce the effect of
the other i.e. each media must complement the after.

Ø  The media have to used sequentially and judiciously. Only necessary ones are to be used. Then it
would be possible to make optimum use of them in a most economical manner. In multimedia
approach, several media and techniques are used as powerful means of communication.

Characteristics of Multimedia

ü  Multimedia calls for the use of a number of media, devices and techniques for teaching- learning.
ü  Multimedia approach is the contribution and net result of the researches and experiments going on in
the subject of education technology for improving the process and products of the act of teaching-
learning.

ü  The variety of media are carefully selected as to prove quite effective in providing learning
experiences to the learners foe achieving the pre-determined teaching- learning objectives.

ü  These media are so selected and planned as to yield in best possible results in a most appropriate,
economical combination.

ü  While selecting different media for adopting multimedia approach it is cared that the presence of one
must increase the effect of others. 

ü  Multimedia approach asks for the judicious and planned use of the hardware and software available
in the field of educational technology.

ü   In multimedia approach the several media and techniques can be effectively used as appropriate
vehicles for the needed communication of ideas in the process of teaching-learning.

Interactive Multimedia Components

            Interactive multimedia is a tool which has had a great impact in the field of education. This tool
uses five elements and combines them into a single powerful tools.

The five media are –

i) Text ii) Animation iii) Video iv) Graphics v) Sound.

Role of teacher in Multimedia approach

            The teacher has to make a lot of modifications and adjustment if he has to adopt multimedia
approach. His role would have a different connotation compared to the traditional role. He would have
to make these changes.

i) The teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques; he cannot be satisfied with the lecture
or the chalk talk method.

ii) The teacher has to be aware of the different available media and their availability the teacher should
be physically competent to use and demonstrate the use of different media.

iii) The teacher should be skilful enough to make a judicious choice of media and be competent enough
to mix them sequentially and in an orderly manner.

iv) The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator or manager of activities. He has to lead his students for
independent, individualized learning.

v) The teacher should provide experience such that the students can link practice and theory & integrate
them.

vi) The teacher has to make learning a living and co-operative process by giving group activities like
seminar, symposium, workshops and interacting with the people in real work situation.
vii) The lecturer has to play a very constructive role in making his students learn the things in a quite
practical way by giving through concrete and living experiences.

Educational Implications of Multimedia/Advantages of Multimedia Approach

·         Multimedia enables students to represent information using several different media. Hypermedia
links allow students to organize information in meaningful ways.

·         Multimedia can take into account different learning styles. Some students learn by interpreting
text, while others require more graphical or aural representations.

·         Multimedia allows for self-pacing and discovery, students can take the time they need and choose
the path of learning making learning meaningful and pleasurable.

·         Multimedia can arouse the curiosity among the learner and provide them vivid impressions.

·         Multimedia can develop a positive attitude among the learners towards the teaching-learning
process.

·         Technique of simulation can be effectively applied through the multimedia approach.

·         Multimedia helps in development of higher order thinking skills. Interactive multimedia
encourages student.

·         Multimedia provided the students the flexibility of anywhere, ‘any time’ learning.

·         Multimedia helps in developing group and interpersonal skills. Better communication between
students via e-mail, chat sessions etc., can encourage collaborative learning and enhance student-
teacher interaction.

·         Multimedia helps students to learn the content in a given discipline. It helps students to think
effectively, practice problem solving and decision making.

·         Effective remediation programmes can be implemented through the multimedia approach.

·         Multimedia approach can bridge language barriers since audio is not the only means of
communication.

Disadvantages

·         Requires highly sophisticated infrastructure facilities, which may lead to heavy financial burden.

·         Expertise and skill are required to operate the multimedia devices, which will lead to the problem
of non-availability of human resources.

1.2 Audio-Visual Aids

            Sense organs are the gateways of knowledge. Sensory experiences form the foundation for any
intellectual activity. These experiences are transacted in the classroom using a number of teaching aids.
These teaching aids reinforce the spoken or written word with concrete image, which form a strong base
for learning.

            Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning
process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual material and
teaching learning process.

            Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational
programs.  It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.V. aids are
multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning
experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning.

            Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are
planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning facilities for
clear understanding.

Definitions:

1. Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience
more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

2. Burton: Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce
learning.

3. Carter V. Good: Audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of
learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.

4. Good’s dictionary of education: audio visual aids are anything by means of which learning process
may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.

5. Edger Dale: Audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between
persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi
sensory materials.

6. McKean and Roberts: Audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the
utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts,
interpretations and appreciations.

Significance of Audio- Visual Aids

            Audio- Visual aids are added devices that help teacher to clarify, establish, correlate and
coordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations and enable him to make learning more
concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid. They provide significant gains in
informational learning, retention and recall, thinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination,
better assimilation and personal growth and development.
            According to Kothari Commission (1964-1966), Audio Visual aids will bring about an ‘educational
revolution, in the country. It further stated that the supply of teaching aids to every school was essential
for the improvement of the quality of teaching. 

Educational Significance

·         Best motivators: The students work with more interest and zeal and are more attentive.

·         Clear images: Clear images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste and smell, as our
experiences are direct, concrete and more or less permanent.

·         Vicarious experience: Substituted experience can be provided when it is not possible to give
firsthand experience

·         Freedom: There is great scope for children to move about, talk, laugh and comment upon, and in
such a situation they work because they want to work.

·         Variety: Audio Visual aids give variety and provide different tools in the hands of the teacher.

·         Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to students to
handle and manipulate things.

·         Retentivity: They contribute to increased retentivity as they stimulate response of the whole
organism to the situation in which learning takes place.

·         Based on maxims of learning: It enables the follow the maxims of learning like ‘concrete to
abstract’, ‘known to unknown’ and ‘learning by doing’.

·         Promotion of scientific temper: In place of listening facts students observe demonstrations and
phenomena and thus cultivate scientific temper.

·         Development of higher faculties: Use of A-V aids stirs the imagination, thinking process and
reasoning power of the students and calls for creativity and higher mental activities.

·         Helpful in attracting attention

·         Helpful in fixing up new learning

·         Meeting individual differences

·         Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction

·         Reinforcement to learners

·         Positive transfer of learning and training

·         Positive environment for creative discipline 

Advantages of Audio visual aids

1.      It helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.

2.      It is helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.

3.      It arouses interest and motivates students to learn.

4.      It is helpful in new learning.

5.      It helps in saving energy and time of both the teacher’s and students.

6.      It provides near realistic experience.

7.      It can meet individual demands.

8.      It develops interest of the students.

9.     It makes teaching and learning effective

10.    It is useful in for education of masses.

11.    It is easy and inexpensive to make and update.

Disadvantages

1.      It makes the student to heavily depend on the teacher

2.      It is unsuitable for large groups

Problems in the Use of Teaching Aids

            In spite of the increasing popularity that the audio-visual aids have gained in the educational
system, there are certain problems to be faced and solved. These are:

1.      Apathy of the Teacher: It has not yet been possible to convince the teacher that teaching with
words alone is quite tedious, wasteful and ineffective.

2.      Indifference of Students: The judicious use of teaching aids arouses interest but when used
without a definite purpose they lose their significance and purpose.

3.      Ineffectiveness of the Aids: Because of lack of proper planning and lethargy of teacher as also
without proper preparation, correct presentation, appropriate application and essential follow up work,
the aids have not proved their usefulness.

4.      Financial Hurdles: The Boards of audio-visual aids have been set up by central and state
governments for chalking out interesting programmes for the popularisation of teaching aids but the
lack of finances is not enabling them to do their best.

5.      Absence of Electricity: Most of the projectors cannot work without electric current and so the non-
availability of electricity is creating a hurdle in the proper use of audio-visual aids.

6.       Lack of Facilities for Training: More and more training colleges or specialised agencies should be
opened to train teachers and workers in the use of audio-visual aids.

