Project

Project
Botany
Botany
Exploring Native
Exploring
Exploring Plants
Native
Native Plants
Plants
of theof
of the
the
United
United States
United States
States
An Ecoregional
An Ecoregional
An Ecoregional Curriculum
Curriculum
Curriculum by the
by the
by the
 Project Botany:
Exploring the Native Plants of the United States

An Ecoregional Curriculum
Contributors:
Jennie Cramer, Jody Einerson, Larkin Guenther, Carolyn Menke, Ian
Silvernail, and Sarah Stevens

Illustrations:
Amanda Devine
Barbara Gleason
Ella Samuel
Jody Einerson
Larkin Guenther

Front Cover Illustration:

Ella Samuel

Back Cover Illustration:

Larkin Guenther

Content Editor:
Jill Bushakra

Graphic Design:
Adam Payson
Jessica Brothers

Institute for Applied Ecology

563 SW Jefferson Ave. Corvallis, OR
541-753-3099
[email protected]
 Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following people for their contribution in producing Project Botany:

Special thanks to the following for their vision and continued support in producing and expanding
this curriculum:
Peggy Olwell—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Lead, BLM National Program
Joan Seevers—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Lead, Oregon/Washington
Nancy Sawtelle—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Ecologist, Eugene District, Oregon

Thank you to the USDA Bureau of Land Management for providing funding and support
for the creation of this curriculum.

Special thanks to the Earth Partnership for Schools Program for acting as a model in developing place-based
curriculum. University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, 1207 Seminole Highway, Madison, WI 53711.
https://arboretum.wisc.edu/

Advisors
Teresa Matteson, Benton Soil and Water Dio Morales, Curriculum Design Consultant
Conservation District
Andy Moldenke, OSU Botany and Plant Pathology
Heath Keirstead, Benton Soil and Water
Melissa Kirkland, USFS Botanist
Conservation District
Jenny Lippert, US Foresty Service Botanist
Maggie Livesay, OSU Extension Faculty; 4-H Youth
Development Holly LeMasurier, Middle Fork Willamette
Watershed Council
Jeff Mitchell, Philomath High School
Tim Whitley, Rachel Carson High School
Paul Bradley, Wilson Elementary School
Loren Gerig, Woodburn High School
Dan Bregar, Crescent Valley High School
Elly Veyera, Wy’east Middle School
Holly McRae, Willamette Resources and Education
Network Mary Ann Schmidt, Oregon Trout Healthy Waters
Institute
Sujaya Rao, Oregon State University Faculty Rural
Science Education Jennifer Martin, Owyhee Watershed Council
Kendra Mingo, Willamette University Botanist Jon Souder, Coos Watershed Association
Brad Withrow-Bobinson, OSU Extension Faculty
Forestry

Piloting Teachers

April Fong, Linda Wolf, Sean Kenna, Loren Gerig, Edith Moore, Kevin Celtura, Tim Whitley, Jonathan Pope,
Michelle Barray, Lacy Meahm, Brian Wach, Jeff Mitchell

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 Content Reviewers and Content Experts
Tom Kaye, Institute of Applied Ecology Director, Marty Stein, Siuslaw National Forest Botanist
OSU Botany and Plant Pathology
Susan Fritts, BLM Medford District Botanist
Carolyn Menke, IAE, Plant Conservation Biologist
Douglas Kendig, BLM Medford District Botanist
Rob Fiegener, IAE, Native Seed Network
Teresa Matteson, Benton Soil & Water Conservation
Melanie Gisler, IAE, Restoration Ecologist District

Matt Blakely-Smith, IAE, Restoration Biologist Kathy Pendergrass, Natural Resources Conservation
Service Plant Material Specialist
Amanda Stanley, IAE, Ecology
Marcia Wineteer, BLM Medford District Botanist
Stacy Moore, IAE, Ecological Education Director
Robert Kentta, Cultural Resources Director,
Berta Youtie, Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians
Tim Rodenkirk, BLM Coos Bay Botanist Wenix Red Elk, Public Outreach and Education
Coordinator, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla
Laura Potash Marin, Mt. Baker Snoqualmie National Indian Reservation
Forest Botanist
Misty Thorsgard, Cultural Resources, Confederated
Kristi Mergenthaler, Siskiyou Field Institute, Botanist Tribes of the Grand Ronde
Gene Yates, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest Mary Van Brocklin, Falconproof
Botanist
Reid Schuller, Botanist
Katie Grenier, Deschutes/Ochoco National Forest
Botanist
We would also like to thank:
Project Budburst for partnering on the lesson, “Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World.”
The Commission for Environmental Cooperation, for the use of maps and resources relating to and defining the
ecoregions of North America.

About the Institute for Applied Ecology

Founded in 1999, the Institute for Applied Ecology (IAE) is a non-profit organization established to provide a service
to public and private agencies and individuals by developing and communicating information on ecosystems and
effective management strategies. IAE offers habitat restoration services complete with management plans, site
preparation, maintenance, and monitoring. Our Native Seed Network connects buyers and sellers of native seed while
our Conservation Research program conducts native ecosystem research and monitoring and provides surveys for rare
plants. The Ecological Education Program provides learning opportunities for all ages through place-based education
and service-learning projects. For additional copies of the curriculum contact:

Institute for Applied Ecology

563 SW Jefferson Ave.
Corvallis, OR 97330
www.appliedeco.org
[email protected]
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 Project Botany:
Exploring the Native Plants of the United States

Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Making it Place-Based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
1. For Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
2. Writing a Curriculum for Your Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Introduction 2
1. What Is a Plant? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Explore the Ecoregions of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Field Journaling: Observations From a Special Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Section 1: Plant Identification

4. What’s in a Name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5. Botanical Terms Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6. The Secret Life of Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7. Plants Have Families, Too . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8. Botany Bouquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9. Drupes, Pomes, and Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10. Make Your Own Plant Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
11. Plant Adaptations: Create-A-Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12. Mechanics of a Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
13. Make a Field Guide for Your School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Section 2: The Ecoregions of the United States

14. The Place I Call Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Section 3: The Ecology of Native Plants

15. Ecosystem Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

16. Leaf to Landscape: Ecological Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17. Survival Quest: A Pollination Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
18. What’s Going Down Underground? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
19. Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Section 4: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Native and Non-native Plants

20. Nurture a Native Garden Project part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Nurture a Native Garden Project part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Nurture a Native Garden Project part C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
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21. Weed Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Section 5: Ethnobotany

23. Who Walked Here Before You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

24. Burden Basket: Plants as Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25. Plants As Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Section 6: Climate Change and Phenology

26. Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

27. Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Section 7: The Future of Native Plants

28. Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214

29. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
30. Saving Botanical Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
31. Design a Habitat Restoration Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Appendices
Appendix I:Field Guide Recommendations for Your Ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Appendix II: Ethnobotany Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Appendix III: Ecoregions of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Appendix VI: Make Your Own Quadrat Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

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 Introduction
Getting Started
The Institute for Applied Ecology (IAE) is a non-profit organization with the mission to conserve native ecosys-
tems through restoration, research and education. This high school curriculum was developed by working with
students through our in-school programs to meet a need for science-based lessons focused on native plants.

The goal of the curriculum is to introduce students to the wondrous biodiversity of flora, and the connec-
tions between plants and their ecosystems. It is designed to serve as a general template for any ecoregion in
the United States, with guidance provided to make the lessons place-based for your specific ecoregion. The
lessons encourage students to study what is outside their door and in the surrounding region. Along with the
knowledge gained through these lessons, students will gain the skills to be informed and active citizens in local
natural area issues and decisions in their future.

Development of the lessons followed the principles of North America Association of Environmental Educators
(NAAEE) Guidelines for Excellence incorporating fairness & accuracy, depth, emphasis on skills building, action
orientation, instructional soundness, and usability. The overall curriculum goal is to lead students in the explora-
tion and wonder of their local native plant life. It is not intended to teach general concepts such as photosyn-
thesis, plant growth, evolution, or natural selection that high school students receive in biology class.

A twenty-five member advisory council made up of teachers, students, science curriculum developers, natural
resource agency educators and field sciences have guided the development of this project.
Our guiding principles of lesson development:

1. Place-based: The local community is the starting point for teaching concepts in science and culture; stu-
dents learn about where they live.

2. Hands-on: Students actively use all of their senses to explore nature, stewardship, and science.

3. Inquiry-based: Students learn science by asking and answering questions as a guide to discovering the
world around them.
4. Experiential: Students don’t just learn, they DO .

5. Service-learning: Learning activities directly benefit community, motivating students by giving extrinsic
value to their work.

6. Education Standards: Aligned with Oregon Department of Education high school standards and
incorporates service learning methods.

7. Fosters community partnerships: Students forge relationships with peers and professionals by taking part
in their community.

8. Interdisciplinary: Curriculum components integrate across disciplines teaching about native plants through
science, math, social studies, art, and literacy.

9. Developed within the framework of the NAAEE Guidelines for Excellence: Fairness and accuracy,
depth, emphasis on skills building, action orientation, instructional soundness, and usability.

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 Organization of Curriculum:
Lessons progress from basic plant identification into more advanced topics. Tthe curriculum is designed to be
a complete unit of study. We understand that many teachers are unable to commit to the entire unit of study,
so lessons can also be used individually. All lessons start with a Teacher Page, check there for the Teacher Hints
and Additional Information sections to find any essential skills or background needed from earlier lessons.
Addition background information, study topics and curricula are included with each of the lessons for further
study.

Student Pages are written for the students to be self-guided in their studies. What better ways for them to
practice their literacy skills than to read, interpret, and follow written directions? As the teacher, you will need
to be familiar with the background information and reflection activities found on the Student Pages. Of course,
as the teacher, you maintain the control to use this student-directed learning feature as it works best in your
classroom.

All lesson data or work sheets provided will follow the Student Pages. Occasionally lessons will ask students to
create their own data collection sheet.

Lessons suggest ways to integrate student studies into service-learning and community projects.

Making the Most of This Curriculum:

1. Create a student field journal at the beginning 3. Make it place-based
of the study See the “Making it Place-Based” section for hints on
Encourage students to use them throughout the course how to tie these lessons in with your local area. Encour-
of study. Allow time for students to observe, explore, age students to make connections with the landscape
and document their discoveries in their field that surrounds them. We believe that place-based
journals each time you take them outdoors. You will education is important because it fosters an emotional
find the “In the Field” sections often reference journals. attachment to the local landscape, it creates informed
In addition, the journal can be used throughout the and engaged citizens, and it empowers students and
curriculum as an assessment tool and portfolio. Over communities.
time their journals will become handy references for
them to check back to when they are in the field. See 4. Get involved in the community
the activity “Field Journaling”; Observations from a Many of the lessons in this curriculum are well-suited
Special Spot to get you started. for service-learning. Use the suggestions here or be
creative to find your own way for your class to become
2. Purchase field guides specifically written for involved in serving your community as they learn.
your ecoregion
Check Appendix I for our recommended list of guides
for your ecoregion. Field guides are an essential part
of becoming familiar with local plant identification.
Several of the lessons reference students using these
field guides. Ideally your classroom will have one
available for each pair of students. Grants are often
available to purchase field study equipment, including
field guides.

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 Making it Place-Based:
Adapting the Project Botany Curriculum to Your Region
Overview
Nature is not something found in a faraway place. Wildness is not limited to exotic locales featured on nature
documentaries. Nature is all around us. This curriculum is intended to serve as guide to the study of the
native plants that define our local landscapes. By making some modifications to each lesson to reflect the local
ecosystems and landscape, your students will gain a better understanding and appreciation of the place that
they call home. Encourage your students to become active and knowledgeable stewards of the local landscape.

As you move through this curriculum, draw on your own knowledge of the place you call home. Place-based
education author David Sobel suggests asking yourself the following questions2:

1. Where do I live?
2. What is the nature of this place?
3. What sustains my community?

As humans, the way we live is influenced profoundly by our ecosystems. It can be easy to take the familiar
landscapes of our local communities for granted. The natural features of your region play a major part in
determining the major land-uses that occur there, the basis of the local economy, the locations of cities and
towns, the population size, and the local culture. The more we learn about the ecosystems that we are a part of,
the more we are filled with wonder, curiosity, and a sense of place.

An understanding of our local landscape not only increases our quality of life, but is essential to being an
informed, responsible citizen. By adapting this Project Botany curriculum to your region, you can encourage
students to take a closer look at their surroundings and to build a deep appreciation for the local landscape.
Familiarity with their region’s natural character and literacy in local conservation issues will foster a sense of
empowerment in the students who will act as tomorrow’s land stewards.

Why Place-based Education?

There is great value in an education that is rooted in the local community. Centering education on the local
community results in students who are grounded in their understanding of the world. Viewing the world
through a local lens gives meaning and relevance to otherwise abstract concepts, and gives students a sense of
their place in the world as global citizens. Locally engaged students who understand their surroundings gain
efficacy as stewards of their communities, and through this empowerment, as global citizens.

In this Tutorial:
Section 1: Making it Place-Based: For Teachers
Contains general hints for the classroom teacher to incorporate place-based education into these lessons.

Section 2: Making it Place-Based: Writing a Curriculum for Your Region

Intended for organizations, informal educators, individuals, or agencies who plan to make modifications to
produce an adaptation of this curriculum specifically for their region

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 Section 1: Making it Place-Based: For Teachers
Not only is place-based environmental education crucial to fostering an appreciation of the natural world, it
also encourages interest and buy-in amongst students. These guidelines will help you to incorporate place-
based education into your lessons to engage your students and foster a sense of empowerment.

• Regional field guides: Stock your classroom with field guides written specifically for your area. Contact local
botanists and naturalists for recommendations, and see Appendix I for a list of suggested field guides. It can
be helpful to have a number of different field guides for your region, as not all guides include the same plants
or cover the same information. Various methods of organization used by different authors can also benefit
different types of learners in your classroom. We suggest having one field guide per pair of students.

• Get outside! Getting your class outdoors can be as simple as stepping out onto the school yard. Remind
students that nature is all around them, and encourage them to look closely to observe natural processes
occurring in the grass of a soccer field, the trees lining the streets, or in alleyway weeds. Spending even a few
minutes outside during the class period can help students see firsthand examples of what they are studying.
If you can, arrange trips to nearby natural areas to increase the opportunity for observing. This increases the
opportunity for observing native plants and the interactions between various biotic and abiotic factors in a
functioning ecosystem. Use Table 1 at the end of this section to help locate nearby natural areas that will aid
your native plant studies.

• Contact a botanist or naturalist: Books can only get you so far—it helps to have someone with firsthand
knowledge of your area speak with your class and provide a clearer picture of the natural landscape around
your area. Have an expert come into your classroom or accompany your class on a field trip. Use the list at the
end of this section as a guide to help you find a local expert.

• Study local history: Understanding the history of the people who have lived in your area in the past will
help you understand what the landscape has to offer. Challenge yourself and your students to understand how
your current community has been and continues to be shaped by its natural surroundings.

• Do a service-learning project: Service-learning and citizen science are ideal ways to get students involved
with the community as they learn. There are many benefits to emphasizing citizen science projects. Students
who are able to contribute data directly to scientists become more engaged in the learning process. This direct
involvement leads to a sense of empowerment which is important in the cultural climate of ecophobia. In the
lesson “Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World”, your students can work on a citizen science project
through Project BudBurst, a national citizen science project affiliated with the National Ecological Observatory
Network (NEON) and the Chicago Botanic Garden.

• Hint: Read “Section 2: Making it Place-Based: Writing a Curriculum for Your Region.” Though this section is
intended for those who are writing and producing a new version of this Project Botany curriculum, there are
many useful hints that will help you in your own modifications for your classroom.

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 Resources for finding local natural areas and botany experts:

• City Parks Departments

• County Parks Departments
• State Parks Departments/ Department of Natural Resources
• Bureau of Land Management lands: http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en.html
• Wildlife Refuges: United States Fish and Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov/refuges/
• National Parks and Monuments: National Park Service: http://www.nps.gov/findapark/index.
htm
• National Forests: United States Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us/locatormap/
• The Nature Conservancy Preserves: http://my.nature.org/preserves/
• Conservation land trusts
• Botanical Gardens
• Native Plant Societies – Most states have a NPS chapter

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 Section 2: Making it Place-Based:
Writing a Curriculum for Your Region
This section is intended for organizations, informal educators, individuals, or agencies who plan to make
modifications to produce an adaptation of this curriculum specifically for their region.

If you plan on producing a regional adaptation of this Project Botany curriculum, please contact the Institute
for Applied Ecology. IAE will provide you with the most up-to-date version of this curriculum, along with
resources to additional regional curricula.

Adapting the Project Botany Curriculum

Creating a native plant curriculum specific to your region begins first and foremost with becoming familiar with
the native plant education needs for your region. This general guide will help you modify this Project Botany
curriculum such that it provides a comprehensive, place-based educational tool for your region.

1. Determine the boundaries of your region.

2. Assemble a group of advisors.
3. Determine native plant educational needs for your region.
4. Develop a mission.
5. Understand the major ecosystems and habitat types within your region.
6. Assemble a list of locally significant native plant species.
7. Assemble a list of accessible natural areas within your region.
8. Familiarize yourself with the education standards for your region.
9. Consult the NAAEE Guidelines for Excellence
10. Modify existing Project Botany lessons and/or add lessons that address your
region’s ecosystems, habitats, species, and conservation issues.
11. Distribution
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Determine the boundaries of your region

The first step in creating a regional native plant curriculum is to decide specifically what region you wish to
address. The possibilities are endless and depend upon your goals for the project. You may wish to provide a
highly specific curriculum for use within a specific mountain range, valley, or level III ecoregion. Alternatively,
you may broaden the scope and address an entire state or group of states that form a cohesive region. When
deciding on the boundaries of your region, consider the following:

• Audience: Who will be using your curriculum? A curriculum written for urban schools may be much different
than one focused on rural areas. While your curriculum may be written for audiences of any background,

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 having an idea of who will be using your product will help determine your writing style, focus, suggested
readings, and class activities.

• Ecosystem homogeneity: Larger regions inevitably include a wider variety of ecosystems, habitats, and
conservation issues. Curricula written for larger regions therefore face the challenge of including enough
detail and local information to truly inspire a sense of place and knowledge of one’s local ecosystem. Strive
to delineate a region that is defined by shared ecological characteristics.

• Educational standards: While many states use national educational standards for math and language arts,
others continue to use their own set of core standards. Standards in science, social studies, and technology can
also vary from state to state. For those considering multi-state regions, look into the educational standards for
each state you hope to include before finalizing your region.

2. Assemble a group of advisors

The first step in creating a comprehensive native plant curriculum for your area is to find advisors with
expertise in botany, natural sciences, ethnobotany, and education. A good way to contact teachers is through
your state’s chapter of the National Science Teachers Association. Some Canadian provinces and U.S. territories
have chapters as well. We suggest reaching out to language arts teachers, as the Project Botany framework
lends itself well to reading, writing, listening, and speaking standards. Most states and provinces have chapters
of the National Council of Teachers of English, which provides a good platform for reaching out to language
arts teachers in your area.

Connect with local American Indian tribes for guidance on information concerning regional history, land use
history, and ethnobotany. Most tribes have a website that will help you connect with the right person.

Refer to the list below for suggestions on where to find experts from various natural science fields.

• City Parks Departments

• County Parks Departments
• State Parks Departments/ Department of Natural Resources
• Bureau of Land Management lands: http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en.html
• Wildlife Refuges: United States Fish and Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov/refuges/
• National Parks and Monuments: National Park Service: http://www.nps.gov/findapark/index.htm
• National Forests: United States Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us/locatormap/
• The Nature Conservancy Preserves: http://my.nature.org/preserves/
• Conservation land trusts
• Botanical Gardens
• Native Plant Societies – Most states have a NPS chapter

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3. Determine educational needs for your region

Your advisory council will help define major goals for your native plant curriculum. Their experience will
help you determine major educational needs in your region. For example, are there specific natural resource
subjects or issues that you would like to focus on? Depending on the nature of your region, your focus might
be on sustainable forestry issues, threatened and endangered plants, prairie ecosystems, wetlands, etc. There
are two basic approaches to finding a topical focus. One tactic is to focus on major, region-defining issues.
In this case, your curriculum may take on the role of preparing students for their future roles as stewards
and decision-makers within your region. Alternatively, you may focus on addressing issues that receive little
attention and are not widely publicized in your area. Of course, it often makes sense not to select a particular
topic to focus on, but rather provide a more general curriculum that addresses many native plant subjects and
issues with equal weight. The education and botany representatives on your advisory council can provide input
on particular issues or subjects that they feel should be emphasized.