7.      Lack of Coordination between Center and States: Good film libraries, museums of audio-visual
education, fixed and mobile exhibitions and educational 'melas' should be organised both by center and
states.
8.      Language Problems: Most of the education films available are in English and we need such films in
Hindi and other Indian Languages.

9.      Not catering to the Local Needs: Most of the audio-visual aids being produced do not cater to the
local needs and not in accordance with the social, psychological and pedagogical factors.

10.   Improper Selection of Films: Films are not selected in accordance with the class-room needs.

In spite of all these problems the future of such aids can be bright if there is proper planning on the part
of the government and coordination between producers, teachers and students. Useful and effective
aids can be produced after getting the reaction of the audience and doing research work in the field.

Classification of Audio Visual Aids

I.                   Projected Aids

                 A projected aid is one which items to be observed are projected on a screen using electronic or
Mechanical device. They are very effective because movements can be added to sound and hence a
realistic experience can be provided. The major projected aids are;

  Film & Film Projector

•    Films in the form of motion pictures.

•    Films enrich learning by presenting a series of meaningful experience involving motion.

•    Can enlarge or reduce the actual size of the object to suit the need.

  Film strips & Film strip Projector

•    A film strip is piece of non-inflammable safely film, 35 mm wide.

•    Length may vary according to requirement and can be up to about one meter.

•    One film strip may contain 10 to 50 pictures frames.

•    The pictures in film strip may constitute a connected series of drawings, photographs, diagrams or
combination of these and illustrated a single sequence.

•    The pictures may in color or in black or white.

•    Some films strips are accompanied by commentary recorded separately, such film strips is called
sound film strip.

Slides & Slide Projector

•    The pictures or diagrams which are drawn in suitable medium is called slide. (Glass or Transparency)

•    Slide can be enlarged by projecting it on a screen with a slide projector.

• Slide projector is an instrument equipped with a powerful light source and a carrier for holding slides
of suitable size.

• Some slide projectors uses drums in which many slides can be loaded in proper sequence in advance.

•    It is also possible to record the narration in a tape recorder that could be hooked up to the projector
in such a way as to give the necessary commentary without the help of the teacher.

Episcope & Epidiascope

•    Episcope is used for the projection of opaque objects.

•    Pictures, photographs, drawings or an opaque material within the size of the platform of the
episcope can be projected using Episcope.

•    Episcope used to enlarge book diagrams and illustrate complex pictures.

•    During Epi-projection the class room should be totally darkened in order to get a clear and bright
image.

•    Epidiascope can project opaque as well as transparent objects.

OHP

•    This is called Over Head Projector because it projects the image behind and over the head of the
teacher.

•    The transparent visual is placed on a horizontal platform at the top of the light source.

•    The teacher can place the transparent plate on the platform and write or draw on it anything that is
to be visualized using suitable pen.

Television

•    TV is very exciting and efficient means of mass communication.

•    Educational Television programmes aims at education rather than entertainment.

•    One teacher or specialist can render teaching session and pass information to millions of viewers all
over the world.

LCD Projector

•    LCD (Liquid Cristal Display) is the most advanced and sophisticated projected aid.

•    In the area of educational technology, we can replace all other projected and non projected aids with
only a single LCD projector and computer system.

•    Can present a topic by using computer made slide, graphs, pictures, video clips, movies and special
effect.

II.                Non-Projected Aids

 II(a). Graphic Aids

•    Graphic Aids are visual aids such as graphs, diagrams, charts etc.

•    They can be conveying the message by a combination of written and pictorial visuals that could be
made meaningful by suitable captions.

•    The criteria for good graphics are that they should be simple, legible and brief.

Graphs

• Normally used to represent the nature of the relation of two dependent variables.

• Different types of graphs are line graph, bar graph and pie graph

Diagrams

• Used to explain many factors at the same time, by using a variety of symbol and labels

• Diagrams can explain facts more vividly than charts

Posters
• Posters are bold and attractive representation of an idea or concept and usually given in color.

• Poster catches the eye and conveys the desired message.

Maps

• A map is an accurate representation of the boundaries and other details of continents, countries etc.
on a plane, in the form of a diagram drawn to scale.

• A variety of geographical details like location of mountains and rivers, altitude of places, important
cities and other places etc. can be represented accurately with reference to a convenient scale and
following suitable color scheme.

            Different types of maps that are used in classroom: Geographical Maps, Historical Maps,
Industrial Maps and Political Maps.

Cartoons

• A cartoon is a metaphorical, humorous and exaggerated caricature of a person or situation in the form
of a picture or sketch.

Comics

• A comic strip is a form of cartoon depicting a story in sequence.

• The events are arranged in the proper order in a attractive pictorial form that is normally appealing to
lower age groups.

 Flash cards

• Flash cards are an aid used in language lesson, especially in the lower class.

• The card containing the reading material is exhibited for a few seconds only. Then it is removed and
the feedback attempted.

Pictures and Photographs

• Pictures and photographs play a significant role in making ideas clear and comprehensive.

Charts

• A chart may be defined as a combination of graphics and pictorial media designed for the orderly and
logical visualizing of relationship between key fact and ideas.

• Different types of charts are: Display chart, Flow chart, Tabular chart, Tree chart and Time chart.

II (b).  Display Boards

              The stereotype atmosphere of the traditional classrooms, libraries and corridors of schools is
recently giving way to attractive and educative surroundings with a wealth of display materials. Displays
may be categorised into three main types according to the functions they perform, namely motivational,
developmental and summary.
              Displays that attract and appeal pupils and stimulate their curiosity are called motivational
displays. Displays that add information and ensure active involvement of pupils in the development of a
lesson are termed developmental displays. Displays that are used for review and consolidation of a
lesson are called summary displays.

Black Board

• Most basic, widely used tool for display

• Teaching cannot be successful without proper use of a Black Board.

• Black Board planning is a precious skill to be developed by a teacher.

Roll-Up-Board

• Roll-Up-Board is that which can be conveniently rolled up.

• These are usually made of thick rexin cloth.

• The charts and pictures can be drawn on it advance and presents as and when required.

Peg Board

• To display flat and three dimensional materials

• Use hooks and clips to display materials.

Hook and Loop Board

• Intended to suspend heavy 3-D objects as well as flat materials.

• Objects can be easily fixed and removed.

Flannel Board

• Flannel cloth used to make this board.

Magnetic Board

• A sheet of iron that attracts a piece of magnet can be used for magnetic board.

Bulletin Board

• Used to display bulletin, News items, announcement etc.

 Marker Board

• Large plastic board suitable for writing or drawing with markers.

• This can be used the same way as chalk boards.

• It can be sometimes used as a projection screen also.

II (c). Three Dimensional Aids

 Models
            Models are concrete representations of objects, their size being adjusted to make it handy and
conveniently observable. They can clearly exhibit the structure or functions of the original. There are
two types of models. Working model and Static (still) model. Working model is more effective than static
model.                                                  

Objects

 Objects may be defined as the real things from their natural settings.

Eg.Rock, Coin, stamp etc.

Specimen

A specimen may be defined as a typical objects or part of an object which has been removed for
convenient observation.  It may be a representative of a class or group of similar objects.

Mock-ups

 A mock-up is an operating model usually of a process, designed to be worked with directly by the
learner for specific training or analysis. When direct firsthand experience is either impractical or
impossible, mock-up can be used. Mock-ups is an imitation of the real process. Eg. Mock Parliament

Diorama

A diorama is a three dimensional scene in depth, incorporating a group of modelled objects and figures
in a natural settings. A diorama scene is set up on a small stage with a group of modelled objects that
are kept on the foreground and blended into a painted realistic background.  For representation of
depth, object kept at the background are made considerably smaller to create illusion.