Your native plant curriculum can also be geared towards meeting other general education needs. For example,
lessons and supplemental exercises may emphasize building writing, speaking, or math skills. Work with
education representatives from your advisory council to determine whether and how to modify lessons in the
Project Botany framework to help teachers in your region meet their students’ educational needs.

Spend some time researching existing natural resource and native plant educational materials in your region.
Internet surveys provide an efficient means to reach formal and informal educators in your region. Strive to
fill gaps in existing native plant curricula, build on current resources, and understand the needs and desires of
educators.

4. Develop a mission

Keeping in mind your intended audience and the educational needs of your region, work with your advisory
council to develop a clear mission statement and goals to guide you as you produce your curriculum. Example
mission statements include:

• To promote conservation and appreciation of the native flora of the prairie potholes wetlands
of the Great Plains.
• To increase the understanding of native plants and the stewardship of green spaces in New
England’s urban centers.
• To promote an awareness of humans as a part of their local ecosystems.

5. Understand the major ecosystems and habitat types within your region

Utilize a variety of resources to become well-versed in the natural characteristics of your region. Begin by
using the CEC’s ecoregion descriptions to understand the geology, topography, land use, habitat types,
and key plant and wildlife species. Work with members of your advisory council to learn more about the
ecology of your region and the key natural resource issues and challenges facing citizens and land managers.
Before beginning to modify the Project Botany curriculum, you should have a solid foundation of knowledge
surrounding both the natural history and current events in your region.

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6. Assemble a list of locally significant native plant species

Using examples that students can relate to will bring lessons to life and give them a richness that will create
a greater interest and understanding. Consult with botanists, naturalists, and use your own knowledge of
local ecosystems to create an informal list of example plant species that hold a place in the local culture, are
frequently sighted, and contribute significantly to wildlife habitat. The goal should be to expand students’
awareness of species that they are likely to encounter, hear about, or read about in your area. The types of
species you use will be dependent upon your educational goals for your native plant curriculum.

• Charisma: Beautiful, unique, and intriguing plants come in all shapes and sizes. They may be common
or rare. Charisma isn’t necessarily aesthetic; consider functional appeal, such as the nutrient-fixing
properties of legumes and alders, habitat value, or pollinator relationships.

• Community dominance (current or historic): Students may be superficially aware of locally

dominant or common species without having a great deal of knowledge about the plants that define (or
that historically defined) their region. Examples of species include sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) in the Great
Basin, big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) in parts of the Great Plains, or longleaf pine (Pinus palustris.) in
parts of the South.

• Significant wildlife habitat value: All native plants are valuable in one form or another as elements
of wildlife habitat. Some species however, are especially valuable, either because they are important for
many wildlife species or because they are crucial resources for just a few. For example, a plant species
that is the only host for a species of butterfly larvae is highly valuable because the survival the butterfly
species is directly dependent upon the plant. Willows (Salix spp.) are good examples of plants widely
used by wildlife, as their leaves, twigs, bark, and buds are eaten by many wildlife species, particularly as
winter forage; they are important to the diet of beaver; they stabilize stream banks; they provide cover
for calving moose and other animal species; and they provide stream shade important to the survival of
many fish and aquatic invertebrates.

• Unique niche/adaptations: Plants are astounding in the diversity of the niches that they fill. Some
plants have evolved particularly unique forms and roles. These plants can serve as great tools to inspire
and excite students about nature and evolution. Examples include carnivorous plants, cacti, mangrove
species, or flowers that have evolved to entice very specific pollinators.

• Economic importance: Many regions are economically dependent upon specific native plants.
Students are likely to recognize the names of these species, but may not recognize the plant itself or
know much about its ecology or history. By increasing their knowledge about these plants, they can
become more responsible citizens and stewards. Examples include the sugar maple (Acer sachaarum)
of the Northeast, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menzesii) in the Pacific Northwest, and various bunchgrasses
where rangeland and livestock grazing is prevalent.

• Ethnobotanical significance: Historically, indigenous American Indian tribes, and later European
immigrants, were highly dependent upon plant species that had edible, medicinal, or fiber qualities.
Some of these species held (and often still hold) prominent places in the economies, diets, migrations,
ceremonies, and lore of various tribes. Examples include the widely eaten and traded camas (Camassia

xiv
 quamash) of the Northwest, bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) in the Rocky Mountains, and American ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius) of the Appalachian region.

• Threatened/endangered species: While threatened and endangered animals often receive media
attention and their plights are widely publicized, plants on endangered species lists (both federal and
state) are often unknown amongst the general public. However, once students know the names and
stories behind local rare species, they are likely to start noticing their mention in the news and community
discussions. Due to the precarious state of these species, it is important that we foster awareness of our
local rare plants. Federally listed plants in your region can be found at the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service website (http://www.fws.gov/endangered/). Look to state departments of fish and wildlife or
natural resources to find state-listed threatened and endangered species, which likely vary from federal
lists from your area.

7. Assemble a list of accessible natural areas within your region

Encouraging students to experience nature and botany right outside their doors is extremely valuable. We
suggest teachers take advantage of the outdoor classrooms that exist all around them—schoolyards, gardens,
parks, agricultural fields, vacant lots, hedgerows, and many other locations provide an unexpected opportunity
for teaching about nature. It is also highly beneficial to introduce students to nearby natural areas, where they
can experience intact ecosystem processes, enjoy the sounds of nature, and have a chance to explore a wild
place. This increases the opportunity for observing native plants and the interactions between various biotic
and abiotic factors in a functioning ecosystem. Many teachers and students will be pleasantly surprised to
discover new natural areas near them. Use table 1 to help assemble a list of local natural areas.

8. Familiarize yourself with the academic standards for your region

It is important that native plant curricula assist teachers in addressing academic standards in science, math,
language arts, social studies, and technology. The subject of native plants lends itself well to cross-disciplinary
teaching. To ensure the efficacy of native plant curricula, it is necessary to understand and incorporate the
academic standards for your region. Lesson modification should be done with your region’s standards in mind
to maximize the opportunities for meeting and reinforcing crucial academic concepts. In addition, it is highly
beneficial to include a key which directly correlates each lesson to the standards met.

xv
As of December 2016, forty-two states and the District of Columbia are members of the Common Core State
Standards (CCSS) Initiative, which include standards in Language Arts, Mathematics, and Literacy in History/
Social Studies and Science/Technical Subjects. In addition, 18 states and the District of Columbia are in the
process of adopting a new set of national science standards, called the Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS). Find out if your region is using these national academic standards and work with educators to
understand and interpret them in the context of the Project Botany curriculum. Project Botany: Exploring the
Native Plants of the United States curriculum has been written in correlation with both of these sets of national
standards.

While many states use national educational standards for math and language arts, others continue to use their
own set of core standards. Standards in science, social studies, and technology can also vary from state to state.

For those considering multi-state regions, look into the educational standards for each state you hope to
include before finalizing your region.

9. Modify existing Project Botany lessons and/or add lessons that address your region’s
ecosystems, habitats, species, and conservation issues

Lessons should focus on the interactions between geology, topography, climate, and biota, all of which shape
one another in order to form an ecosystem. From this section, students should gain an understanding of what
the nature of their region is, and how the nature of the region is shaped by the combination of various biotic
and abiotic factors.

The Ecoregions of the United States lesson serves as a template to design a lesson exploring the level III
ecoregions that comprise your region. Use the Commission for Environmental Cooperation’s level III ecoregion
descriptions and maps. If your region is small, consider using level IV ecoregions as well.

Use regional conservation plans as a starting point for students to learn about conservation challenges and
solutions in your area.

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10. Distribution

Teacher workshops and conferences are the best outlets for distributing your curriculum. You can also make
your curriculum available through your organization’s website, local conservation agencies and non-profits,
local parks, and visitor centers.

Teacher Workshops:
• Give an overview of the curriculum’s features, contents, and helpful hints that will make the book
more user-friendly.
• Pick two or three engaging lessons to demonstrate during the workshop.Be sure to bring all
necessary supplies. Pick lessons that make sense based on the time of year.
• After completing each lesson, ask participants to share how they would modify or adapt the lesson
to fit their particular class.
• Use the opportunity to introduce other beneficial materials, such as local field guides, naturalists,
potential service-learning projects, field trip locations, etc.
• Have participants fill out evaluations to inform your current and future projects.

Resources
1. Cramer, Jennie, and Jody Einerson. From Salmonberry to Sagebrush: Exploring Oregon’s Native
Plants. 2011.
2. Sobel, David. Place-based Education: Connecting Classrooms & Communities. Great Barrington,
MA: Orion Society, 2005.
3. Scherrer, Wendy. Celebrating Wildflowers Across the Nation: How to Develop a Regional
Native Plant Education Program. Sedro-Woolley, WA: North Cascades Institute, 1999.

xvii
 Section 1:
Plant
Identification
 T Teacher
Page What is a Plant?
It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that
survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change.
— Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Time Estimate:
1-2 hours Overview
Best Season: Students explore the diversity among plants and plant-like organisms, such
spring, as fungi, algae, and lichens, which may be mistaken for plants. This lesson
fall emphasizes the structural and reproductive differences between the groups
and the relationships between these organisms within an evolutionary
context.

Preparation
◆◆ Collect examples of the different groups of organisms represented in this
Teacher Hints lesson. Try to collect at least three species of each.
Consider splitting students into ◆◆ Reproductive structures are easier to observe when magnified, so provide a
groups for the background dissecting scope or hand lens.
reading. Each group can be in ◆◆ At each station except for the lichens, include a life cycle diagram. The lichen
charge of learning about one life cycle is omitted because much remains to be understood about lichen
group of plants or plant-like reproduction.
organisms, and presenting a
short summary of the information
about that group to the class.
Additional Information
Life cycle diagrams
Assessments ◆◆ Algae: http://www.resnet.wm.edu/~mcmath/
bio205/diagrams/botun05d.gif
1 Compare and contrast
major differences in
◆◆ Angiosperms: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Angiospermae.html
◆◆ Bryophytes: http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/bio_courses/
structure and reproduction
bl14apl/images_bryos/moss_life_cycle.jpeg
between two of the groups
◆◆ Ferns: http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Ferns/Sci-
of organisms studied.
Media/Animations-and-Interactives/Fern-life-cycle

2 Define “plant.” ◆◆ Gymnosperms: http://www.ck12.org/biology/Gymnosperm-

Life-Cycle/lesson/Gymnosperm-Life-Cycle/
3 Explain the evolutionary
relationships and progression of
◆◆ Sporophyte and gametophyte relationship in bryophytes, ferns, and
seed plants: http://utweb.ut.edu/hosted/faculty/wprice/seedpl08.pdf
plants and plant-like organisms. ◆◆ Fungi (Basidiomycetes): http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/fieldbio/Fungi_
Miller_Stevens_Rumann/Pages/fungi_life_cycle_anatomy_page.html
◆◆ Tree of Life Web Project; a collaborative website with many
beautiful photos that diagram the evolutionary relationship
between different groups of organisms: http://tolweb.org/tree/.

1-2
S Student
Project What is a Plant?
It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that
survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change.
— Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ hand lenses In this lesson, you will explore the diversity among plants and plant-like
◆◆ life cycle diagrams (all organisms, such as fungi, algae, and lichens, which may be mistaken for plants.
stations except lichens) This lesson will emphasize the structural and reproductive differences
◆◆ examples of 3 species from among the groups and the relationships among these organisms within an
each category of organisms evolutionary context.
◆◆ datasheet
◆◆ paper for drawings
Background Information
Have you ever looked at a soft, moist, fuzzy piece of green growing on a tree
or on the ground and wondered what it is? Is it a plant? Maybe it is a moss or
a lichen or algae. What is the difference and how do you know? What about
Learning Objectives a mushroom? It is growing out of the soil. Does that make it a plant? What is a
◆◆ Learn the differences and plant, anyway?
similarities among algae, What makes a plant a plant? First, almost all plants make their own food and
fungi, lichens, bryophytes, produce oxygen by taking in carbon dioxide and water through the process of
ferns and their allies, and
photosynthesis. Second, all plants have cell walls to help support them, which
seed-bearing plants
animals do not have (although some other types of organisms do). Thirdly, plants
◆◆ Explore plant and plant- have a cuticle, or waxy coat, on their stems and leaves to protect them from
like diversity within an
drying out. You will notice that the plant-like organisms share some but not all
evolutionary context
of these traits.
◆◆ Use a hand lens and/or
microscope to explore The story of plants, including bryophytes, ferns, and seed-bearing plants, and
anatomical diversity other similar and often confused groups of organisms, such as fungi, lichens,
and algae, can be woven with an evolutionary thread. This story is sewn by our
understanding of the life cycles, structures, and ecology of different groups of
plants.
Vocabulary Words It is a well-supported hypothesis that life on Earth began in the oceans and over
lichen parasite time colonized the land. There is considerable debate in the scientific community
spore-bearing foliose about which plants were the first to colonize land, giving rise to the evolution
plants fruticose of ferns and their allies, cone-bearing plants, and flowering land plants. Algae
seed-bearing are widely considered to be the evolutionary precursors of plants, and in some
crustose
plants cases, algae are considered plants themselves. But which plants were the first
spore to live on land? Many theories have been advanced. Today, the most recent
moss
rhizoid theories indicate that liverworts are likely the evolutionary predecessors to the
hyphae
cuticle higher plants that we know today. This is an ongoing point of investigation, and
sporophyte further research is needed.
vascular
mycelium
angiosperm As you read the following sections on different groups of plants and plant-like
saprophyte organisms, pay special attention to the similarities and differences that add to
gymnosperm
mycorrhizae our understanding of the evolutionary relatedness among these organisms.
Keep in mind that no moss has ever turned into a fern in one generation. This
story is one that has been developing for several billion years. Nothing happens
quickly when it comes to plant evolution!
1-3
 S Student
Project What is a Plant?
Plant-like, but not really plants…
Fungi
Fungi are a wonderfully diverse group of organisms, with mode of nutrition: 1) saprophytes that live off of dead
great variation in form, habitat, and manner of acquiring and decaying matter, 2) mycorrhizae (“fungus-root”) that
necessary nutrients. Many of you quite likely recognize form special connections with plant roots and exchange
mushrooms, with their typical cap and stalk form, wild nutrients directly with roots, and 3) parasites that live
abundance of colors, and presence in a variety of habitats. off of other living tissue. Fungi play a critical role in the
There are many types of fungi other than the mushrooms, recycling of nutrients, which is incredibly important to the
including the cup, jelly, teeth, coral, and crust fungi. There function of ecosystems. Fungi are a principal food source
are also puffballs, truffles, rusts, smuts, and the unicellular for a variety of organisms, making them a major player in
yeasts, all of which are classified as fungi. An important the maintenance of biodiversity on Earth.
thing to note about fungi (with the exception of yeasts) While fungi are not direct evolutionary descendants of
is that the part that you generally see and recognize is plants, their story is very directly tied to the migration
only a small fraction of the entire fungus. The rest of of plants from the sea to land throughout geologic
the fungus is in the soil, tree, leaf, insect, dead wood, or time. There are many studies that cite the importance
other substrate on which the fungus grows. This part of of mycorrhizae in this process. Evidence indicates that
the fungus exists as very thin, elongate strands known as it was these connections between fungi and plant roots
hyphae. Collectively the hyphae are known as mycelium, that allowed plants to colonize terrestrial habitats and
making up the vast majority of the mass of the fungus. A still access sufficient water and nutrients. Mycorrhizal
simple analogy can help to explain this. The mycelium is connections, found in 90%
like an apple tree, with its trunk and all its branches and of plant families, greatly
leaves; the “fruiting body” of the fungus that you see is increase the surface area
like the apple itself. of plant roots, increasing
Fungi are likely more closely related to animals than they overall water uptake.
are to plants, though they were originally classified as Additionally, numerous
plants. The two groups have many similarities, including types of fungi have
possessing a cell wall (animals have none) and lacking been found among
the ability to move on the landscape. However, the cell the fossils of the oldest
wall is often made of chitin, the very same biological land plants.
compound that makes the exoskeleton of insects and
crustaceans. Fungi can reproduce Lichens
via the production of spores, a Lichens come in diverse forms and are found in almost
characteristic they share with every habitat on Earth, including terrestrial, marine, and
some plants. Another major aquatic ecosystems. The smallest lichens in the world are
difference is that fungi nearly microscopic; the largest lichens are up to a square
do not have leaves, do foot in size. Some are leaf-like (foliose), others have a bunch
not possess chlorophyll, of shrubby stalks (fruticose), and others appear to just
and consequently do be a crust on a rock, tree, or soil (crustose). In addition to
not photosynthesize. being found on almost any natural substrate, such as rock,
Therefore, fungi must have bark, soil, or leaves, lichens can also be found attached to
other means of acquiring many man-made items, such as cement, asphalt, metal, and
nutrients. As a result, fungi even plastic. Unlike most plants, lichens have no roots and
are classified into three therefore derive all of their moisture and nutrition from the
major groups based on their atmosphere around them. Lichens can be different hues of
1-4
 S Student
Project What is a Plant?
gray, greenish gray, and brown. Some lichens can be quite of organisms, but to organisms with several different
bright in color, such as red, orange, and yellow. ancestries. The classification of algae is debated among
Lichens are a biological marvel, and an incredible example biologists.
of symbiosis. They are not a single organism like the rest of Unlike the seed-bearing plants, algae lack a cuticle and
the groups explored here, but actually two, and sometimes stomata and are therefore restricted to moist habitats.
three organisms living intertwined together so that they are Most algae also differ from plants in that they lack true
virtually indistinguishable. When they are found separately, roots and leaves and the body is not differentiated into
these organisms look nothing like they do when combined as highly specialized cells for structural support and water
a lichen. Lichens always contain a fungus and an organism that transport, though in some cases specialized cells do exist. In
can perform photosynthesis, usually algae, and occasionally a most cases, algae simply don’t need these specialized cells
cyanobacterium. The most basic function of the fungus is to because they are supported by the water column in which
provide a moist habitat for the algae or cyanobacteria. The they live. Like fungi, lichens, bryophytes, and ferns, algae
algae or cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis much like reproduce by dispersing spores into their environment;
plants; the sugars created from photosynthesis are used by they do not produce flowers or seeds. However, like plants,
the fungus for its nutrition. Lichens are officially classified as algae do perform photosynthesis; as a result, many are
fungi. green, though others are red, brown, or myriad shades in
So who’s in charge, the fungus or the algae? Or do they between. Only some algae are very likely to be confused
cooperate equally? At this point, the answer is unclear. with plants; these may include the larger green, red, and
Lichens have commonly been described as two organisms brown algae that are commonly referred to as seaweeds.
living together in harmony, each benefiting equally from Algae are widely considered to be the evolutionary
the interaction. More recently, many lichenologists have precursor to land plants. This assertion is based on the
begun to support the idea that the fungus harnesses the structural evidence listed in the previous paragraph.
algae to do work for it. One lichenologist has said that In recent years, genetic analysis has supported this
lichens are fungi that have discovered agriculture. As you hypothesis.
explore the world of lichens you’ll have an opportunity to Algae are found in virtually every habitat on Earth as long
think about this interesting scientific conundrum. as water is present, even for a very short time of the year.
Lichens play a significant role in the ecosystem. They They even live in extreme environments, including hot
provide food and habitat for invertebrates and animals; springs, salt pans, and beneath thick sheets of ice. Algae
are involved in nitrogen-cycling benefiting plants; and are a major component in the plankton that forms the
produce oxygen through photosynthesis. One widespread base of the marine food chain. Ecologically, they provide
species, Lobaria pulmonaria, is often called “the lungs very important nutrition for many animal species.
of the forest” because of the vast amount of oxygen it
produces through photosynthesis. Because they are
rootless and receive all of their water and nutrients from And now for the real plants...
the atmosphere, lichens are also highly valued as biological
indicators of air pollution, as many species’ ranges are Bryophytes
dictated by the quality of the air in which they live. Bryophytes are small, herbaceous plants that live closely
packed in cushions or mats on rock, soil, and trees and
on human-made substrates such as asphalt and concrete.
The in-between… They are found in a wide diversity of habitat types around
Algae the globe. The three main types of bryophytes are mosses,
Algae are a very challenging group of organisms to liverworts, and hornworts. Like other plants, bryophytes
classify, as the word refers not to an entirely related group have leaves photosyntesize to produce the sugars they
need for metabolism.
1-5
 S Student
Project What is a Plant?
Bryophytes lack the specialized water-conducting cells, Ferns & their allies
roots, waxy cuticle and stomata that are involved in
transporting water. The lack of these anatomical advances Ferns and their allies (plants that are very similar to ferns,
limits the size of the bryophyte and restricts it to moist such as clubmosses, spikemosses, quillworts, whiskferns,
habitats. The lack of these structures means that the entire and horsetails) frequently exist as denizens of the shady
plant, including the root-like rhizoids, absorb water like a undergrowth in forests, with an affinity for moist, dark places.
sponge. Some ferns are aquatic and live in symbiosis with bacteria. A
large diversity of ferns may also be found in other habitats,
Bryophytes have a very different life cycle than the including rock faces and open meadows. These plants may
higher plants. These life cycle differences are considered be found growing from the ground, on rotting logs, in rock
support for the hypothesis that bryophytes were the first crevices, and as epiphytes along tree trunks and up in the
land plants. The life cycle of plants is divided into two canopy. In rock, different species of ferns are found to occupy
main stages and is known as alternation of generations. very specific niches defined by the chemistry of the rock on
This life cycle is defined by the number of copies of which they grow.
chromosomes that are found in the nucleus of each cell
during each stage. In bryophytes, the main body of the
plant that you see that includes the leaves is known as the
haploid gametophyte, meaning it contains one copy of
chromosomes. The tiny sporophyte is diploid, meaning
it contains two copies of chromosomes, one from the
mother and one from the father. The sporophyte forms
when a sperm from a male organ swims through the
watery film on the leaves of a bryophyte and travels to a
female organ on the same or different plant. The sperm
is entirely exposed to the environment during this time.
In seed-bearing plants, this life cycle is reversed, with
the main leafy part of the plant being diploid and the
haploid part only occurring in the pollen and ovule. Ferns and their allies grow in moist environments because
While understanding this difference may require some their reproduction requires free water. Like bryophytes,
time studying the topic, life cycles are a major piece ferns and their allies fluctuate between the diploid and
of evidence pointing to the evolutionary relationships haploid life stages. In ferns and their allies, the diploid
among different types of plants. sporophyte phase is the the form we see, while the haploid
gametophyte stage is reduced to a 1-2 cm heart-shaped
Bryophytes play valuable ecological roles. In some forests, body (thallus) on which the spore and egg producing
bryophytes play a major role in regulating humidity, acting structures are found. Fertilization requires free water for the
as big sponges, absorbing and releasing water into the sperm to swim through to reach the egg-bearing structure.
atmosphere. Bryophytes also have extensive wildlife value, The sporophyte grows from the fertilized egg. Many
hosting a number of small invertebrates, acting as food for scientists agree that this major reduction in the haploid
others, and providing nesting and bedding material for gametophyte part of the life cycle is evidence that ferns are
birds and small mammals. Even some large animals, such as an evolutionary link between bryophytes and other land
the mountain goat, rely on bryophytes for a portion of their plants.
diet.
Ferns and their allies share additional characteristics. Much
like the bryophytes, they all reproduce using spores and
never produce flowers or seeds. Ferns and their allies all have

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 S Student
Project What is a Plant?
vascular tissue that helps them to stand upright and be able from the roots. They have a waxy cuticle that covers the
to conduct water throughout their tissues. Ferns have a thin leaf surfaces and decreases water loss, and stomata to help
leaf cuticle that aids in preventing desiccation and stomata exchange water vapor and other gases into the environment.
that allow gas exchange to occur. Many ferns and their allies Seed-bearing plants also have entirely internal fertilization, in
possess thick-walled spores that allow persistence in drier which the sperm fertilizes an egg within an ovule. As a result,
conditions. the haploid gametophyte generation exists only within the
Ecologically, ferns and their allies play a valuable role in pollen and ovule; everything else that you see is the diploid
the ecosystems in which they are found. Ferns can act as sporophyte generation. This process of internal fertilization
nurse plants to aid in the establishment of tree seedlings and lack of need for a watery environment in which sperm can
in a forest, providing a moist, shaded environment to swim to the egg has allowed for a great diversification in form.
support their growth. They serve to anchor moist soils As a result, plants have been able to colonize most corners
and slow erosion. They also provide habitat for a variety
of organisms that live amongst their fronds. Numerous
species of invertebrates and some vertebrates consume
their nutritious spores.

Seed-bearing plants
Seed-bearing plants are sometimes referred to as the “higher
plants.” This is not a reference to their general stature, but a
reference to their position on the evolutionary tree. Seed-
bearing plants undergo alternation of generations, but the
haploid generation is not free-living as with bryophytes,
ferns and fern allies. The diversity in form of seed-bearing
of the globe, including very harsh environments with blasting
plants is dramatic. This group includes everything from the
heat and very little water. Ferns, bryophytes, and algae exist
smallest herbaceous plants like the pond-dwelling duckweed
very widely, but few can tolerate the conditions that some of
to the tallest trees such as the coast redwoods on the Pacific
the more drought-resistant seed-bearing plants can.
coast. All plants that are not bryophytes, ferns, or fern allies
fall into this category. These include the flowering plants Ecologically, seed-bearing plants are a principal part of the
(angiosperms), and the cone-bearing plants (gymnosperms). foundation of the food system that feeds all humans and
other animals on the Earth. The ecological roles of seed-
Examining the structures and life cycles of seed-bearing plants
bearing plants are so incredibly diverse that it’s difficult to
helps us understand their evolutionary relationships. These
even begin to write about it. From habitat to food resources
plants contain many adaptations that aid in their persistence
to soil stabilization to atmospheric cleansing, they do it all!
on land. They possess a vascular system that allows for water
to be transported throughout the body to the tissues furthest

Reflection
Draw a colorful picture of plant evolution. You should include algae, bryophytes, ferns, and seed-bearing plants. Be
sure to depict each group of organisms in an appropriate habitat. As you draw each group of organisms, be sure to
keep in mind that the ancestral plants only lived in aquatic environments. Lichens and other fungi occupy a completely
different branch on the evolutionary tree; you do not need to include them in your drawing.

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Project What is a Plant?
In the Field!
Go to a habitat area with a diverse assemblage of organisms, native or otherwise, that
is on or near your school grounds. With a partner, find an example from each of the
groups of organisms discussed in this lesson. When you find each organism, ask yourself
the appropriate question. Why is this a fungus? Why is this a bryophyte? Why is this an
algae? Use the time in the field as an opportunity to review what you know about each
group of organisms. Get out some field guides for the more obscure groups and see if you
can match the ones you are finding to the photos in the book.

Science Inquiry
◆◆ Lichens can be indicators of air quality, and they can also indicate areas with excess nutrients. Complete some basic
research and design a simple field investigation to evaluate the effects of air quality or pollution on patterns in lichen
diversity.
◆◆ Pick three or more different locations to collect data. Try to sample along what you think might be a gradient in
air pollution based on your knowledge and observations about human use of the area. Extremes might be an
industrial area (be sure to look for crustose lichens on pavement and buildings) and an old-growth forest. If you
live in a more rural setting, try comparing the lichens present on fence posts in a heavily used livestock yard to
the lichens on nearby trees. Any setting can work—just look closely and try to find a gradient in land use (past or
present).
◆◆ Take photos or draw pictures of the lichens you see in each area.
◆◆ Are there any lichens that are present in all of your sample areas? Are there any found
only in the more polluted areas? Are there any found just in pristine areas?
◆◆ What might be some confounding variables in this study?
◆◆ Follow the directions found at http://tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=2974 to
construct a 3D model of the tree of life. In this activity, you will create a visual display
of the tree of life, showing the evolutionary relationships among major groups of
organisms, highlighting where plants and fungi fall within the greater diversity of life
on Earth.

Self Assessments
1 Which group of organisms is best adapted to
dry, terrestrial environments and why?

2 How do fungi differ from plants?

3 How do algae differ from plants?
4 Describe how lichens are an excellent example of a biological symbiosis.
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S Student
Project What is a Plant?
Directions
1. Your teacher has established 6 stations, each highlighting one of the groups of organisms discussed above.
Ideally, stations will be visited in the following order: fungi, lichens, algae, bryophytes, ferns and their allies, and
finally seed-bearing plants. If you can’t start at the first station, try to visit the stations in order, as it will serve to
emphasize the evolutionary relationship among the groups. As you visit each station use the following directions
as a guide.
2. Begin by reading the background information for each station. Make note of the structures that define each
group of organisms and what those structures indicate about the evolutionary relationship among groups of
organisms.
3. Make a sketch of the example organisms at each station. Be sure to look closely at each and make note of the
significant structures you read about in the background information that set each group of organisms apart from
the others. Refer to the background information for clues about these noteworthy structures. Write the name of
each structure on your drawing and draw an arrow pointing to it.
4. Choose one example organism and look closely at the reproductive parts through a hand lens or dissecting
microscope. Draw a close-up of what you see through your hand lens/dissecting microscope and label the
structures.
5. Examine the life cycle of the group of organisms. Each life cycle diagram contains a lot of information. Note
that the true plants undergo alternation of generations. The organisms that are not true plants do not undergo
alternation of generations. List the life stages that are haploid and the life stages that are diploid. While this may
seem like an obscure way to show differences between the organisms, it is central to understanding how life cycles
changed in the process of plant evolution.
6. At each station, fill out the boxes in the attached data sheet. This data sheet summarizes the major characteristics
that are used to define each of the groups of organisms that you are exploring.

Resources
◆◆ Arora, David. 1986. Mushrooms Demystified, Second Project. Interesting information about the evolution of land
Edition. Ten Speed Press. Berkeley. 959 pp. plants and the taxonomic relationship of bryophytes to the
◆◆ Brodo, Irwin M., Sylvia D. Sharnoff, and Stephen Sharnoff. higher plants.
2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New ◆◆ http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/engplant/eblad1.html -- A
Haven, Connecticut, 795 pp. concise history of plant evolution and the colonization of
◆◆ http://www.seaweed.ie/index.html -- Michael Guirey’s land, with specific reference to the fossil record.
seaweed site. Contains excellent background information ◆◆ http://www.devoniantimes.org/opportunity/forests.html
on marine algae. -- An interesting story of early plant evolution during the
◆◆ http://www.bryoecol.mtu.edu/ -- An excellent online book Devonian period.
introducing bryophytes and their ecology. ◆◆ http://ocid.nacse.org/lichenland/ -- A website with links to
◆◆ http://bryophytes.plant.siu.edu/index.html -- A thorough others that provide basic information about lichen biology
resource on bryophytes hosted by Southern Illinois and identification.
University Carbondale ◆◆ http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123233992/
abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 -- Reference about mycorrhizae
◆◆ http://www.biology.duke.edu/bryology/LiToL/
and their role in land plant colonization.
LwtsonGreenTree.html -- The Liverwort Tree of Life

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Project What is a Plant?
Data Sheet

Use Spores Type of Cuticle Internal or

True True Unicellular or
Photosynthe- or vascular and external
leaves? roots? multicellular?
sis? seeds? tissue? stomata? fertilization?

Fungi

Lichens

Algae

Bryo-
phytes

Ferns and
fern allies

Seed-bear-
ing plants

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Project What is a Plant?
Teacher Answer Key

Spores Type of Cuticle Internal or

Use Photosyn- True True Unicellular or
or vascular and external
thesis? leaves? roots? multicellular?
seeds? tissue? stomata? fertilization?

Fungi N N N spores N N both

Lichens Y N N spores N N multi

Algae Y N N spores N N both external

some
Bryophytes Y Y N spores simple multi external
liverworts

Ferns and
Y Y Y spores complex Y multi external
their allies

Seed-bear-
Y Y Y seeds complex Y multi internal
ing plants

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T Teacher Exploring the Ecoregions
Page
of the United States
There is an eternal landscape, a geography of the soul; we search for its outlines
all our lives. —Josephine Hart (Contemporary)
Time Estimate:
One Session
Overview
Best Season: Students gain an understanding of the concept of ecoregions. Ecoregions
Any are geographic areas with distinctive climatic, geographic, and ecological
features. Students will learn about the drivers of diversity in our landscape
and explore the interactions between various biotic and abiotic features
of the natural world. Through this process students will discover the vast
diversity of plant life in their country. Students will learn to connect plant
adaptations with the physical environment.

Preparation
Teacher Hints
◆◆ Access the Commission for Environmental Cooperation Website to view
◆◆ Students need to be familiar Level I Ecoregion maps and descriptions.
with plant adaptations before
attempting this lesson. Try ◆◆ Print copies of the Level I Ecoregion Descriptions from Appendix III.
doing the Create-A-Plant ◆◆ Print out copies of the Plant Adaptations Chart for student use.
lesson before this lesson. ◆◆ Copy and cut out Plant Adaptation Profile cards. For each plant, there is a
◆◆ Stress that the goal of this side A and a side B. You can either affix both sides together so that students
activity is not to get every can flip over their cards to side B when they are ready, or you can simply
correct answer, but rather keep two sets of cards and hand out side A first and then side B when the
to put creative thought into students are ready.
the connections between a
plant’s physical environment
and its adaptations. Grade
based on the logic of students’ Assessments
explanations rather than their
specific answers. 1 Name three factors that define an ecoregion.
◆◆ To begin, students should look
only at side A of their Plant 2 Discuss the connections between geology and climate.
Profile cards. After writing
down their predictions and 3 Bea plant
able to describe three adaptations that would allow
to thrive in the ecoregion of your choice.
explanations, they can flip the
cards over to see the range
maps for each species.

Additional Information
◆◆ EPA maps and ecoregion descriptions: https://www.epa.gov/eco-
research/ecoregions-north-america, click on”Downloads” and
“Ecological Regions of North America (CEC 1997) (pdf = 6 mb)”
◆◆ Ecoregion Profiles (Appendix III)
◆◆ Native Seed Network Oregon ecoregion map http://www.
nativeseednetwork.org; general overview of ecoregions

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S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
There is an eternal landscape, a geography of the soul; we search for its outlines
all our lives. —Josephine Hart (Contemporary)
Materials Needed
◆◆ Plant Profile cards Overview
◆◆ Plant adaptations chart (From This lesson introduces the concept of ecoregions. Ecoregions are geographic
the “Create-a-Plant” Lesson) areas with distinctive climatic, geographic, and ecological features. In this lesson,
◆◆ Ecoregion description cards you will learn about the drivers of diversity in our landscape and explore the
interactions between various biotic and abiotic features of the natural world.
◆◆ Computer with
Through this process you will discover the vast diversity of plant life in your
internet access
country. You will explore the relationship between plant adaptations and the
◆◆ Scratch paper physical environment.

Learning Objectives Background Information

The United States is home to an incredible diversity of ecosystems and native
◆◆ Locate and name the
plants. Picture the humid, tropical forests of the Florida everglades; the vast,
13 level I ecoregions of
the United States grassy prairies of the Great Plains; the spines of the Rocky Mountains and
the Appalachians; Alaska’s arctic tundra; the temperate rainforests of the
◆◆ Describe and gain Pacific Northwest; and the arid deserts of the Southwest. Each of our unique
understanding about the ecosystems is characterized by distinctive plant communities. As you move
connections between across the country from north to south or from east to west, you will notice that
the geology, climate, and the vegetation changes dramatically as you pass through different ecological
vegetation of the ecoregions regions.
of the United States
As biologists, we need a way to classify these regions to help us study the flora
◆◆ Appreciate the variety of this and fauna and interact with our natural resources appropriately. At a very
country’s diverse landscapes broad level, we can organize different types of ecosystems into biomes. Types
& the biodiversity it supports of biomes include forest, desert, grassland, tundra, marine, and freshwater.
◆◆ Understand connections However, we know that not all forests are the same; nor are any two desert,
between a plant’s grassland, marine, or freshwater systems the same, so we further divide biomes
physical environment into ecoregions. An ecoregion is a geographic area characterized by distinctive
and its adaptations climate, soil, geology, topography, and vegetation. An ecoregion is a geographic
area characterized by distinctive climate, soil, geology, topography, and biota
interacting together. The constant interplay of the different components creates
the vast diversity of our landscape. This has led to a fundamental change in
Vocabulary Words natural resource management, moving away from managing individual species
biome and towards managing systems as a whole.
ecoregion One major driver of climate is latitude. As you move from south to north, the
topography climate generally becomes much cooler, due to the angle and duration of sun
exposure. The northernmost ecoregion in the United States is the Arctic Coastal
Plain, which has an average annual temperature of -11° C (12.2° F), while the
southernmost ecoregion in the continental U.S., the Florida Coastal Plain, has an
average annual temperature of about 23.5° C (74.3° F).
Latitude alone does not fully explain the variation in temperature and climate,
however. Temperature and precipitation are affected by geologic features,

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 S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
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of the United States
Background Information, continued
which help drive the wide variability in climate as you move Ecoregions do not exist in isolation, but interact and often
from east to west and north to south. Elevation plays a blend into one another. Sometimes the transition between
major role in climate, because air thins and cools as it rises. one ecoregion and another is abrupt and obvious, but
Alpine areas thus tend to have much cooler climates than the division is generally more gradual. The transition zone
one would expect based on latitude alone. Another major between two ecoregions contains characteristics and
way geology affects climate is through the rain shadow species from both ecoregions, and provides important
effect, where moisture is essentially trapped by a mountain and unique intermediate habitats.
range. For example, when moisture-laden air masses
moving east from the Pacific Ocean rise up to cross over
the Sierra Nevada Mountains, they cool and the moisture
they hold condenses and falls as precipitation. As a result,
the air that reaches the leeward side of the mountains is
dry, and very little moisture reaches the deserts east of the
mountain range. This phenomenon shapes climates around
the world, from the Great Basin to Colorado’s Front Range
to the Gobi desert north of the Himalayas. This effect can
also occur on a much smaller scale where mountain ranges
are lower in elevation. Can you think of a place you know
where the rain shadow effect is evident?
Another important factor that shapes the character of
ecoregions is soil, which is crucial in determining which
plant species can survive and thrive. Soils are influenced There are different levels of ecoregional organization, as
by many variables, including the type of rock from which well as different methods of classifying ecoregions. We
they are formed (parent material), chemical composition, will be using a common classification system, used by the
pH, texture, topography, climate, vegetation, and age. Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) and the
Topography, with its influences on hydrology and soils, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which uses three
is also an important shaping force for ecoregions. For different nested scales, or levels, of ecoregion divisions.
example, a hilly landscape may display a mosaic of different We will start by using the broadest divisions, Level I, which
soils and different vegetation types. Because of the erosive splits the United States into thirteen ecoregions.* Each of
force of water running off a hillside, these slopes tend these broad ecoregions can be divided into subsequently
to have shallow, poorly developed soils, on which only smaller and smaller units for more detailed study. Later on
certain plants can thrive. Soil is then deposited in the valley you will study your own Level I ecoregion in more detail by
bottoms below, which results in deeper, richer soils, where investigating the smaller Level III ecoregions that comprise
other species prefer to grow. Water running off of hillsides it.
and collecting in gullies and drainages can also promote *Note: The state of Hawaii represents the thirteenth
the growth of certain water-loving species in these wet ecoregion, classified by the Nature Conservancy as the
zones. Next time you are outside, see if you notice a Hawaiian High Islands Ecoregion. Hawaii is not included in
certain species (or group of species) whose location on the CEC ecoregion classification system.
the landscape corresponds with specific features of the
topography.

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S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
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of the United States
Student Directions
1. In this activity, you will use information about the does it primarily cover large open plains? Are
physical characteristics of ecoregions to make there many wetlands, bogs, rivers, or lakes in this
predictions about the native plants that thrive there. ecoregion?
2. Split into groups of three or four students. Each ◆◆ Biological Interactions: What types of animals
group will need: are common in this ecoregion? Remember, the
a. Description cards for the thirteen major native plants and animals of an ecoregion have
ecoregions of the United States [Level I evolved together. Many native plants therefore
exhibit adaptations that are responses to their
Ecoregion Profile cards (Appendix III)]
interactions with particular animals.
b. A set of Plant Profile cards
4. Now look over the Plant Profile cards, only at side A.
c. Scratch paper Each card represents a species native to the United
d. A copy of the Plant Adaptations Chart States. Read over the adaptations that each plant has.
3. Read carefully over the description of each 5. Use your knowledge of plant adaptations to
ecoregion. Pay special attention to the physical hypothesize which ecoregion(s) each plant belongs
characteristics. As you read, think about the to. Your plant may belong to multiple ecoregions.
adaptations a plant might have to survive under such For each plant, write down how its adaptations allow
conditions. Here are some things to pay attention to it to survive under the conditions of the ecoregions
as you read about each ecoregion: where you think it may live. The goal is not to get all
◆◆ Climate: How hot or cold is this ecoregion? How of the right answers, but rather to use your logic and
much moisture does the ecoregion receive? If creativity to make connections between a physical
an area is very dry, might wildfires be a frequent environment and the characteristics of each species.
disturbance there? Are there large differences 6. Once you have finished writing your predictions and
in temperature and/or precipitation from one explanations, flip over your Plant Profile cards to side
season to the next, or are the seasons more B to see the range maps for your species. Did your
moderated? If the conditions vary greatly from predictions match up? How did they differ? Why do
season to season, a plant may need adaptations to you think each species exists where it does? Record
survive both drought and moisture, heat and cold. your thoughts on any differences between your
◆◆ Soils: Are the soils generally deep or shallow? Are predictions and the true ranges.
they high in nutrients or low? Are they prone to
erosion? Are they waterlogged and boggy, or well Note: The range maps indicate in which states each
drained? species occurs. The species do not necessarily exist
throughout the entirety of the highlighted states.
◆◆ Geography: Is this ecoregion mountainous, or

Class Discussion
◆◆ There were several different conifer species in this activity. What were some of the differences
among them and how did they help the trees survive in their respective habitats?