Puppets

A puppet is a manipulative doll dressed as a character and the performer is a person.  E.g : shadow
puppet,  finger/ glove puppet, string puppet. Puppet actions should be accompanied by short dialogues.

II (d). Audio Aids

Radio: The most common form of public education and entertainment. Effective for mass education and
distant education

Tape Recorder: A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce. This device can be
used without much fuss by erase and re-record sound.

Public Address System: An electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone,
amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public.

III.             Activity Aids

  Field Trip and Excursions

• Excursions usually involve a tour by a person or a group of person to some selected lace.

• An excursion undertaken for gathering objective based learning experience is study tour.

• The tour made by a group is often known as Field Trip

• Provides direct experience leading to effective understanding. 

 Exhibition

• In exhibition variety of items exhibits related to teaching and learning.

• Exhibitions are effective modes of mass communication and instruction.

• Special talents of the pupil get revealed and creativity can be fostered.

• Helps to communicate novel ideas to children, their parents and the general public.

Demonstration

• It is a technique which is often used by all teachers.

• Ideas, skills, attitudes and process can be demonstrated.

• Demonstration should be purposeful, simple, specific and effective.

• Demonstration should be planned and rehearsed well in advance.

• If demonstration designed by the co-operative activity of pupil and teaches, it will be more effective.

Dramatization

• Dramatization gives a reality and concreteness to learning experience.

• Gives opportunity for self expression

• Very useful for the subject like social science and languages.

• Since emotional content is strong, it help in the development of interest, attitude and values.

Museum

• Museum is powerful medium for public education.

• Museums are repositories with an array of educational materials including rare specimens a variety of
objects arranged in a logical order.

Planetarium

• A planetarium consist of essentially of a dome usually mounted on the ceiling of a hall to represents
the sky.

• A special projector is used to display images of the celestial bodies on the dome.

• The viewers who are seated below can see the projected images that can be appear to be realistic.
• The projector consists of various individual units for projecting the sun, the moon, the planets and the
stars.

• Taped narration and sound effects adds to the effectiveness of the presentation.

Aquarium

• Aquarium consists of glass tanks filled with water in which aquatic creatures are kept in naturally.

• Pupils can observe the natural behavior of the creatures.

• If a school aquarium is constructed and maintained by the pupils they get very valuable learning
experience related to various aspects of life science.

 Terrarium

• Terrarium is an arrangement for presenting the creatures living on the surface and below the surface
of the earth for study purpose.

• It is an enclosure, usually a tank. Used for rearing plants or animals under natural conditions.

Programmed Learning

            Programmed Learning is a carefully specified, systematically planned, empirically established,

skillfully arranged and effectively controlled self- instructional technique for providing individualized
instruction or learning experience to the learner. Programmed learning is available in the form of Books,
Cards, Machine etc.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

• A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed
instructional materials.

• “It is the use of computer to assist in the presentation of instructional material to a student to monitor
learning process or to select additional instructional material in accordance with the needs of individual
learners”

• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is

used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.

• CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process.

Teaching Machines

• Developed by S.L. Pressy

• It’s a piece of device designed to be operated by an individual student for self learning.

• The student is presented with a question by some form of display on the machine.

• The student is required to respond, either to write answer or put a button to indicate the correct
response.
• The student will inform the correctness of the answer.

• An account is kept of the responses made by the student

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

            The Cone of Experience is a visual model meant to summarise Dale’s classification system for the
varied types of mediated learning experiences. Edgar Dale the chief exponent of audio-visual aids in
teaching is the originator of the ‘Cone of Experiences’. The diagram appears in his book ‘Audio-Visual
Methods in Teaching’ (1946).

            There is a popular saying on Audio- Visual aids, “ I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I
understand”. It is said that, People remember: 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of
what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say and write and 90% of what they
say and do.

            All the learning experiences which can be utilized for classroom teaching are shown by Edgar Dale
in a pictorial device-‘pinnacle form’- which he called the ‘cone of experiences’. The one considered by
Dale as the most effective are placed at the bottom of the cone and those considered least effective at
the top. This arrangement is based on increasing abstractness.