◆◆ What were some of the seemingly contradictory adaptations displayed by different desert species?
How does each allow plants to thrive in that environment?

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 S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
In the Field
Explore the role of topography and geology on native vegetation communities. Take a trip
to a natural area near your school. Identify different topographic zones within the natural
area: e.g. hillsides, hilltops, riparian bottomlands, drainages, open meadows. Walk through
these areas and make note of the changing vegetation types as you move from one zone into
the next. Do moisture levels also seem to correlate to the topography? If you can’t tell, make
your best guess based on your knowledge about how water flows on the landscape. Bring
a compass. Are there differences in the vegetation between north-facing and south-facing
aspects?

Science Inquiry
Design an experiment that tests the effects of a climatic variable on plant growth for different species. For example,
you could choose to test various moisture levels, temperatures, or sunlight exposure. Research online or using a seed
catalogue to find seeds for two different native plant species that come from different climates. Predict how well each
will grow under different conditions. Base your prediction (hypothesis) on the climate conditions in the home range
of each species.
◆◆ Remember that you must include controls in your experiment.
◆◆ Decide how you will measure your response variable. For example, you could measure the number
of surviving sprouts or the number of leaves or height of the plants after a certain amount of time.
◆◆ Try sprouting seeds in egg cartons filled with potting soil.
◆◆ Be sure to check if your species need any special seed treatments for germination to occur; failing
to do so may compromise the results of your experiment.
Data collection/analysis: After about four weeks of growth, measure your response variable
(number of leaves, height, etc.) and analyze your data. Was your hypothesis correct? If not, why
do you think you got the results that you did?

Reflection
Use your creativity and design an imaginary ecoregion. Include
information about the geology, soils, climate, and weather patterns. How
do all of these factors interact with each other? What kinds of vegetation
and animals live in the various parts of your ecoregion? How are these
native plants adapted to the places they live? Be sure to describe the
connections between the abiotic and biotic factors of your imaginary
ecoregion. Try drawing a map that shows mountain ranges, valleys,
deserts, forests, and bodies of water.

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S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
Taking it Further
◆◆ Use Google Earth (or a comparable online software) to visit your ecoregion. Locate
your community and view vegetation and landforms. Choose a different ecoregion and
compare what you see. Choose an ecoregion adjacent to yours and also one that is
across the country from you to compare and contrast.

◆◆ Assemble a timeline of the geologic history of the ecoregion of your

choice and explain how it was formed.

Assessments
1 Name the factors that define an ecoregion.

2 Discuss the connections between geology and climate.

3 Choose an ecoregion and describe three adaptations

that would allow a plant to thrive there.

Resources
To bring students’ attention to nature in an urban setting:
◆◆ Mitchell, Joseph. “The Rivermen.” In Up in the Old Hotel. New York: Random House, 1993.
◆◆ Pyle, Robert Michael. The Thunder Tree: Lessons from an Urban Wildland. New York: Lyons, 1998. Print.
◆◆ Tallmadge, John. The Cincinnati Arch: Learning from Nature in the City. Athens: University of Georgia, 2004. Print.
General Nature Writing:
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo, and Charles Walsh Schwartz. A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There. New York:
Oxford UP, 1987. Print.
◆◆ Assorted nature writings of John Muir, Aldo Leopold, Henry David Thoreau, Rachel Carson, Wendell Berry, Bernd
Heinrich, and others.

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 S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
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of the United States
1A 2A
Larix laricina Thuja plicata
◆◆ Adventitious roots ◆◆ A chemical called
can grow from the Thujaplicin is produced
trunk and stems. in the wood of the tree
◆◆ The trees have the ability and acts as an anti-
to transport oxygen fungal and anti-bacterial
to the root system. agent, preventing the
wood from rotting.
◆◆ Chemicals produced
in the wood have ◆◆ The tree can grow over
anti-fungal and anti- 60 meters tall (200 ft)
bacterial properties with diameters of more
that prevent decay. than 2.5 meters (8 ft).
◆◆ The leaves are thin, ◆◆ These trees are very long-
waxy needles. lived, often surviving to
be over 1,000 years old.
◆◆ Although the tree
has needles, they are ◆◆ This tree is an evergreen
deciduous and are conifer, with leaves that
shed in the fall. are scale-like and waxy.

3A 4A
Quercus albus Eriophorum callitrix
◆◆ The broad, green leaves ◆◆ The reproductive
are deciduous and organs are densely
are shed in the fall. covered in wooly
◆◆ Populations of this tree hairs, giving the
will produce very little flowering heads
fruit for a number of the appearance
years, followed by a year of cotton balls.
of extremely high fruit ◆◆ The leaves are thin,
production, a strategy narrow, grass-like
called mast-fruiting. and dark green.
◆◆ The trees of this species ◆◆ The plants grow low
have both a very deep to the ground.
taproot and a system ◆◆ These plants grow in
of widely branching clumped tussocks.
lateral support roots.
◆◆ Underground
◆◆ The seeds are spread rhizomes store
by squirrels, who cache carbohydrates.
the fruits and often
forget about them.

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S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
5A 6A
Foquieria splendens Andropogon gerardii
◆◆ The small, waxy leaves are ◆◆ Tall grass with narrow,
deciduous and appear thin leaves.
only during periods of ◆◆ Extensive root system,
precipitation, after which may be more than 2
they are shed and the plant meters (6.5 ft) deep.
becomes dormant. The
plant can leaf out and shed ◆◆ Growth tissue and
its leaves multiple times stored carbohydrates are
per season depending located in the crown at
on precipitation cycles. the base of a plant, where
they are protected.
◆◆ After the leaves are shed,
the leaf bases harden ◆◆ Sparse hairs on the leaf
into stiff, sharp spines. blades and stem.
◆◆ Pollinated by ◆◆ C4 metabolism allows it
hummingbirds. to collect and store CO2
during the night and close
◆◆ Generally live to be its stomata during the day
about 60 years old. while it photosynthesizes.

7A 8A
Artemisia tridentata Avicennia germinans
◆◆ Dense white hairs cover ◆◆ Salt is excreted from the
the leaves of this shrub. waxy, leathery leaves.
◆◆ The root system has two ◆◆ Specialized root
components: a very deep appendages called
taproot, and a network “pneumatophores”
of very shallow and finely grow up from the soil
branched lateral roots surface. Hollow channels
around the soil surface. (aerenchyma) allow the
◆◆ Two types of leaves pneumatophores to act
are present; one set like snorkles, allowing for
is evergreen and is increased gas exchange.
maintained year- ◆◆ Water is stored in
round, while the other specialized cells inside
set is deciduous. the waxy leaves.
◆◆ Low-growing and
long-lived.
◆◆ Bitter chemicals give
the shrub a pungent
smell and bitter taste.

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 S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
9A Tamarack 1B
Geraea canescens (Larix laricina)
◆◆ A short-lived annual,
this plant can complete Tamarack is native to Canada and the United States’
its entire life cycle— northeastern forests. The tree is adapted to survive
germinate, grow, and in very cold winter conditions, when water is locked
reproduce —within a up as ice and unavailable for use. But it also has
very short period of time. adaptations that allow it to survive in waterlogged
bogs during the summer months.
◆◆ The seeds lie dormant
until they are triggered
to germinate by
significant moisture;
then growth is rapid.
◆◆ White hairs cover the
leaves and stems.

USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August

2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

Western red cedar 2B White oak 3B

(Thuja plicata) (Quercus alba)
Western red cedar is found in the northwestern Native to the eastern temperate forests of the United
forests of our country, where along the Pacific States, the white oak can survive both hot summers
coast it isn’t uncommon for annual precipitation to and cool winters. The tree can thrive as part of the
exceed 300 cm (about 10 ft). Western red cedar’s dense canopy that covers the region. It has come to
adaptations allow it to thrive in this wet, light- depend on (and outwit) the mammals native to the
limited environment. vast forest ecosystem where it evolved to disperse
its seeds.

USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August
2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. 2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

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S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
Arctic cottongrass 4B Ocotillo 5B
(Eriophorum callitrix) (Fouquieria splendens )
Arctic cottongrass is found in the northern reaches A beautiful shrub of southwestern deserts, ocotillo
of our continent, where it must survive extremely is well-adapted to arid conditions with sparse and
cold temperatures, frozen water, and thin soils. This relatively unpredictable rainfall. Like many plants
sedge has only a very brief growing season in which from this region, ocotillo uses thorns to protect
to reproduce. itself from hungry and thirsty herbivores. It also
relies on native fauna to pollinate its striking red
flowers.

USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August
2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. 2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

Big bluestem 6B Big sagebrush 7B

(Andropogon gerardii ) (Artemisia tridentata)
This grass is a dominant species in the tall grass A dominant species over much of the arid interior
prairies that once covered vast tracts of lands in the of our country, big sagebrush thrives despite little
middle of our nation. The incredibly extensive root precipitation, harsh, cold winters, and hot, windy
system reaches down into the deep soils that are summers. Though vast herds of large grazing
characteristic of much of this region. Its adaptations mammals have shared the region with sagebrush,
reflect a need to survive hot, dry summers, frequent only a few of them will eat the bitter tasting foliage.
fires and an abundance of large, grazing ungulates.

USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August
2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. 2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

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 S Student Exploring the Ecoregions
Project
of the United States
Black mangrove 8B Desert gold 9B
(Avicennia germinans) (Geraea canescens)
Where the swamps of the southern tropical Desert gold, also called the desert sunflower, lives in
forests meet the ocean, black mangroves thrive extreme desert environments, including California’s
despite harsh conditions. The saying “water, water, Death Valley. Its modified life cycle allows the plant
everywhere, but not a drop to drink,” is applicable to survive under incredibly arid conditions, making
in these habitats—any plants that live here must the desert bloom when a rare rainfall allows.
have some way of dealing with excess salt in order
to obtain water, making it an expensive resource.

USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August USDA, NRCS. 2013. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 21 August
2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. 2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

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 T Teacher Field Journaling:
Page
Observations from a Special Spot
To see a wren in a bush, call it “wren,” and go on walking is to have (self-importantly) seen
nothing. To see a bird and stop, watch, feel, forget yourself for a moment, be in the bushy
shadows, maybe then feel “wren”— that is to have joined in a larger moment with the world.
— Gary Snyder, Language Goes Two Ways, (1930–present)

Time Estimate: Overview

90 minutes
A field journal can be used to record observations and questions, to make
Best Season: drawings, and to pursue ideas. This lesson is an introduction to using a field
All seasons journal for all of these things and more. Students can use their field journals
to support their study of native plants and ecosystems. It can be a handy
reference for places they have visited, new terms they have learned, and
plants that they have identified.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ Share some plant related field ◆◆ When you take students
journal entries from Lewis and outdoors for journal writing,
Assessments Clark’s Voyage of Exploration or act as the timekeeper. Have
1 Record one observation
in detail or several
excerpts from other explorers
with your students. Show them
them observe quietly for 10
minutes before they start to
small observations. the journal entries to show write. Then allow them 20
how the authors used drawings minutes to write and draw. Give
to enhance their writing. them a few minutes of warning
2 Make observations using
multiple senses (e.g. ◆◆ Before beginning, read students before time is up, to allow
a few passages from Aldo them to gradually return to the
smell, touch, hearing). group after their time alone.
Leopold’s book, A Sand County
Almanac. If possible, make a few Allow 15 minutes for sharing.
3 Remain on task and do not be
disruptive of fellow students.
copies available for students ◆◆ Have students record journaling
to read further on their own. prompts from the directions
Consider assigning passages and have students tape these
for students to read at home. to the inside cover of their
◆◆ For students who are reluctant journal. Encourage them to
to write, encourage sketching. refer to this list whenever
Ask them to add a few words they have trouble starting.
about their drawing, maybe ◆◆ A field journal is an excellent
notes on size or color. Ask them way to cross subject barriers to
to record the weather and integrate science with studies
the date. Each time have them of language, history, and art.
include a little bit more written
detail about their drawings.
Pretty soon they will be writing!

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 S Student Field Journaling:
Project Observations from a Special Spot
To see a wren in a bush, call it “wren,” and go on walking is to have (self-importantly) seen
nothing. To see a bird and stop, watch, feel, forget yourself for a moment, be in the bushy
shadows, maybe then feel “wren”— that is to have joined in a larger moment with the world.
— Gary Snyder, Language Goes Two Ways, (1930–present)

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ field journal
A field journal can be used to record observations and questions, to explore
◆◆ pencil your feelings, to make drawings, and to pursue ideas. A field journal can
◆◆ colored pencils, crayons, contain lists, poetry, data, and sketches. This lesson is an introduction to using
or paints (optional) a field journal for all of these things and more. You can use your field journal
to support your study of native ecosystems. It can be a handy reference for
places you have visited, new terms that you have learned, and plants that you
have identified.
Learning Objectives
◆◆ Practice observation skills
using sight, sound, smell Background Information
and touch
Developing observation skills takes practice. Using a field journal regularly
◆◆ Use multiple styles of writing can help you hone your observation skills as well as record and reflect on the
to record nature observations experiences you have in the natural world. You can use writing, drawing, and
◆◆ Promote awareness of photographs to make entries and guide the observation process. There is no
seasonal changes and right or wrong way to keep a field journal – each person will bring her or his
patterns through own unique style. The more time you spend recording in your field journal, the
observations over time more you will see and notice around you, and the more fun it will become! If
◆◆ Use a field journal as a tool to you keep detailed notes, you will be able to record seasonal and year to year
gather, analyze, and changes going on around you. Practice using your field journal throughout your
interpret data in field research native plant study and it can become a useful reference.

A field journal is a great place to record observations you make in the natural
world. Great naturalists and scientists throughout history have kept extensive
Vocabulary Words field journals, many of which continue to be used for scientific inquiries today.
observation For example, the journals of Lewis and Clark provide excellent information and
illustrations of the flora and fauna and climate of the regions they explored over
100 years ago. The journals of famous naturalists Henry David Thoreau, Aldo
Leopold, and many backyard naturalists have been used to track environmental
changes, inspire naturalists, and inform scientists. Use your journal as a portfolio
to keep information learned in studying nature, a place to record “I wonder”
questions to pursue, and for inspiration in your writing and art work. As you
get older, your field journal will be a great place to look for fond memories
of cool places you have visited, interesting critters or phenomena you have
observed, and poetic thoughts you have recorded. In addition, looking back on
your journal is a great way to track how many new things you have learned as
time flies by. Your journal may be an excellent record of your history when you
become a famous scientist, but first and foremost, your journal is for you.

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S Student Field Journaling:
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Student Directions
Make your journal: 7. Listen carefully for loud and softer sounds, to the
1. Create a field journal to collect your work and to wind, insects and birds. What else do you hear?
record your thoughts, questions, and observations 8. What sensations do you feel? Coolness or warmth,
while studying nature. Use a composition book, something soft, hard, sharp, fuzzy?
spiral bound book, “Rite in the Rain” journal, or 9. Explore the smells—of the soil, plants, and the air.
make your own. Do these smells remind you of anything?
2. Personalize your journal by decorating the cover 10. Describe how it feels to sit in this spot. Do you feel
and include your name and dates the journal will peaceful and relaxed?
cover.
11. What is happening at your spot? Are there cycles,
3. Always bring your field journal to class with you natural processes or food webs you can observe?
and add your thoughts, discoveries, and questions.
In addition, take it on field trips, and record your 12. Who or what has been at your spot before you?
observations when you are outside of class. What signs show you they were there?
4. With every journal entry, always begin by recording 13. How is your spot part of the larger area surrounding
the date, time of day, location, and the weather. it?
14. Enter your observations in any form that you
Choose a special spot: want - you can make lists, write an essay, jot down
5. Find special spot in a natural area, close to the school, thoughts, write a poem, create a drawing, or any
or near your house; this should be a location you combination or the above.
can return to and visit throughout the year. Select 15. Make sure you have noted the date, time, and the
your spot by yourself and take note of where you location of your special spot so you can return for
are so that you can return at a later date. Settle into later observations.
your spot and quietly spend at least 10 minutes just
16. Gather as a class and share your observations. How
observing, without writing. Really get to know your
were they similar or different? Did you discover
spot: look at it, smell it, feel it, and listen. Who and
anything about your spot that surprised you?
what else is there with you?
6. Look closely at a leaf or bit of soil. Look in the
distance at the horizon. Look at the nooks and
crannies around you.

Taking it Further
◆◆ Visit your special spot monthly (or more
often if you like) and create a record of
changes over time. If you can, visit your spot
for more than one year: look for recurring
patterns and differences from prior years.
◆◆ Identify 2-3 plants (or more!) at your spot.
Explore some of the reasons that you
think they are well-suited to your spot.

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 S Student Field Journaling:
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In the Field!
Take your field journal on all your field trips. When you first arrive, make general observations and record them in your
journal. During your trip, focus on one thing that catches your eye to write about further. At the end of your trip look
over your entry and add any details that you would like to remember about your trip. Don’t forget to record the date
and add general information about the location and weather.

Science Inquiry
◆◆ While at your special spot, use an “I wonder” statement to generate ideas to
investigate further (for example: I wonder why there is only one oak tree in the
field?)
◆◆ Now jot down some possible explanations for your question (e.g. there is only
one oak tree because someone planted it, or a deer ate the others as seedlings, or
fire burned all but one oak acorn). Use observations about the area to form your
hypotheses.
◆◆ Try to generate ways to test your ideas or research the answer to your question.
Enlist your teacher for help if needed.

Reflection Assessments
Create a story based on your observations. 1 Record one observation in detail,
Use your observations, your knowledge using words and drawing.
of plant ecology, and, most importantly,
your imagination to develop a story of
the site history of your spot. Explain how the
2 Make observations using
more than one sense.
vegetation and other features have changed over the years,
being sure to give explanations of why and how these changes 3 Remain on task and be courteous
have occurred. How might the history of this spot explain the of other students working.
characteristics you observe there now?

Resources
◆◆ The journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition online (see actual journal entries):
http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo, Charles Walsh Schwartz. 1966. A Sand County Almanac. With Other
Essays on Conservation from Round River. New York: Oxford UP.
◆◆ The journals of Henry David Thoreau (typewritten excerpts): http://thoreau.library.ucsb.edu/writings_journals.html
◆◆ National Wildlife Federation article about Thoreau and phenology:
http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article. cfm?issueID=117&articleID=1510
◆◆ Leslie, Claire Walker and Charles E. Roth. 2000. Keeping a Nature Journal: Discover a Whole
New Way of Seeing the World Around You. Storey Publishing, North Adams, MA.
◆◆ Field journal resource: http://www.amnh.org/

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 Teacher
T Page What’s In a Name?
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
—William Shakespeare (Romeo and Juliet)
Time Estimate:
15-20 minutes inside; Overview
additional time needed for
This lesson uses a technology-based practical application to explore
field journal and outside
scientific names. Students will access the United States Department of
Best Season: Agriculture (USDA) website to explore some of the challenges with using
fall, common names. They will learn a brief history of scientific names, general
winter, rules on how to write scientific names, and hints for pronouncing botanical
spring Latin.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ Plants commonly referred to as “thistles” provide an excellent opportunity
Preparation to explore the utility of scientific names and the challenges with common
names. For example, the plants in the genus Cirsium are referred to as
Student pairs will need access
thistles, while the genus Centaurea represents star thistles, plants in the
to a computer with internet
genus Sonchus are sowthistles, and plants called Russian thistles are in
capability.
the genus Salsola. Each of these genera, however, are distinctly different.
Make a set of thistle identification cards for your region. Find photos and
a species list on the USDA PLANTS database site. Use these cards when
Additional you go out in the field to help students identify the “thistles” found in
Information your area. When using photos from this site, set a good example for your
◆◆ http://www.calflora. students and include the credits on your cards. This may also be set up
net/botanicalnames/ as a student project.
pronunciation.html : ◆◆ If your students need extra practice to remember the proper techniques
Botanical Latin hints for writing scientific names, make up a worksheet writing scientific names
◆◆ http://plants.usda.gov/ incorrectly and have students rewrite them in the correct form.
: USDA NRCS PLANTS
Database home page
◆◆ The Jepson Manual:
Higher Plants of California.
Assessments
Hickman, James C (ed.).
University of California
1 Students can recognize and use proper formatting for written scientific
names. (capitalization—Genus, species; italics if typed, underlined if
Press, Berkley, 1996. handwritten).
◆◆ http://oregonstate.edu/
dept/ldplants/sci-names.
2 Students can describe at least one situation where it is important to use
scientific names and why.
htm : Concise information
on scientific names 3 Students
preferable.
can name at least one situation where using a common name is

◆◆ http://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/
main.htm : International
Association for Plant
Taxonomy website with
the official regulations on
botanical nomenclature

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 Student
S Project What’s In a Name?
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
—William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Romeo and Juliet

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ internet access This lesson uses a computer-based application to explore the importance
of scientific names. Using the USDA PLANTS database website, you will
◆◆ digital camera for use
outdoors (optional) explore the importance of using scientific names to describe plants and
the challenges that arise from the use of common names. You will do this
by researching a group of familiar and common plants, the thistles. Learn
the history of scientific and common names, formatting guidelines for writing
Learning Objectives names, and hints for pronouncing botanical Latin that will make you sound
like a pro.
◆◆ Become familiar with a
technical website resource to
gather scientific information
◆◆ Understand the function
Background Information
of scientific names Chances are you are familiar with a plant called a thistle. The name “thistle” is a
◆◆ Understand the importance common name used to describe many different plants that are spiny or prickly.
of using scientific names However, some plants that are called thistles have no spines. If someone says
◆◆ Understand the uses for they saw a thistle, how do we know which one they are describing?
common names of plants Common names can function appropriately when everyone uses the same
◆◆ Write scientific names in name for the same plant. However, this is a rare occurrence. Most plants
the proper format are known by more than one common name. Sometimes these names differ
from one region to another. Common names also do not cross over language
barriers. Imagine a plant found in both Arizona and northern Mexico, where
the common name for a plant found in both of these neighboring places
Vocabulary Words would be different in Spanish and English. This variation can make plant
genus/genera names very confusing! In spite of this variation and the challenges that arise
species from it, common names are used frequently. They are easy to pronounce,
can be easier to remember than scientific names, and are often descriptive
binomial nomenclature
of the plant (i.e. blackberry). All of these factors contribute to the utility of
scientific name common names in communicating with your friends and acquaintances in your
common name community. However, there is often a need for a greater level of accuracy than
taxonomy common names allow. For this use, we have a standardized system of scientific
names that do not change by language, region, or local usage. As you learn
some of the Latin roots used to make scientific names, they become easier to
understand and remember, and can help you learn more about the cool plants
where you live.
Scientists have experimented with many systems for classifying living things.
Prior to the invention of our current system, scientific names were long
descriptive phrases that were hard to remember. An example of a plant
name under one such system was Physalis annua ramosissima ramis angulosis
glabris, foliis dentato-serratis. Now that is hard to remember! The system in
use today was created by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist
and physician. Linnaeus’s system, referred to as binomial nomenclature (bi
= two, nomen = name, calo = call), involves a standardized two-part name.

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 Student
S Project What’s In a Name?
Background Information, continued
In binomial nomenclature, the name for the species Scientific names often reference a physical characteristic of
above was shortened to Physalis annua. Although other the plant, a famous person or scientist, or the geography
earlier scientists had worked on such a system, Linnaeus of a plant’s range. They can come from a person (Lewisia
formalized the system and in 1753 published names for for Capt. Meriwether Lewis), ancient Greek (Daphne from
all known plant species in his book Species Plantarum. Greek mythology), a local language (Camassia for a Native
Linnaeus is credited with implementing the hierarchal American word Camas), a false resemblance (Pseudotsuga
classification system and is often referred to as the father = a false Tsuga), a place (tennesseensis = Tenessee), a color
of taxonomy (the science of classification). (alba = white), a landscape where the species might be
This hierarchal classification system uses the genus name found (montanum=mountain) or a description (contorta =
and a species name to make up the scientific name of an twisted).
organism. Scientific names use Latin and sometimes ancient To maintain this standardized naming system, there are
Greek as the root sources. Latin was chosen for several some basic rules.
reasons; it is not used as a modern spoken language and ◆◆ The genus is listed first and is always capitalized.
therefore does not change with slang and the introduction
◆◆ The specific epithet is listed second, is never capitalized,
of new words, it was historically used for scientific
and is unique among members of the same genus.
classification, and it allows for the standardization of
scientific names regardless of the native spoken language. ◆◆ The entire two-part name should be underlined if hand
This naming system gives each species a surname and a written or in italics if typed.
personal name, just like you. For example, if your name ◆◆ When writing a name multiple times, use the entire
is Sally Ford, your surname is “Ford,” and your personal name the first time. In successive uses of the scientific
name is “Sally.” In binomial nomenclature, the equivalent name in the same work, abbreviate the genus by using
of a surname is called the genus and the equivalent of the only its first letter, e.g. Quercus rubra becomes Q. rubra.
personal name is called the specific epithet. However, in
this system of naming, the genus name comes first and
the specific epithet comes second. For example, the Latin
name for oak trees is Quercus. This is the genus name, Botanical Latin Tips
from The Jepson Manual: Higher
which is shared by the “sibling” species of oak, just as
Plants of California (pg. 11,12)
siblings share a last name. Each “sibling” oak has a unique
species name, similar to how your first name and your Many people avoid using scientific names because they
don’t feel comfortable pronouncing them. For each
siblings’ first names are unique in your family. For example,
new Latin name you encounter, remember that there is
in the eastern United States, you are likely to come across
commonly more than one way to say it. Botanist William
red oak, Quercus rubra (rubr = red). As you travel west Stearn said, “Botanical Latin is essentially a written
you may encounter Quercus ellipsoidalis (ellipsoid refers language, but the scientific names of plants often occur
to this species’ ellipse-shaped acorns) in the interior of the in speech. How they are pronounced really matters
country. You could find Quercus gambelii (named after the little provided they sound pleasant and are understood
naturalist William Gambel) in the arid West. by all concerned…” Even professional botanists can be
Just like you may know other students who have the same strikingly different in the way they pronounce names. If
first name as you, sometimes the specific epithet for two you feel unsure of yourself, remember a bit of wisdom
different plants are the same, but only if those plants are in from a wise botanist: “When someone presumes to
correct your pronunciation, a knowing smile is an
different genera.
appropriate response.”

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 Student
S Project What’s In a Name?
Quick tips for pronouncing Latin
1. Divide words into syllables (it is safe to assume
every vowel belongs to a different syllable)
2. Pronounce every syllable
3. General practice is
■■ a: “ah” not “ay”
■■ e: “eh” not “ee”
■■ i: “ee” not “eye”
■■ y: as in “cynic” not “eye”
■■ ae: ”eye” not “ee”
■■ ii: held longer “eeee”
■■ ti, ci: “tee” or “cee” not “she”
■■ ch: generally “k” not as in “ouch”
■■ g: as in “go” not “gem”

Student Directions
1. Each person or pair needs to work at a computer it come from (hint: you will need to search further on
with internet access. Use the handout at the end of related links to answer this question)?
this lesson as a guide. 8. Look at the pictures on the website. Have you seen
2. Go to the website http://plants.usda.gov/. This this plant before? Examine the pictures and look
website is designed for use with scientific or common for it on your walks around town or on trips to the
names. country.
3. Search on the USDA Plants Database website for the 9. Now look specifically at the genus Cirsium. How
common name “thistle.” Search options are located many Cirsium species are there in your state? Find
on the upper left of the homepage. Type in the word one species of Cirsium that is invasive and one that
“thistle” and chose the option “common name.” is native to your state and write their common and
4. How many records are returned (noted at the top of scientific names on your worksheet.
the results page)? 10.Now click on the map of your state on the website
5. How many different genera come up for the name and see if you can find a species of thistle that is
thistle? found specifically in the county where you live.

6. Scan down the right hand column of common names. 11. Investigate the Latin word definitions of the scientific
Locate “common sowthistle” and write down the names you found. Look up both the genus and
scientific name for this plant using proper form. specific epithet. You can use a website such as: http://
www.winternet.com/~chuckg/dictionary.html. Why
7. Click on the “common sowthistle” entry to learn do you think it was given the scientific name that it
more. Would you find this plant in your state? Is this has?
plant native or introduced? If introduced, where did

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 Student
S Project What’s In a Name?
Taking it Further Reflection
Now you are familiar with a great botanical web resource.
◆◆ Do another name search
Brainstorm and describe how databases such as the
based on a common plant
USDA Plants Database might be used for conservation
name in your ecoregion
or scientific projects.
(try daisy) or a plant
from your field work.
◆◆ Research the naming
conventions for Latin,
base words, prefix/suffixes,
and form agreements. In the Field!
◆◆ Research and write a Find all the plants in your area that people call “thistles.”
paper on the history A good place to start is by searching the common name
of plant taxonomy or a “thistle” on the PLANTS database site. Record your
famous botanist (some findings. While in the field, take a photo, make a sketch, or
examples: Carolus make an herbarium specimen in a plant press. In the
Linnaeus, David Douglas, classroom, identify and label each photo, sketch,
Meriwether Lewis, etc.). or pressing with the scientific name, and write
a description of each plant. How many different
“thistles” did you find?

Self Assessments
1 Can you write scientific names Science Inquiry
in the proper format? Collect at least two plants that people call “thistles” but are different species,
and if possible, are from different genera. Use a dissecting scope or a hand
2 Name a situation where it is
important to use scientific
lens to carefully look at your specimens. Make sketches and notes about your
observations. What makes these species different? Be sure
names and explain why. to look at all of the plant parts and note the differences.
Now make notes about the similarities. What features do
3 Name a situation where using
a common name is preferable.
you think led people to call both of these plants “thistles?”
Can you think of a better common name that reflects what
is unique about these species?

References
◆◆ Stearn, William T. Botanical Latin. David & Charles, London, third edition
1983 pp.53-54.
◆◆ USDA, NRCS. 2008. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 4
September 2008). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-
4490 USA.
◆◆ Hickman, James C. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkley, 1996

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Names _____________________________________________________________ Date ___________________

Go to the website http://plants.usda.gov/ to start your search

1. Search for the common name “thistle.” How many records are returned? ________________________________

2. Count the number of different genera with the common name “thistle.” How many do you find?

3. Find “common sowthistle.” What is the scientific name for this plant?

4. Click on common sowthistle to learn more about this plant. Is this plant found in your state?

5. Is it a native plant or introduced species?__________________________________________________________

6. If introduced, where did it originally come from?

7. Download a picture of the sowthistle with proper photo credits. Have you seen this species?

If so, where did you see it?

8. What is the meaning of the scientific name for the common sowthistle? Use this website:
http://www.winternet.com/~chuckg/dictionary.html.

9. Why do you think it was given its scientific name?

10. Now do steps 1-9 for the genus Cirsium. Write what you find here. Can you find any native species in that genus?

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Learn a new language and get a new soul. —Czech Proverb

Overview
Time Estimate:
30-45 minutes Students gain an understanding of plant structure and descriptive botanical
terminology required for advanced botanical studies.
Best Season:
any
Preparation
◆◆ The crossword included in this lesson is designed to be a review of botanical
terminology. Some students may have learned these terms in grades K-8 while
others may be learning them for the first time. The words learned in this section
are used throughout the curriculum. If students do not have any experience with
plant terminology or need more than a quick review, use the included Botanical
Terms Self-Study sheet to review or introduce basic botanical terminology.
Teacher Hints ◆◆ Assemble sufficient references for student teams to work on definitions
independently. Field guides, internet resources, and biology/botany textbooks
◆◆ Include this activity in students’
listed in “Additional Information” below are good options. Discuss how to
field journals for a vocabulary
determine if a source of information is reliable, especially if students are using
reference on field trips and
the internet.
during outdoor activities.
◆◆ For the “In the Field!” section, collect twigs with more than one leaf to show
twig attachment patterns. Each team should use a different species.

Assessments
1 Give students a stem with
leaves, flowers, or fruits
attached and ask them write
a description using at least
4 new vocabulary words.

2 Read students the description

of a particular plant species
from a field guide. Have
students sketch the whole plant Additional Information
or plant part with only the ◆◆ Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994. Plant Identification
description to guide them. Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. Sixth Edition. Spring Lake
Publishing, Spring Lake, Utah.
◆◆ A discussion of leaf form and function; includes possible journaling
topics: http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/tulips/FormFunction.html
◆◆ A long list of botanical terminology and definitions : http://www.
calflora.net/botanicalnames/botanicalterms.html
◆◆ Most field guides contain glossaries of plant terminology.
◆◆ A teacher resource with techniques for teaching new vocabulary to
students : http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/
reading_first1vocab.html

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Learn a new language and get a new soul. —Czech Proverb

Overview
Materials Needed This lesson will teach basic and advanced botanical vocabulary so that
◆◆ colored pencils for users can identify and describe plant anatomy and function. This will ease
drawings (optional) identification and lead to a better understanding of plant biology. The
vocabulary list below contains essential plant terminology for activities in
this curriculum.

Vocabulary Words
Learning Objectives
Basic plant anatomy:
◆◆ Understand basic botanical terminology required for
root fibrous root high school level activities
taproot stem ◆◆ Increase botanical vocabulary to assist with describing
vein petiole and identifying plants
axil leaf margin ◆◆ Relate plant structure to function
bud flower
fruit seed
Background Information
node internode
One of the most formidable tasks of the aspiring botanist is gaining a working
Leaf shapes & patterns: knowledge of the vast terminology required to use a typical plant identification
simple compound guide. Botanists love to make up new words that are rarely used outside of the
world of botany! The experience of trying to properly identify a plant without a
opposite alternate
working botanical vocabulary can be challenging and frustrating for the beginning
whorled basal
plant lover. The purpose of this lesson is to teach you basic botanical terms and
palmate pinnate introduce some more complicated terminology.
lobed
Botanists commonly use several different words to describe similar things. For
Basic flower and fruit parts example, if a plant has hair on its leaves, there are several possible words that
you may use to describe the type of hair you see. A leaf that is tomentose would
sepal petal have lots of short, wooly hairs; a leaf that is pubescent would have short, soft
tepal bract hairs; a scabrous leaf would be rough to the touch, resulting from the presence
pistil ovary of stiff short hairs. And the list goes on… One might question why we need
carpel style to differentiate between types of hair. The easy answer to this is that different
stigma peduncle hairs serve different functions. For example, tomentose leaves are nearly white in
stamen filament appearance, making them able to reflect solar radiation in high light environments
so they do not burn. Scabrous leaves may serve to deter insect predators and
anther receptacle
herbivores. When you are learning these new terms, try to think a bit about how
the form you are learning about may serve a useful function to the survival of a
plant.
Often, botanical terms can be best described with a simple illustration rather
than words. Refer to the illustrations on the following page to learn about some
of the basic parts and shapes of plants. You can also utilize the websites and
books listed in the “Resources” section to find pictures of the words in your
vocabulary list.
It is important that everyone in your group develop a similar basic foundation in
plant anatomy and terminology. This activity is self guided—you can proceed at
your own speed, or you may choose to work with a partner. Your goal should be
to become familiar with all the terms listed in this activity.
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Leaf Types Parts of a Perfect Flower
petal

pollen

{ }
anther stigma
stamen carpel
filament style
(pistil)
ovary

simple palmately pinnately

compound compound sepal ovule
receptacle
stem
disc
disk flowers
flowers ray
flowers

pinnately palmately
lobed lobed
phyllaries
(bracts)
Leaf Shapes
Asteraceae Asteraceae
Flower Head Flower Head
Disc and Ray Disc Flowers
Flowers Only

Common Types of Asteraceae Involucres

linear linear lanceolate elliptic ovate obovate (phyllaries)

lanceolate bracts

Leaf Attachments & Arrangements

(phyllaries)
bracts

clasping sessile petiolate alternate opposite whorled

(phyllaries)
(stalked) bracts
Above illustrations (not including Parts of a Perfect Flower) done by Adair Peterson taken from
Wildflowers of the Northern and Central Mountains of New Mexico by Littleton and Burns

Inflorescene Type

head or
spike raceme umbel panicle solitary
capitulum

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Student Directions
Option 1: Vocabulary Building Sheet
1. Work individually or in pairs.

2. Complete vocabulary sheets by writing one new word in each box. In the appropriate columns, write a definition
and the knowledge connection. The knowledge connection should be a reference to the function of the plant
part or something else about the word that will help you to remember it. Fold your paper to cover all but the
word column; this will line up a drawing box on the back of the sheet with each word. In this box, draw a simple
illustration of the vocabulary word. Use field guide glossaries, textbooks, or internet sources to complete the
definition and knowledge connection boxes.

3. Use your completed sheet to test yourself. Fold the paper so that the vocabulary word and drawing are visible.
Can you give a definition and function for this plant part? If you need a clue, uncover the knowledge connection
column. Check your answer by uncovering the written definition.

Option 2: Crossword
1. Work individually or in pairs to complete the Botanical Terminology crossword. The words in this puzzle are
basic terms that you will need in future lessons. Use the glossary, field guides, textbooks, or internet sources to
complete your crossword.

Taking it Further
Build your botanical vocabulary by using the vocabulary sheets to learn the lingo
in “The Secret Life of Flowers” and “Drupes, Pomes, and Locul icidal Capsules: a
Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits” lessons. If you are a real plant nerd (an
excellent thing!), make your own vocabulary lists! Look through the glossary section
of your favorite local field guides and add words that you feel are important in your
plant study.

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In the Field!
[Note to Instructor: Each team should collect a plant with leaves attached (be sure students are aware of poison oak, poison
ivy, poison sumac, and giant hogweed!) and attach a number label to it. Be sure each team works with a different species.]

1. Use unlined paper and fold it in half widthwise to the twigs with the numbers visible so that teams can
make 2 – 5.5” x 8.5” sections. Record team member rotate around to view them. Fold the description
names and your plant’s number on the back of your papers in half. Shuffle and hand out the description
paper. papers to the teams with the description side visible
2. On one half of the front of your paper, sketch your and the drawing hidden. Encourage students to
twig and leaves showing important details. Be sure use only the written description, not the drawing,
to show the leaf attachment, shape, margin, and to make the match. Try to match the written
anything that would help others to identify your descriptions on the paper to one of the numbered
plant. If you have them, use a magnifying glass or a twigs.
hand lens to look closely at the hairs and textures on 5. Assess your description. Did it make matching the
the leaves and stem of your plant. twigs easier or more difficult? If some of the twigs
3. On the other half of the front of your paper, write were similar, how much detail is needed to make a
a detailed description of your plant. Make sure the correct match? What else could you have included
description matches your drawing and is as complete that could have made matching easier? Would
as possible. Use terminology from the vocabulary list. measurements help?

4. Collect the twigs and description papers. Display

Science Inquiry
For each of the following growing conditions, make a list in your field journal of the leaf
characteristics that you think would help a plant thrive: windy, very dry, very wet, low
light (shade), and high light (full sun). Keep your list for testing in future lessons.
As you explore different habitats, take note of the leaf characteristics. Do leaves in a
sunny meadow tend to look different than the leaves that you find near the heavily
shaded forest floor? How might those leaf characteristics help the plant thrive in that
particular habitat?

Reflection
Make a journal entry about leaf shapes or margins. Make a sketch
or leaf rubbing of two leaves that have different shapes. Why do
you think leaves come in so many different shapes and with so
many different types of margins? Put on your analytical hat and
brainstorm. How might those differences benefit the plant?