            It was merely designed as a visual aid to explain the relationships of the various types of audio-
visual materials as well as their individual positions in the learning process. Dale points out that it would
be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on the cone as rigid, inflexible divisions.            

The original labels for Dale’s ten categories in the Cone of Experience were:

1.      Direct, Purposeful Experiences

2.      Contrived Experiences

3.      Dramatic Participation

4.      Demonstrations
5.      Field Trips

6.      Exhibits

7.      Motion Pictures

8.      Radio, Recordings, Still Pictures

9.      Visual Symbols and

10.  Verbal Symbols

            He said “The cone device is a visual metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various types
of audio-visual materials are arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds from
direct experiences”

Direct purposeful experiences: These are the experiences that are gained through senses. These are not
only direct but also purposeful. Purposeful means that the experiences are active with a purpose. Hence
they are preferred in teaching as they provide as they provide the means to establish correct initial
concepts in the minds of the pupil.

Contrived experience: It is an imitation of reality. It is like a working model which is an editing of reality
and differs the original either in size or n complexity. The simplification of the real objects becomes
necessary when the real thing cannot be perceived directly.

Dramatic participation: In dramatization certain real events of the past are represented so that we can
get as close as possible. The experience is more meaningful when one actively participates in the
dramatization.

Demonstration: Demonstration is a technique designed to show or illustrate a procedure, process or

phenomenon. Demonstrations are concrete experiences that can be used for structuring future
information to the students.

Field Trip: Field trip is the connecting link between school and the community. This technique is unique
in that the pupil gain first hand experiences with the things and phenomena which cannot be brought
into the classroom.

Exhibitions: When it is not feasible to go out into community, it comes exceedingly important that we
bring the outside world into the classroom by means of exhibits and concrete representation of things.

Television: Television is one step ahead of motion pictures since it can bring the real event as it actually
happens.

Motion pictures: Motion pictures present an abstract version of the real event. Motion pictures with
sound system would yield good results in teaching all the subjects in the school curriculum.

Radio, Recordings and Still pictures: Educational telecast of radio are also considered as a powerful
teaching aid. Still pictures or photographs can be either projected or given for individual study.

Visual symbols: This will include black boards, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams and cartoons. When
properly employed they tend to promote a keener interest and better understanding of concepts.
Verbal symbols: Here the experiences occur at the conceptual level. The teacher codes the original item
into symbols and passes it on to the pupil. Pupil decodes the symbols back into the original image. These
are considered as the least effective method in teaching.

Interpretation of Dale’s Cone of Experience

·         Lower levels of the cone involve the student as a participant and encourage active learning.

·         Higher levels compress information and provide data faster.

·         Upper levels of cone need more instructional support than lower levels.

·         As we go up to the cone, abstractness increases and is highest at the pinnacle.ie. verbal symbols.

·         As we go down the cone, concreteness increases and is maximum at the base.

            The various bands are not perfect. E.g. Field trips, which are placed high in the cone, are
sometimes sources of experiences nearly equal to direct experiences.

How can Instructors Use the Cone of Experience?

·         According to Dale’s research, the least effective method at the top, involves learning from
information presented through verbal symbols, i.e., listening to spoken words.

·         The most effective methods at the bottom, involves direct, purposeful learning experiences, such
as hands-on or field experience.

·         Direct purposeful experiences represent reality or the closest to real, everyday life.

·         The chart rates the average retention rate for various methods of teaching. The further ones
progresses down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is likely to be retained.

·         It also suggests that when choosing an instructional method it is important to remember that
involving students in the process strengthens knowledge retention.

·         It reveals that “action learning” techniques result in up to 90% retention. People learn best when
they use perceptual learning styles. Perceptual learning styles are sensory based. The more sensory
channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better chance that many students can learn from it.

·         According to Dale, instructors should design instructional activities that build upon more real-life
experiences.

·         Dale’s cone of experience is a tool to help instructors make decisions about resources and
activities.