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Vocabulary Building Sheet
Name ___________________________________

Word Knowledge Connection Definition

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Picture

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5 6

7 8

9 10 11 12

13

14

15

16 17 18 19 20

21

22 23

24

25

26 28

29 30 31 32 33

34

35 36

37 38

39

40

41 42 43

44

45

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Across Down
1. 
Inflorescence with numerous small flowers
1. Heart-shaped on a single base
3. Two leaves growing directly across from 2. Leaves that are significantly longer than wide and
each other on a stem widest below the middle, gradually tapering
5. Underground stem toward the apex
6. Without stem, stalk, or petiole 4. Transports water, sugars, and minerals within the leaf
7. Enlarged base of the pistil; contains developing seed 8. Anchors the plant and takes up nutrients and water
12. Leaflets or veins arranged on each side of 9. Stalk that attaches the leaf to the stem
a common stalk 10. A modified leaf in the whorl between the sepals and
13. Small swelling or knob where new growth originates stamens, often colorful
14. Thread-like stalk that supports the anther 11. Fruit doesn’t open at maturity
16. A rounded, modified, underground stem for 12. Female reproductive structure of the flower
storage, not a root 15. Fruit opens at maturity
17. Leaves with margins that are deeply cut, but not all 18. Part that connects the stigma to the ovary
the way to the midrib.
19. Small, leaf-like part at the base of a flower
22. Portion of pistil receptive to pollen
20. Positioned at the base of the plant
24. Leaf that is divided from a central point into lobes
21. Leaf arrangement where three or more leaves arise
25. Structure atop the stem where flower parts attach from the same node
26. Division of a compound leaf 22. Male reproductive structure of the flower
30. Cluster of flowers 23. Edge of a leaf
34. A primary, thick root 27. Leaf margin that is not toothed, notched, or divided
35. The whorl of a flower comprised of the petals 28. Enlarged, pollen-bearing part of the stamen
38. Single flower, not in a cluster Above-ground plant part that supports
29. 
39. Umbrella-like inflorescence with multiple leaves and flowers
small flowers 31. Often colorful and showy; the reproductive unit
41. Ripened flower part that contains the seeds 32. Oval or egg-shaped
42. Branched inflorescence; central stalk with side stalks 33. Undivided leaf
containing multiple flowers
35. Leaf divided into two or more leaflets
45. Unbranched inflorescence with single,
unstalked flowers 36. A leaf arrangement along the axis in which the leaves
are not opposite to each other or whorled
37. Undeveloped stem or flower; covered with scales
40. Blade; primary site of photosynthesis
43. Flower whorl beneath the petals
44. Branching root system

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Self Assessments
1 Examine a plant specimen. Write a thorough description using the vocabulary words in this lesson.
Your description should include the shape and arrangement of the leaves, flowers, and fruits as well
as any other key characteristics that would help someone identify the plant you are describing.

2 Use your Vocabulary Building Sheet and quiz yourself. Keep your sheet and refer to it throughout
your study.

3 Work with a partner. One partner will read a plant description from a field guide aloud. The other
partner will sketch the plant from the written description only. The reader will need to give detailed
and complete descriptions.

Resources
◆◆ Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994.
Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. Sixth Edition. Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake, Utah.

◆◆ Hough, John. 1953. Scientific Terminology. Rhinehart & Company, Inc.: New York.

◆◆ A long list of botanical terminology and definitions:

http://www.calflora.net/botanicalnames/botanicalterms.html

◆◆ Most field guides contain glossaries of plant terminology. See appendix I for suggested field guides for your area.

◆◆ A discussion of leaf form and function; includes possible journaling topics:

http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/tulips/FormFunction.html

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 Teacher
T Page The Secret Life of Flowers
Nobody sees a flower really; it is so small. We haven’t time, and to see takes
time—like to have a friend takes time.
—Georgia O’Keeffe (1887-1986)

Time Estimate:
Overview
1 class session,
additional time for Students will dive into the inner workings of a flower and put their own
art project creative spin on their findings, combining science observation with artistic
appreciation and expression. In the process, they will learn flower anatomy,
Best Season: function, and inflorescence type.
spring

Teacher Preparation
◆◆ Set up a classroom display of inflorescence types for students to view. Use
live flowers, if available, labeled and in water. If live flowers are not available,
use photographs.
◆◆ Visit your local farmers market or ask a florist to donate slightly wilted flowers
to use in this activity.
Teacher Hints ◆◆ For dissecting, choose large, solitary flowers. Flowers in the lily family are
◆◆ Divide students into especially useful for this activity because their floral anatomy is generally well
teams and give each developed and easily viewed.
team a flower in water.
◆◆ Give students time to explore
their flowers. Hand out a Assessments
flower anatomy diagram sheet
or project on an overhead 1 Label the parts of a flower and name the function of each.
for classroom viewing. Take
a minute to point out the 2 Define perfect and imperfect flower.
parts of the flower. Explain
that it can be called a perfect 3 Describe inflorescence types.
flower if it has both male
and female parts, or an
imperfect flower if it has only
male or only female parts.
Additional Information
◆◆ http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/Bio303/coevolution.
htm : an overview of co-evolution with many examples

◆◆ http://www.fairchildgarden.org/uploads/docs/Education/
teacher%20training/flower%20power/Flower%20Dissection%20
LabII.pdf : advanced flower dissection lesson

◆◆ http://pollinator.org/nappc/index.html: Natures Partners:

Pollinators, Plants, and You; a pollinator curriculum,
with excellent background information

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Nobody sees a flower really; it is so small. We haven’t time, and to see takes
time—like to have a friend takes time.
—Georgia O’Keeffe (1887-1986)

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ large flower for dissecting What skills do scientists and artists share? Although artists are thought to be
(one per student pair) more intuitive and subjective, and scientists are often associated with being
◆◆ Exacto knife rational and objective, both utilize a keen sense of observation in their work.
In this lesson, you will immerse yourself in the inner workings of a flower,
◆◆ labeled flower diagram
using your creative skills to record your findings. In the process, you will learn
◆◆ 11x17 white paper flower anatomy, function, and inflorescence types.
◆◆ hand lens

Background Information
Some flowers announce their presence with bold colors, while others are more
Learning Objectives dependent on other features like scent and size for successful pollination. Some
◆◆ Name and locate the are simple in form, while others are more complicated mazes.
parts of a flower Flowers have inspired humans with their beauty and fragrances for centuries,
◆◆ Discuss flower anatomy and we’ve honored them with symbolic meanings ranging from fertility, joy, and
and function love to more sinister interpretations of deceit and death. The ultimate purpose
◆◆ Define the difference of flowers though is to ensure that plants produce offspring.
between a perfect and While animals can move from place to place looking for a mate, imagine how
an imperfect flower challenging reproduction is for a plant rooted to the ground! Over millions
◆◆ Describe an of years, flowers have evolved with a diverse range of strategies to guarantee
inflorescence type. that male pollen is transferred to female flower parts so fertilization and
◆◆ Understand the role of seed production can occur. Together, these processes of pollination and
pollinators in shaping fertilization that occur within the flower to produce seeds are a type of sexual
flower anatomy reproduction, ensuring that genes from parent plants are recombined in novel
◆◆ Understand plant ways. This diversifies the genetic composition of the resulting offspring (seeds),
reproduction and the and thus allows for selection and adaptation (evolution) to occur. It involves the
role of pollination fusing of gametes (sperm and egg) from two partners.
◆◆ Connect left brain and Flowers and seeds are not the only way for plants to create offspring, though.
right brain processes Asexual reproduction, also known as vegetative reproduction, is also common
of science and art
in plants. Asexual reproduction requires no flowers, and results in offspring that
are genetically identical to the parent plant. Plants have found many different
ways to reproduce asexually. You might be familiar with the stolons, or runners,
of strawberry plants, or the “eyes” of potatoes that sprout new growth if left
in the cupboard for too long. The branches of many trees and vines can be
propagated simply by placing them in damp soil, where they will sprout
roots and become separate, self-sustaining plants. Quaking aspen (Populus
tremuloides) is a tree that makes vigorous use of vegetative reproduction; large
stands of what appear to be individual trees are in fact connected underground,
and the mass of underground roots continues to put up new trunks as older
trees die. Sometimes even leaves can form new plants, like the tiny plantlets that
form all along the edge of the leaves of the house-plant “mother of thousands”
(Kalanchoe daigremontiana).
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Background Information, continued
Sexual reproduction is the combining of two sets of chromosomes, one set from
Vocabulary Words each parent, and introduces genetic diversity. Asexual reproduction does
Flower parts not introduce genetic diversity as only one parent is involved and no genetic
material is exchanged. Asexual reproductions does not usually require flowers,
receptacle anther
therefore the energy cost is reduced and the process tends to be faster than
bract stamen
sexual reproduction.
sepal style
Vegetative reproduction is an example of asexual reproduction. In this case,
calyx stigma plant parts disperse or sprout or root from a parent plant.
petal pistil A potato tuber is an example of vegetative reproduction. Plants that sprout from
corolla ovule the “eyes” of the tuber are clones of the parent plant. Fragmentation is another
filament ovary form of vegetative reproduction. Each fragment grows into a genetic clone of
the source plant.
Inflorescence types and parts A disadvantage of these processes is that the plants may be spaced closely
solitary flower spike together and compete for limited resources. Another disadvantage is no
new genetic diversity is introduced. Genetic diversity is important if growing
composite head raceme
conditions change or pests or disease are introduced. This could be a
peduncle panicle disadvantage if the plant is in poor conditions, as it wouldn’t have strong powers
pedicel umbel of regeneration, and so it wouldn’t be able to reproduce. On the positive side, it
can produce many new individuals very quickly.
Flower types Each method of reproduction has advantages and disadvantages. Each method of
imperfect flower reproduction has advantages and disadvantages. Overall, asexual reproduction is
perfect flower faster and requires less energy input than sexual reproduction as flowers, pollen
and nectar are energetically expensive to form. The major advantage of sexual
reproduction is the exchange of genetic materials, which introduces genetic
Other diversity in the progeny. Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to
sexual reproduction adapt to environmental changes and enhances long-term survival of the species.
asexual reproduction Of course, sexual reproduction has won out in this day and age of flowering plants,
nectar which is why we have such beautiful and amazing floral diversity throughout the
world.
Since so many plants produce flowers, a basic understanding of floral anatomy will aid
you tremendously in the proper identification of plants. In learning to identify plants,
it is important to understand that flower anatomy and structure is directly linked to

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Background Information, continued
pollination. This plant-pollinator relationship one of the best broad range of sizes, shapes, and colors, from beautiful and
examples of co-evolution in nature. showy to the modest and plain, but most flowers are made up
Relying on wind to move pollen, as grasses, some wildflowers, of the same basic parts arranged in the same order. Flower parts
and many trees do, is the oldest method of pollination. In these are commonly described as occurring in whorls, or rings, with
cases, plants produce massive quantities of pollen, with only a different anatomical parts usually occurring in the same order,
small amount reaching its destination on another flower of the regardless of species.
same species. These species often have small or no petals so as A flower is attached to the rest of the plant by a stalk called
not to block the wind and are rarely showy since they do not the peduncle. At the end of the peduncle is the receptacle,
need to draw in any pollinators. They commonly have feathery which is where the reproductive parts of the flower attach. The
stigmas that comb pollen from the air. But a more efficient — first, outermost whorl is made up of sepals, which collectively
and fantastic — means of pollination, observed widely among are called the calyx. They form a protective, petal-like layer
flowering plants, is achieved by luring unsuspecting animal that covers an unopened bud, and are usually small and
partners to inadvertently transfer pollen from one flower to inconspicuous when a flower is open. The sepals are usually
another as they search for food. green and peel back as the flower opens; sometimes they will
Insects — especially beetles, ants, flies, bees and wasps, even fall off as the bud opens. In some species, however, the
butterflies, and moths — are the predominant animal pollinators. sepals may be large and showy, and may be hard to distinguish
They have physical characteristics that make them extremely from petals. In some flowers, there is an additional whorled ring
efficient in locating flowers and transferring pollen from one outside of the sepals. This ring is made up of bracts, or modified
flower to another. Flowers and their pollinators have evolved leaf-like structures. A common example of bracts in a flower is
together throughout time, frequently engaging in relationships in the Pacific dogwood, Cornus nuttallii. What may appear as
in which the two depend on each other for survival. large, white petals are actually bracts. The petals on this species
are actually tiny.
The next whorl in from the sepals is the petals. The petals
are typically the most noticeable parts of flowers, and are
designed to attract and provide platforms for insects, bats,
birds, and other roving pollinators. All of the petals of a flower
are collectively referred to as the corolla. Think of the petals as
being billboards or flags advertising and drawing attention to
the flower.
The male parts, or stamens, make up the third whorl. They can
Of course, animals don’t do the work of pollination for nothing be quite long to maximize exposure to wind and pollinators,
(or even realize they are doing the work in the first place), so or hidden inside the flowers to force pollinators to touch the
plants offer rewards to attract pollinators. Animals use flowers stigmas on their way in or out, or able to lengthen and shorten
as sources of food for themselves and their offspring. First of all, over time, as needed. The stamen is made up of the filament, a
animal-pollinated flowers produce nectar, a sugary substance thread-like stalk that supports the anther, which produces and
that also contains vitamins, amino acids, and other nutrients. releases pollen. Animal-pollinated plants have large, irregular
The amount of nectar a flower typically produces relates to the pollen grains with lots of tiny hooks, spines, and craters on
needs of its pollinators. Second, pollen itself is a good source the surface. A rough texture and sticky surface ensure that the
of protein for many animals. Finally, a few plants reward their pollen will stick to a visiting animal’s hair, scales, feathers, or
pollinators with fatty oils, resins, or wax. appendages and then stay there until the animal visits another
A typical flower contains the necessary anatomy to support flower. At the next flower, the pollen will be rubbed off onto the
transferring pollen and producing seeds. Flowers come in a strategically placed stigma.

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Background Information, continued
The center of a flower usually contains the female whorl, the flowers. Sometimes plants have flowers that are found singly on
pollen-receiving pistil. The stigma at the pistil’s tip evolved the plant. These are called solitary flowers. More commonly,
to trap pollen and may be sticky, feathery, or folded. At the flowers are found in clusters, called an inflorescence. Like the
base of the pistil, the ovary protects ovules (eggs), which anatomy of a flower itself, the arrangement of flowers in a cluster
become seeds when fertilized. When they’re ready to accept varies widely, a testament to the diversity of pollinators and
pollen, stigmas prepare themselves for the transfer. They may plant adaptations to ensure healthy reproduction. A cluster of
be pushed upward by the long style that supports them, lean small flowers in a flat to rounded shape, such as Queen Anne’s
toward the male parts, or become stickier. When a pollinator Lace, is called an umbel. A cluster comprised of a long central
carrying pollen from another plant brushes against the stigma, stalk with flowers attached directly to the stalk is called a spike.
pollen is transferred. If the conditions are right, the pollen grain A spike with flowers attached by short stalks (pedicels) is called
germinates and sends a tube down the style and fertilizes an a raceme. A raceme that is further branched is called a panicle
ovule, leading to seed production. Once the ovules are fertilized (many grasses, but not nearly all!). Flowers in the Sunflower
the ovary wall changes to become the fruit and protect the family (Asteraceae) may look like single flowers; however, if you
developing seeds. look closely, each flower head is actually composed of numerous
In some cases the ovary wall becomes fleshy and in other cases individual flowers, sometimes hundreds. These are called
the ovary wall become dry and hard. composite flowers.
At the base of many flowers are nectaries, which produce the One explanation for the vast and varied differences of flower
nectar. Since this food treasure is typically tucked deeply in shapes, sizes, colors, and smells is that flowers have co-evolved
the flower, pollinators are coaxed into touching the flower’s with their pollinators. When you are in this indispensable
reproductive organs, thus transferring pollen in their search for partnership, flowers and pollinators are utterly dependent on
nourishment. one another for survival. In turn, we depend on this process for
much of the food we enjoy. In the process of exploring flower
As is always the case in nature, there are exceptions to the rule.
anatomy, you gain the skills to understand not only how to
Many plants produce flowers containing both male and female
identify plants, but also to observe nature’s diversity in greater
parts. These are referred to as perfect flowers. But some plant
detail.
species have some flowers that contain only male parts and some
that contain only female parts, both referred to as imperfect
flowers. In these cases, one of the whorls described above will
be absent from the flower’s anatomy. In some species, these two
types of flowers are located on the same plant; in others they
are found on separate plants.
There is a long list of vocabulary that is used to describe the
way in which flowers are attached together to form a group of

1-47
 Student
S Project The Secret Life of Flowers
Student Directions
1. Work with a partner on this activity. You will be the other. The parts are easy to find on some flowers,
sharing a flower, but each of you will turn in your own such as a lily. On some flowers, such as a sunflower,
3-panel sheet. Help each other to locate the flower the parts are very difficult to see. If the male and
parts. female parts are not visible, gently move or remove a
2. Observe your flower closely. Can you see all of the petal or two. In the second panel of your data sheet
reproductive parts or does the plant hide some of draw the inner whorls of your flower [pistil(s) and
its flower parts? Take note of the size, showiness, stamen(s)]. Is your flower perfect or imperfect?
color, aroma, and anything else interesting that you 5. Carefully use your knife to cut a cross section
observe. Use a hand lens to observe closer. Can through the center of your flower. Try to slice
you see nectar or pollen? Take a few minutes to through the ovary to show the inside. This will take
brainstorm with your partner about why your flower a steady hand as the ovary is often quite small. Use
has evolved (or developed) to be this way. Think of your hand lens to view the inner parts of your flower
where it might grow and how it might be pollinated. closely. What does the inside of the ovary look like?
Write down your ideas. 6. In the third panel of your data sheet draw an extreme
3. Fold and crease an 11x17 inch paper into three equal close-up of the inner flower parts. Be as accurate as
parts (like a brochure). Open the paper and in the possible, use your hand lens and fill your drawing
first panel, draw your flower. Include the pedicel panel with what you see.
(flower stem) and how it is attached to the flower. 7. Using the flower diagram as a guide, label the parts
Draw the flower as accurately as you can, showing all of your flower. Use the panel(s) that best shows the
the different parts that are visible without touching parts you are referencing.
your flower.
8. Label your flower with the inflorescence type.
4. Compare your flower to the diagram of “A Perfect Compare to the flower diagram or classroom display
Flower” Look for the reproductive parts of your and your vocabulary words.
flower. Most flowers have both; some have one or

Taking it Further Turn your drawings into an art project:

◆◆ Color your 3 panel sheet and use shading techniques to show depth. Cut out the
panels and mount them on a complementary color background.
◆◆ View your flower like a pollinator might see it and draw a part of your flower that you find most interesting.
Draw the piece in great detail, large like Georgia O’Keeffe would have. Fill the page or even larger, letting
parts of the flower trail off the page. Use your hand lens to look for subtle vein patterns, hairs, color
variations, nectar droplets, etc. and include these observations in your drawing. The great American
artist Georgia O’Keeffe painted flowers like this. View some of her works online for inspiration.
◆◆ Portray your flower in an alternate artistic medium of your choice from the perspective of a pollinator.
Painting, sculpting, film making, poetry/creative writing, music, dance; the options are limitless.
◆◆ Invent a flower for a specific new pollinator (you could use a black bear!). What kind of
characteristics will this flower need to attract the pollinator? What shape, size, and smell
would the flower have? Include a drawing and description of your new flower.

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 Student
S Project The Secret Life of Flowers
In the Field!
Go outside to the schoolyard or to a natural area to draw flowers in the field. Discover the nuances of different flowers.
Many of our native wildflowers are small and take close observation to note their beauty. View flowers with a hand lens
to look for the fine details that you learned about.
Visit a field of wildflowers. Look for different types of inflorescences. Is one typemore common than others? See if you
can find the flowers on more cryptic species such as grasses and sedges, or willows. Visit the same site several times
over the course of the year. Does the type of dominant inflorescence change? Could inflorescence type be linked to
pollination? Is one type of inflorescence more common at specific times (March compared to May)? Why? Remember
that flowers must be open at the same time as their pollinators are active in order to reproduce. How might climate
change affect the plant-pollinator relationship?

Science Inquiry
Study a native flower. Draw the flower in your field journal and identify the parts, making notes
about the color, scent, nectar, pollen, and anything else you observe. Be sure to date your journal
entry. Use your observations and the background information to hypothesize what and how this
flower is pollinated. Keep your prediction and re-visit your journal entry after studying pollinators
in the Native Plant Ecology section. Re-evaluate your original hypothesis. Do you want to make
changes? How would you test it?
In the spring and summer, do a comparative study between two habitat types, analyzing aspects of floral structure
that you learned in this lesson. Choose two habitat types that are readily accessible near your school (e.g. prairie,
woodland, wetland). In each habitat, choose ten plant species and make notes about important aspects of their floral
structure. Record the plant form (herb/forb, shrub, or tree), inflorescence type, whether it has perfect or imperfect
flowers, and whether it is wind or animal pollinated. It is not necessary that you know the name of the plant for this
exercise, though it should be recorded if you know. Do you notice any trends? Is one inflorescence type more common
in one habitat type than another? Is there a difference in the abundance of perfect or imperfect flowers between
habitats? Are wind or animal pollinated plants more common in one habitat type? Make these comparisons across
different plant forms (tree, shrub, herb, grass, etc.) and see if you notice any trends. Speculate as to what causes these
trends.

Reflection Self Assessments

Georgia O’Keeffe had a unique way of viewing flowers
and was drawn to their beautiful flowing lines. Pick your 1 Label the parts of a flower and
name the function of each.
favorite flower and write as if you are looking at a section of
your flower through a microscope. Make the lines of your
writing flow like the lines of the flower in one of O’Keeffe’s 2 Define perfect and imperfect flower
paintings. Think outside of the box; what are ways you
could make your writing “flow”? Use your creativity. You
3 Describe inflorescence types.

might also write a poem to accompany your illustration.

1-49
 Student
S Project The Secret Life of Flowers
Leaf Types Parts of a Perfect Flower
petal

pollen

{ }
anther stigma
stamen
filament style carpel
ovary

simple palmately pinnately

compound compound sepal ovule
receptacle
stem
disc
disk flowers
flowers ray
flowers

pinnately palmately
lobed lobed
phyllaries
(bracts)
Leaf Shapes
Asteraceae Asteraceae
Flower Head Flower Head
Disc and Ray Disc Flowers
Flowers Only

Common Types of Asteraceae Involucres

linear linear lanceolate elliptic ovate obovate (phyllaries)

lanceolate bracts

Leaf Attachments & Arrangements

(phyllaries)
bracts

clasping sessile petiolate alternate opposite whorled

(phyllaries)
(stalked) bracts
Above illustrations (not including Parts of a Perfect Flower) done by Adair Peterson taken from
Wildflowers of the Northern and Central Mountains of New Mexico by Littleton and Burns

Inflorescene Type

head or
spike raceme umbel panicle solitary
capitulum
1-50
 Student
S Project The Secret Life of Flowers
Inflorescene Type

spike composite raceme umbel panicle solitary

A Perfect Flower

Stigma
Anther
Stamen Style
Carpel
Filament
(pistil)
Ovary

Petal Sepal

Receptacle
Peduncle (or pedicel, if raceme or panicle)

Resources
1. Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994. Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. Sixth Edition.
Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake Utah.http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/Bio303/coevolution.htm : Overview of
co-evolution with many examples
2. http://www.exploratorium.edu/gardening/index.html Exploratorium Website : Interactive website
3. http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/b4flower.pdf -- Kew Gardens : Definitions & diagrams of flower structure fact
sheet
4. http://visual.merriam-webster.com/plants-gardening/plants/flower/structure-flower.php : Flower Structure from
Merriam Webster online visual dictionary

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 Teacher
T Page Plants Have Families, Too
I have seen trees as my friends. When they grow along my path, I reach out to
Time Estimate: them, draw their needles through my hands, and smile. I say their names, an
15 minutes for acknowledgment of kinship.
each plant family (includes —David Sobel (Contemporary)
time to investigate and
discuss findings)
Overview
Best Season:
winter (with photos or florist Students learn about the science of taxonomy by observing patterns of
specimens), spring, summer, plant characteristics of related species in families widely represented in
fall their ecoregion.

Preparation
◆◆ Gather specimens from roadsides, florists, or gardens. Beware
of hybrid plants in gardens or at the florist that sometimes have
doubled flower parts, which might confuse students.
◆◆ Wilted and dry flowers are hard to work with and observe,
Assessments so keep specimens moist and out of the heat.
◆◆ If plants are no longer blooming, students can investigate fruits,
1 Give the common name
and Latin name for each
seeds, and seed dispersal mechanisms. As an alternative, collect
photos of plants, flowers and fruits to do this activity in winter.
plant family learned.
◆◆ Set up stations with representative species of each plant
2 List at least two unique
characteristics from
family. Give each station a number. Have enough stations
so there are 3-4 students at a station at a time.
each family learned. ◆◆ Divide students evenly among the stations. Act as timekeeper,
have groups move at 10 minute intervals to the next station.
3 Identify one representative
of each plant family learned.
 Student
S Project Plants Have Families,Too
I have seen trees as my friends. When they grow along my path, I reach out to
them, draw their needles through my hands, and smile. I say their names, an
Materials Needed acknowledgment of kinship.
◆◆ plant specimens in —David Sobel (Contemporary)
flower or seed
◆◆ hand lens
◆◆ observation sheet hand Overview
out (copy into field
Learn about the science of taxonomy by observing patterns of plant
journal to have a handy
characteristics of related species in common families.
reference in the field)
◆◆ pencils

Background Information
In this lesson you will learn to identify the most common plant families from your
Vocabulary Words area. Why study plant families as part of plant identification? It would be close
native to impossible to blindly thumb through a field guide to find the plant you are
non-native looking for. It would take a tremendous amount of time to read each description
and compare each photo in the field guide to your plant. Understanding plant
families is a very helpful tool to make plant identification easier and to understand
the relationships between species. When you see a plant you don’t know, if you
Learning Objectives know family characteristics, you will narrow your list of candidates and make
◆◆ Observe and identify identification easier. Also, some families have a tendency to share functional,
flower, fruit, and leaf edible, medicinal, or poisonous properties. Knowing the plant families is a fun
structures of plants way to become more familiar with the wild places around you. Walking down a
◆◆ Identify and recognize trail in your local forest, it’s always a treat to recognize plants. Even if you don’t
patterns and characteristics know the specific plant, being able to place it in a family is exciting and connects
that group plants into families you to your ecoregion.
◆◆ Understand the science
of taxonomy in classifying
and naming organisms

Several plant families common in our part of the world are:

1. Mint family : Lamiaceae 6. Sedge family : Cyperaceae
2. Daisy family : Asteraceae 7. Pea family : Fabaceae
3. Parsley family : Apiaceae 8. Lily family : Liliaceae
4. Rose family : Rosaceae 9. Pine family : Pinaceae
5. Grass family : Poaceae

1-53
 Student
S Project Plants Have Families,Too

Student Directions
When you have finished this activity, try it outdoors. It will help you understand the
composition of plant communities.

1. Divide into groups, with one group starting at each 4. After rotating through all the stations, gather
plant family station. together to share as a large group. What
2. Examine the related specimens at your first station. characteristics seem to identify each family? Were
Look for characteristics that the plants at this station there any families in which you found species
have in common. Examples include numbers of that didn’t seem to quite fit the general family
flower parts, the arrangement of the leaves, and characteristics?
many more. Draw or write descriptions of the 5. Match the shared characteristics that you find on the
characteristics you observe that seem to define Plant Families chart to your observed plants. Label
this family. Spend 8-10 minutes studying this family your sheet with the family name and add any key
and then, when instructed, discuss your findings traits from the chart that you don’t have.
within your group until you are instructed to change 6. Write the family name and important traits into your
stations. field journal for reference in the field.
3. Rotate through all the stations. Again observe the 7. Practice your Latin by learning to say and spell the
new plant family and record your observations, names of the plant families you have just learned.
discussing your findings within your small group.

Taking it Further
◆◆ Research representatives from your ecoregion’s native species for each
of the families you studied. When you create your list, note what type
of habitat characteristics or ecology they prefer to live in (for example:
wet, dry, shade). When identifying plants, the ecology is an important
clue that can be used to help you get a positive identification.
◆◆ There are many, many plant families in the world. Look at a field guide
for your region or use the internet to learn about some of the other plant
families that are found in your area. Do you recognize any of them?

1-54
 Student
S Project Plants Have Families,Too
In the Field!
Practice your new taxonomy skills on a plant walk in a natural area. Look for plants that have traits
that match the family characteristics that you learned in this lesson. Notice if a particular plant
family tends to be found in one habitat over another (such as sedges, which are mostly found in
wet places). If you don’t find a match for your families, pick a new plant to look at and record
the characteristics you observe. Once you have made your observations, look in field guides
and try to discover which family it belongs to based on the characteristics.

Science Inquiry
Use your observation skills to gather data about plant families. Look at 2-4 plant specimens
from one family. Use a Venn diagram to display the information that you collect. Each circle
will represent one of the plant specimens; write down observable traits in that circle. In
the overlapping area write any traits that are shared by all the plant specimens.

Reflection
Do you think it will be useful to be able to recognize plant families?
Create a poem, riddle, or prose piece about one of the plant families,
including the key traits that you learned about this plant family and how
you would recognize it in a natural area.

Self Assessments
1 Give the common name and Latin name for each plant family learned.

2 List at least two unique characteristics from each family learned.

3 Identify one representative of each plant family learned.

Resources
◆◆ Elpel, Thomas J. Shanleya’s Quest: A Botany Adventure for Kids Ages 9-99. 2005. HOPS Press, LLC, 12 Quartz
Street, Pony, Montana 59747. www.hopspress.com
◆◆ Elpel, Thomas J. Botany In A Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification, 5th Edition. 2004. HOPS Press, LLC,
12 Quartz Street, Pony, Montana 59747. www.hopspress.com

1-55
 Plant Families Chart
CHARACTERISTICS GARDEN OR
COMMON
FAMILY NAME COMMON WEEDS LANDSCAPE
GENERAL LEAF FLOWER FRUIT NATIVES
PLANTS

Lamiaceae aromatic; stem cross-section square leaves opposite, may be small flowers in clusters; five petals joined at single flower wild bergamot Spearmint basil, pep-
(lay-mee-AY- toothed or lobed, but base, form a tube split into upper and lower produces four (Monarda fistulosa), (Mentha spicata) permint, rose-
see-ee) not divided lip; stamen number varies; flowers bi-laterally nutlets selfheal mary, thyme,
mint family symmetrical (zygomorphic) Inflorescence: ter- (Prunella vulgaris) lavender,
minal (on top of the plant) or in whorl (leaves oregano
attach to the stem)

Asteraceae some heads have only disk flowers alternate or occasion- small flowers in center called disk flowers, long achene (small, Wooly sunflower ox-eye daisy artichoke,
(as-ter-AY- (thistles and snakeroots), others ally opposite; usu- petal-like flowers are ray flowers; all flowers hard seed, of- (Eriophyllum lanatum), (Leucanthemum lettuce, sun-
see-ee) daisy have only ray flowers (dandelions, ally toothed, lobed, or attach to fleshy area (receptacle) and make up a ten with a pap- big sagebrush vulgare); dande- flower, asters,
or sunflower chicory); many species have both ray divided single inflorescence pus attached (Artemisia tridentata) lion (Taxacarum chrysanthe-
family and disk flowers (sunflowers, asters); Inflorescence: although may look like single to the top for officionale) mums, chamo-
bracts: flower head is subtended by flower, is actually cluster of flowers called a seed dispersal mile, cosmos,
involucral bracts, modified leaves head, which may contain a few to hundreds by wind) echinacea
that protect the growing bud of individual flowers

Apiaceae seeds often aromatic; stems of- alternate, often basal, 5-parted, fused sepals; petals often yel- schizocarp cow parsnip Queen Anne’s carrot, pars-
(ay-pee- ten hollow; some very poison- usually compound, low or white; 5 stamens; ovary inferior (dry fruit that (Heracleum maximum), lace, wild Carrot ley, dill, fen-
AY-see-ee) ous; many others are common with sheathing leaf (attached beneath the flower parts) splits in two) poison hemlock (Daucus carota) nel, parsnip,
parsley or culinary herbs bases Inflorescence: simple or compound (Conium maculatum), celery
carrot family umbels (umbel is flat or convex and desert parsley
umbrella-like) (Lomatium spp.)

Rosaceae usually two stipules are at base alternate, simple, di- 5 sepals, 5 petals, one or many pistils, achenes, wild strawberry Sulfur cinquefoil apple, pear,
(row-ZAY- of leaf stalk vided or lobed, often many have stamens in rings of five; Floral pomes, (Fragaria spp.), (Potentilla recta), cherry,
see-ee) rose toothed cup: most have a floral cup beneath the drupes, chokecherry sweet briar rose peach, plum,
family flower which may be a shallow saucer, capsules, and (Prunus virginiana) (Rosa eglanteria) strawberry,
deep bowl, or tube shape follicles; de- raspberry,
termined by apricot, al-
floral cup and mond, rose
fertilization
process

Poaceae wind pollinated; hollow stem usually long and nar- small florets on dense spikes or open a single grain big bluestem Cheatgrass wheat, oats,
(po-AY-see- between the nodes row, with the base of clusters, three stamens, one pistil, bracts (caryopsis) (Andropogon gerardii), (Bromus tectorum), rice, barley,
ee) grass the leaf, the sheath, instead of sepals or petals, the grass floret tufted hairgrass creeping bent- corn, rye,
family wrapped around the is surrounded by a second pair of bracts (Deschampsia caespitosa) grass sugar cane,
stem. Leaf attaches to called the lemma (on the outside) and pa- (Agrostis bamboo
the stem at a ligule, lea (tucked inside); Inflorescence: upright stolonifera)
a small membranous or drooping spike, raceme, or panicle
part ( often important
for identification)
 Plant Families Chart
CHARACTERISTICS GARDEN OR
COMMON
FAMILY NAME COMMON WEEDS LANDSCAPE
GENERAL LEAF FLOWER FRUIT NATIVES
PLANTS

Fabaceae nodules on roots of plants in alternate, compound 5 petals, each with a specific name – one a pod that American vetch common sweet peas, beans,
(fa-BAY-see- this family have a special symbi- with three to numer- banner on the top, one wing on each side, when dried, (Vicia americana), clover peanuts,
ee) bean or otic relationship with bacteria ous leaflets, two stip- and two largely fused lower petals called often splits lupine (Melilotus lentils,
pea family in the genera Rhizobium and ules located at base of the keel; the keel surrounds 10 stamens along the two (Lupinus spp.), officinalis), alfalfa, clo-
Bradyrhizobium, which acquire leaf stalk fused into a tube or 9 fused and one lengthwise milkvetch Scotch broom ver, honey
food and a protected home in solitary stamen; flowers are structurally edges or at (Astragalus spp.) (Cytisus locust (tree),
root nodules; in exchange, the adapted for pollination by bees (the bee the joints scoparius) wisteria
bacteria provide the plant with lands on the keel, triggering the stamen between each
nitrogen cluster to be exposed and showering the seed (legume)
bee with pollen); Inflorescence: flowers
are usually borne on a stalk of many flow-
ers called a raceme

Liliaceae perennial herbs with bulbs or simple, entire, showy, w/ two whorls of 3 tepals (petals loculicidal Fawnlily wild garlic daylily,
(lil-ee-AY- rhizomes alternate or in a basal and sepals combined), star shaped (radi- capsule or (Erythronium spp.), (Allium vineale) hyacinth,
see-ee) lily rosette with parallel ally symmetric), perfect (both male and occasionally a Trillium garlic, onion,
family veins female parts), often with stripes or spots, berry (Trillium spp.) chives,
5 stamens, ovary superior (base of ovary asparagus,
attached to base of tepals) tulips, daf-
Inflorescence: sometimes a raceme (stalk fodils
of many flowers), umbel, or often one
terminal flower

Pinaceae mostly trees, evergreen, pollen needle-like; borne in Separate male and female flowers; not seeds borne Lodgepole pine Scots pine blue spruce,
(pine-AY- dispersed by wind whorls on branches showy in a woody (Pinus contorta), (Pinus sylvestris), stone pine
see-ee) pine cone (no pitch pine Austrian pine (pine nuts)
family fruits; Gymno- (Pinus rigida) (Pinus nigra)
sperm means
“naked seed”)

Cyperaceae commonly found in wet upon first glance, small, grouped in spikelets; floret is a nutlet (a Lakeshore sedge Nutgrass papyrus, wa-
(cy-per- areas, though not always true. often look like plants surrounded by bracts (small, modified small nut with (Carex lenticularis), (Cyperus ter chestnut,
AY-see-ee) Stem: three-sided, triangular in the grass family, but leaves) and have no petals or sepals; usu- a hard outer Eastern rough sedge rotundus), ornamental
sedge family in cross-section, frequently leaves are arranged ally three stamens and one pistil with two covering) (Carex scabrata) umbrella sedge sedges
solid between nodes; roll in three vertical rows to three stigmas (Cyperus
stem between fingers to feel along stem and are Inflorescence: spike or panicle difformis)
edges. In largest genus in family, closed at the base
Carex, ovary is surrounded by a
persistent sac-like bract called a
perigynium, often topped by a
beak when mature (part can be
very important in identification).
 Teacher
T Page Botany Bouquet
All of us are watchers—of television, of time clocks, of traffic on the freeway—but
few are observers. Everyone is looking, not many are seeing.
Time Estimate: —Peter M.Leschak (1951-present)
30-45 minutes
Grade Level:
9-12
Overview
Best Season: This activity awakens basic plant observation skills as students examine
and describe plants collected by the teacher. Students have fun making
spring
summer up descriptive common names for their species and getting up close and
fall personal with their species to make a great description. Students present
their species to their class. The activity is followed by a discussion on the
usefulness of a language of plant terminology to help with plant description.

Preparation
◆◆ Prepare bouquets of wild plant species (native or non-native) from your
Teacher Hints area. You will need one bouquet for each group of students. Each bouquet
◆◆ This activity is a good starting needs to be made up of the same plants and contain one plant for each
point to a plant studies unit person in the group.
because it highlights for ◆◆ Divide the class into groups (adapt to fit your classroom, making groups of
students that specialized 3-5 students), and give each group one of the bouquets.
terminology might be
◆◆ Hand the students a hand lens or magnifying glass and instruct them to use
useful in attempting to
it to get intimate with their plant.
describe plants and that
a system for identifying ◆◆ If you can, be prepared with the common and scientific name of the plants
plants would be handy. used in the bouquet for sharing at the end of this activity. Be able to
supply the real name and description of each plant that the students can’t
◆◆ This activity also works as identify. Add an additional ecological or human use for each plant to make
an “ice-breaker” among a it memorable.
group of students who do
not know each other.

◆◆ Adapted from: Earth

Partnership For Schools Assessments
K-12 Curriculum Guide,
University of Wisconsin- 1 Look for detail in the group description of the
plant, and for names that are creative.
Madison Arboretum

◆◆ Citations: Global Strategy 2 Did students make observations about every visible part of the plant?
for Plant Conservation
http://www.bgci.org/ 3 Did students make any creative interpretations about parts of
the plants they cannot see or habitat, pollinations, or uses?
worldwide/gspc/

1-58
 Student
S Project Botany Bouquet
All of us are watchers—of television, of time clocks, of traffic on the freeway—but
few are observers. Everyone is looking, not many are seeing.
—Peter M.Leschak (1951-present)
Materials Needed
◆◆ sample plant cuttings that Overview
are representative of the Explore the usefulness of a common plant language. Use your observational
native plants in or around skills to examine and describe plants by getting up close and personal. Give
your school grounds your plant a made-up name using its characteristics to guide you. Then share
◆◆ hand lenses or your new plant with your classmates.
magnifying glasses
◆◆ several plant identification/
field guides (see Appendix Learning Objectives
I for suggestions for ◆◆ Develop and use botanical observational skills
your region)
◆◆ Examine different plants and compare how they differ
structurally from one another
◆◆ Increase understanding of plant diversity
Vocabulary Words
botany Background Information
How can you tell one type of plant from another? If you were a trained botanist
(a person who studies plants) you would have the skills needed to identify
the plant through descriptions, keys, botanical drawings or photographs, and
habitat knowledge. The first step for you to obtain these skills is to develop your
observation skills.
Observation is the act of noticing. Observational skills are very important in
all fields of science and in all aspects of life. In this activity we are going to
stretch our plant observational skills, using them to differentiate among local
plants. Carefully examine the plant you have been given. Use your hand lens
or magnifying glass to observe fine details. Notice not only the flower color,
but the size and numbers of different parts. Are there other colors inside the
flower aside from the color of the petals? Do you see hairs on your plants? If
so, where? When observing the leaf, compare the top and bottom. Look at
the shape, number and edges of your leaves. In addition to using your eyes
for your observations, use touch and smell. Feel the texture of your leaves and
stems. Crush the leaf tip and smell it. Please do not taste your plant! Since you
do not know its identification and natural history, you don’t know if it may be
poisonous. Once you are an adept botanist, the world of edible wild plants will
be more accessible.
Use your observations to write a description of your plant. Draw your
plant. Describe your plant with enough detail that someone could pick
it out of a field of hundreds of other plants. Lastly, choose a name for
your plant that will help describe something about its appearance or
natural history.
When you observe plants closely you will begin to notice how different they are.
The United States has around 19,000 known native plant species. This doesn’t
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 Student
S Project Botany Bouquet
Background Information, continued
include landscape plants from other parts of the world, As you work through this activity you will get a better
agricultural plants developed for food use, or invasive understanding of the need for a system of sorting and
plants that were accidentally or purposely introduced naming plants. It is not necessary for you to know the name
to the country. The term “native plant” is usually used to of your plant. If you do know the name, keep it to yourself
describe a plant that naturally grew in its current habitat until the very end of the activity when you can share it with
prior to European settlement. your classmates. For now, examine your plant as if you are a
pioneering botanist who has never seen it before.

Student Directions
1. If you know the names of the plants being passed out including: roots, leaves, stem, flowers, fruits, seeds.
please do not share that information until the end of 6. If you have time, flip through a field guide and try
the activity. to find the real name of your plant. Look at the
2. Have each member of your group take one plant description and see if you can learn something about
from the bouquet. the uses of your plants or something you did not
3. Take 3 minutes to look at your plant closely and give notice in your observations. What kind of habitat
your plant a descriptive name (for example: wooly, does your plant live in?
tough-stemmed daisy). 7. Present the name and description of your plant to
4. Use your hand lens or magnifying glass as well as all the rest of the class. Hold up your plant and pass it
your senses (except taste) to get to know your plant. around to other students so they can examine your
Take turns pointing out your observations to others plant.
in your small group. 8. If your group knows the real common and scientific
5. As a group, come up with a creative name for your name of your plant, you can share it now with
plant based on your close observations. In addition, the class (you do not need to know this piece of
designate one member of the group to write a information).
description you come up with as a group. Make your 9. If your small group does not know the name, ask the
description detailed so a stranger could pick out class if anyone knows it. Your teacher can help with
your plant from a field of many plants. Be sure to this if needed.
describe all the parts of the plant if they are present,

Class Discussion
◆◆ Did anyone have trouble describing any part of their plants for lack of a word to
describe what they were observing? What plants parts were hard to describe?
◆◆ Discuss the need for a common plant vocabulary that all can understand.
◆◆ Would it be helpful to have another way to identify plants other than flipping through a field guide?
◆◆ Do you have any ideas of another way to identify plants?
◆◆ Do you think any of the plants from the bouquet are closely related to one
another? What makes you think that? (Point out similarities on the plants.)
◆◆ Based on your observations, do you think any of the plants perform similar functions?
What makes you say this? (For example, perhaps there were two sticky plants.)

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 Student
S Project Botany Bouquet
In the Field!
Try this activity when working in a new outdoor area. It will help you to improve your
observational and identification skills, which will help you get to know the plants in your area.
Include observations about the habitat in the location where you find your plants. Look around
for several individuals of the same species. Are there many or just a few? Does your plant seem
to prefer sunny locations or shady spots? Does it like low, moist areas, or can it handle a drier
spot? Write down your observations and use them to help you locate your plant in a field guide for your area.

Reflection
Write a short story or poem that describes your plant, its characteristics,
human and/or wildlife uses, adaptations related to habitat, and the root words
of the plant’s scientific name.

Taking it Further
1. Collect other plant samples and complete this activity with
additional plants from a different ecosystem or area.

2. Research a plant species; describe its characteristics, habitat where

the species is most likely to be found, and common human uses.
Make an oral report to the class and conduct peer reviews of these
reports.

3. Develop a web page on the plant species from this activity using
photos, drawings, and life history information.

Self Assessments
1 Look for details in group descriptions of the
plant and for names that are creative.

2 Did you make observations about every visible part of the plant?
3 Did you make any creative interpretations about parts of the
plants you cannot see or habitat, pollination, or uses?

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 Teacher Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules
T Page A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Fruits
Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a banana. —Groucho Marx (1890-1977)
Time Estimate:
45-60 minutes in Overview
the classroom In this hands-on lab, students learn about the basic parts and development
of fruits. By classifying familiar fruits using observable characteristics and fruit
Best Season: type vocabulary words, students familiarize themselves with the botanical
fall, origins of fruits and the adaptations of different fruit types. Following the
winter lab experience, students can extend their new knowledge of fruits to native
plants by collecting fruits of native species in the field and comparing them
to familiar fruits to understand their botanical relationships. This is a great
winter activity, as many native fruits can be foraged easily in the wintertime
and many tropical examples are available in the grocery store.

Teacher Hints Preparation

◆◆ Let students sample store- Collect fruit and set up about ten stations chosen from the list below. Number
bought fruits by having bite- the stations, and include at least two or more of each suggested fruit at the
sized samples at each station. station. Include one that is whole and one cross section for each different fruit
◆◆ Encourage students used.
to use hand lenses to ◆◆ pome: apple, pear, quince ◆◆ legume: bean (in pod), peanut (in
examine fruit carefully. ◆◆ berry: tomato, grape, avocado, shell), snow pea (in pod)
pomegranate, date ◆◆ achene: sunflower seed in shell
◆◆ drupe: peach, plum, nectarine, ◆◆ aggregate fruit: blackberry,
Assessments apricot, cherry, olive, walnut raspberry, strawberry
(including hull and shell), almond ◆◆ pepo: cucumber, pumpkin,
1 Students use a key to classify
common grocery fruits and
(including hull and shell) squash, pineapple, fig
◆◆ nut: hazelnut, acorn, chestnut Include for “expert” vocabulary:
apply to native fruits.
◆◆ caryopsis: corn, wheat, barley, ◆◆ hesperidium: orange, lemon,
2 Through observation,
students make inferences
oat, rice lime, grapefruit
For native fruit, set up the lab with wild fruit and have students repeat the
to seed dispersal methods activity. Field guides can help you classify wild fruit types. Some suggestions:
by analyzing fruit types.
◆◆ pome: crab apple, rose hip, ◆◆ samara: maple, ash, elm
hawthorn, mountain ash
3 Identify and name the three
parts of a fruit as applied ◆◆ berry: blueberry, cranberry,
◆◆ caryopsis: any grass species
◆◆ achene: sunflowers, dandelion,
to common fruit types. gooseberry, huckleberry, thistles, burdock
manzanita, honeysuckle, currants
◆◆ capsule: iris, violet, poppy, many
◆◆ drupe: pin & bitter cherry, choke of Lily family
cherry, elderberry
Supplies: plates, cutting ◆◆ aggregate fruit: blackberry,
◆◆ nut: chestnut, hazelnut, acorn, salmonberry, thimbleberry,
boards, and knives for slicing
chinquapin, walnut brambles, and their relatives
fruits. Clippers for collecting
native plant materials. ◆◆ legume: lupine, vetch, locust

Additional Information
Plant Genome Research, Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research. Lesson—Tomato DNA Extraction and
Dissection. Students learn the parts of a fruit by dissecting a tomato: http://bti.cornell.edu/pgrp/pgrp.php?id=302
 Student Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules
S Project A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Fruits
Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a banana. —Groucho Marx (1890-1977)

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ magnifying or hand lens In this lab, you will learn how to classify fruits and understand their
development. You will have a chance to familiarize yourself with the botanical
◆◆ Key to Fruit Types handout
origins of fruits and the adaptations of different fruit types. Compare what
you learn in the lab to the fruits of native plants to understand their botanical
relationships.
Vocabulary
Words Learning Objectives
Amateur Botanist 1. Develop and use observational skills 3. Increase understanding
drupe simple fruit on multiple scales 4. of plant diversity
pome multiple fruit 2. Understand how fruits are 5. Apply knowledge of familiar fruits
categorized botanically to local native plants
achene aggregate fruit
locule pericarp
hip seed
capsule nut
Background Information
legume ovule If a friend asks you for a piece of fruit, they might give you a strange look if
you hand them a cucumber. Or perhaps you have heard people argue as to
berry ovary
whether a tomato is a fruit or a vegetable. In the grocery store, things that
indehiscent carpel are sweet and potentially used in desserts are generally labeled as fruits. In
dehiscent the world of botany, the term “fruit” means something else, and encompasses
many things that are commonly referred to as vegetables, nuts, and even
Expert Botanist
grains.
exocarp silique
From a botanist’s perspective, a fruit is the ripened (mature) ovary of the
mesocarp schizocarp flower containing one or more seeds. Sometimes a fruit contains other parts
endocarp nutlet of the flower as well. Fruits develop after a flower is pollinated and the ovules
pepo samara inside the flower’s ovaries are fertilized. Every fruit contains one or more seeds
hesperidium caryopsis inside (with the exception of some commercial fruits that are intentionally
bred to be seedless). Fruits come in many shapes and sizes and are divided
follicle accessory fruit
into different fruit types with specific botanical names to describe their form
Professional Botanist and function. As the seed develops or matures, the ovary tissue undergoes
parthenocarpy changes that result in fruit. This ovary-turned-fruit is made up of three layers,
the exocarp (outer), mesocarp (middle) and endocarp (inner), collectively
funiculus
called the pericarp and which surround the seed(s). These three layers are
circumscissile capsule easy to see in some fruit, such as peach (a) and avocado (a berry). In peach,
loculicidal capsule the endocarp is the hard pit surrounding the seed. In avocado the endocarp
poricidal capsule is a thin layer not much different from the mesocarp surrounding the seed. In
septicidal capsule other plants, such as grasses, the pericarp layers are very hard to see. Fruits
with similar forms are often evolutionarily related, such as a cucumber and
zucchini. However, other fruits that look nothing alike, such as apple, cherry,
strawberry and raspberry, all belong to the Rose Family (Rosaceae).

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Background Information, continued

Why is it important to be familiar with the different types of you will have an opportunity to think critically about the
fruit? Field guides often use fruits as an important feature mechanisms of dispersal of native fruits.
for identifying plants. Being able to distinguish fruit type What do the fruits you find in the grocery store have in
will get you one step closer to proper identification. Plants common with our native plants? Many of our native plants
from the same family may have the same fruit type, but as have domesticated relatives that have delicious edible
previously mentioned with Rosaceae, this is not always the fruit. For example, the tasty cherry you find in the produce
case. Fruit type can also give you a hint as to how the seeds section is related to the native bitter cherry (Prunus
are dispersed. emarginata) and wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), which
The method by which a fruit is dispersed can generally have fruit so bitter that they are inedible for humans when
be determined by examining the structure of the fruit unprocessed. If you look at native plants, you will find that
itself. Fleshy, sweet fruit is likely to be eaten, with the many of them have fruits that are similar to ones you are
seeds transported inside of an animal to be deposited familiar with from the grocery store. However, many fruits
somewhere else with a ready made packet of fertilizer to get that are popular to eat are shipped from subtropical and
it started. Hard nuts are cached (buried) by squirrels and tropical areas, such as bananas, pineapples, and citrus, and
jays to eat later in the winter, but many are never found and have no local relatives.
from them sprout new trees. Light seeds may be dispersed
by wind or water, and often have special appendages on
them such as wings, parachutes, or corky floats to aid in the
process. Some fruits also have hooked barbs on them that
adhere to animal fur for dispersal. During this exploration,

Student Directions
1. Divide evenly across the stations. Begin by visiting 4. Rotate to the next fruit station; write the station
only the stations with commercial, grocery store number and continue to sketch and gather
fruits. Wild fruits will be examined later. observations.
2. Spend 3-5 minutes at each station. Note the number 5. After you have visited all of the stations with
of the station on your paper (use a half sheet of commercial fruits, visit the native, wild fruits stations.
paper for each station), sketch a cross section of the Follow the same directions for the native fruits
fruit, and write a description in words. Observe stations as you did for the grocery fruit. Use a hand
closely all the details you find in each group. Is the lens to examine the fruits carefully, as wild fruits are
fruit soft, fleshy, dry, hard? How many seeds are often much smaller than their grocery store cousins.
there? What is the arrangement and texture of
the pericarp? Are there any chambers within the
fruit? Note anything else that may be an important
identifying feature. Use the magnifying lens.
3. Use the Key to Fruit Types to determine what type
of fruit is at each station. Fill in the fruit type in the
top corner of your data sheet.

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Taking it Further In the Field!

Take this lab one step Take an outing in fall to see how many different wild fruit types you can
further by finding a plant collect. When collecting, if you know the name of the plant, write it down.
with fruits (or fruits from the Take your collection back to the classroom. Dissect your wild fruits and use
grocery store) and making your observation skills to classify them by fruit type. How many different
observations and inferences types of fruit did you find? If you were able to identify any of the plants
as to what method of seed when collecting, look in the field guide to see what type of fruit it has. Does
dispersal this plant uses your plant name and fruit type match what is found in the field guide?
(mechanical, wind, water, When you are finished with this activity, dispose of the seeds in the trash
animal carried). can. Invasive plants are common and it is likely that you have them in your
Examine the structures of collection. Don’t take a chance of spreading them, act responsibly and
the fruit and make your best dispose of the seeds properly.
guess as to how the fruit may
be dispersed to new sites. Science Inquiry
Refer to the paragraph in the
Are certain types of fruits more common in a specific ecosystem? Do
background information for
comparative studies in the late summer or early fall to find out. Choose two
clues. What structures on the
ecosystem types that are easy for you to access. Riparian, woodland, forest,
fruit lead you to think that it is
shrubland, wetland, and prairie are all reasonable choices. Determine some
dispersed in that way?
simple parameters to follow. An example would be to collect fruits from
10 species in a riparian area and 10 in a prairie. Determine the fruit
types found in each ecosystem and compare. Does one
fruit type predominate? Are the types of fruits found
Self Assessments between the two ecosystems different? Do the types of
1 Use observation skills to
identify fruit types using a
fruits found in the ecosystems reflect some advantage
related to habitat (i.e. corky, buoyant fruits in the
dichotomous key. Apply the riparian area that float well on water or light and airy
knowledge to native plant fruits. seeds in prairies that can be dispersed by the wind)?

2 Through observation,
make inferences about
seed dispersal methods
by analyzing fruit types. Reflection
Use your imagination. Invent a fruit and draw it inside and out. Hypothesize
3 Identify and name the three
parts of a fruit as applied
about why this fruit looks, tastes, smells, and grows where it does. Describe
in detail how each characteristic of your fruit helps your plant survive and
to common fruit types. disperse in its habitat. Write a story or poem about your fruit, or from a
fruit’s perspective.

Resources
◆◆ Plant Identification Terminology, An Illustrated Glossary Sixth Edition,
Harris, James & Melinda, 2001, Spring Lake Publishing, Utah.

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Dichotomous Key to Common Fruit Types

1a. Fruit from more than one ovary but from a single flower ..... Aggregate fruit

1b. Fruit from one ovary from one flower (simple fruit)......2

2a. Fruit fleshy at maturity…..3

3a. Fruit with single large, hard pit containing the seed (stone fruit).......Drupe

3b. Fruit without a large, hard pit.......4

4a. Fruit with a papery endocarp (inner layer of ovary) forming a core......Pome

4b. Fruit without a papery endocarp, fleshy throughout......5

5a. Exocarp (or skin) thin, not leathery or hard…..Berry

5b. Exocarp thickened, leathery or hard (modified berries)…...6

6a. Exocarp leathery with aromatic oil glands, citrus…..Hesperidium

6b. Exocarp hard or variously thickened, oil glands absent, gourds, melons, and squash…...Pepo

2b. Fruit dry at maturity…..7

7a. Dehiscent (splits open at maturity)…..8

8a. Fruit from a single ovary with only one locule (chamber or cell)….9

9a. Fruit splitting along two lines (sutures) producing two halves like a pea pod…….Legume

9b. Fruit splitting along one line only not producing two parts or halves……Follicle

8b. Fruit from several fused ovaries, usually with two or more locules……Capsule

7b. Indehiscent, does not split open at maturity…..10

10a. Fruit wall forming a wing…..Samara

10b. Fruit wall not forming a wing......11

11a. Pericarp not thick or hardened; fruit small…...Achene

11b. Pericarp hard; fruit usually rather large but if small then called nutlets……Nut

Adapted with permission, the University of the Ozarks

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T Teacher Make Your Own
Page
Plant Collection
Are we happy to suppose that our grandchildren may never be able to see an
Time Estimate: elephant except in a picture book?
1 field session, 1 class session; —Sir David Attenborough (1926-present)
can be structured as an
ongoing project Overview
Best Season: Construct or purchase a plant press, collect native plants, and create an
spring, herbarium for your school. Students learn the skills needed for the project
summer, by assembling a plant press and making their own personal herbarium of
fall local species. They will learn proper techniques for collecting, pressing,
labeling, mounting, and storing plant materials. Students will practice their
botanical terminology and plant identification skills.

Preparation
Introduce this lesson by starting a classroom discussion on what botanists and
Teacher Hints students can learn from a collection of pressed plant specimens. Make sure to
◆◆ Have students practice cover:
plant collection techniques
◆◆ allows for the observation of plants at different stages in their life cycle (i.e.
using weedy species. Then
vegetative, flowering, fruiting)
move on to creating a native
plant herbarium collection ◆◆ can be used as a reference to help identify plants
once they are proficient at ◆◆ provides a sample of the variability within a species
collecting and mounting. ◆◆ provides an official record of what plant species are found in an area
◆◆ Alternatives to making the
cardboard presses in the
lesson include: purchase a Assessments
plant press, make your own
from plywood boards, or 1 Produce four herbarium specimens using correct procedures for collecting,
pressing, mounting, and labeling each specimen.
use old telephone books
with additional weight to
press the plants flat. 2 Record complete field notes when collecting: include date, location, plant
description, and habitat notes.
◆◆ For the class herbarium, use
archival quality paper for 3 Label the specimen with common and scientific names using the proper
form and demonstrate correct use of botanical terminology.
mounting the specimens.
Store specimens laying
flat in large boxes or metal
cabinets for long life. Don’t
leave the mounts exposed to Additional Information
sunlight. Monitor periodically
for insect damage. ◆◆ The New York Botanical Garden herbarium is the largest
in the western hemisphere with over 1.5 million digital
specimens available online: http://www.nybg.org/science/
◆◆ The American Society of Plant Taxonomists website has a
database of herbaria located in the United States organized by
state. You can access the database at: https://www.aspt.net/

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 S Student Make Your Own
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Plant Collection
Are we happy to suppose that our grandchildren may never be able to see an
Materials Needed elephant except in a picture book?
◆◆ newspaper —Sir David Attenborough (1926-present)
◆◆ mounting paper—heavy
cardstock for individual Overview
specimens; archival paper
for class herbarium Through this activity, you will learn the botanical skills needed to record and
preserve plant specimens by creating an herbarium. You will assemble a plant
◆◆ Elmer’s glue press and make a personal herbarium of local weed species. In doing so, you
◆◆ water (to thin out glue) will learn the proper technique for collecting, pressing, labeling, mounting,
◆◆ small paint brushes and storage of your collection. This will also give you an opportunity to
practice using your plant identification skills. You will also participate in
◆◆ 5-6 cardboard pieces per
making a classroom herbarium by creating or adding to a collection of native
student (8 1/2 x 11 inches)
plant specimens for your school.
◆◆ acid-free resume paper
(for labels)
◆◆ large rubber bands Background Information
or webbing straps An herbarium is a library of dried, pressed plant specimens that are identified,
◆◆ plant pruner for collecting labeled, and catalogued. Herbarium specimens can be used for many purposes.
◆◆ shovel or trowel Accurate identification of a freshly collected plant can be made by comparison
with an herbarium specimen. Herbaria are used by scientists in their studies
of plant form, to compare range and measurements, and to help in the
Learning Objectives construction of guidebooks. Specimens are also used in DNA analysis to study
plant relationships.
◆◆ Learn and demonstrate
proper techniques to Each specimen in the herbarium is labeled with the name of the plant, the person
collect, dry, preserve, and collecting, date collected, and location of collection. Often the label will include
catalog plant specimens additional helpful information like the plant community the specimen was found
◆◆ Start or contribute to a in, soil type, pollinators or known uses. Herbarium specimens are treated with
classroom herbarium with a the utmost care so that they will survive and be available for study for hundreds
usable system of organization of years. An herbarium is an historic record of where and when plants grew.
◆◆ Use botanical terminology Additional applications for the study of herbarium specimens include how
as well as common and Latin climate change has affected plants. For example, specimens can document the
names to correctly describe range of species, demonstrate change in characteristics over time and across
a plant specimen (review) habitats, track the spread of non-native weeds, and confirm the former ranges
◆◆ Practice plant identification of now-rare plant species.
skills (review) Herbaria are located around the world and are often housed at museums,
botanical gardens, or universities. Many modern day herbaria are available
online for access worldwide. The Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania houses a very famous herbarium collection from the Lewis and
Vocabulary Words Clark Expedition 1804-1806. This collection is documented so that it can be
herbarium cross referenced to the dates and locations found in the diary entries of Lewis
herbaria and Clark. The museum houses 226 specimens from the expedition which are
still in amazing condition more than 200 years later!
Herbaria are made up of plant specimens that are dried and pressed so as to
highlight features that enhance identification. A specimen should include all parts
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Plant Collection
Background Information, continued
of a plant, including roots, flowers, and fruit, if possible. Herbaria can also be very useful for figuring out where
The collected plant is carefully positioned on blotter extinct or very rare species previously existed. Written
paper, labeled, sandwiched between layers of cardboard, records on specimen labels indicate location and habitat
and tightly squeezed within the plant press until dried. information that can be used by conservation biologists
Plant collectors will document the location, date, and all to decide where to relocate species that they are
other pertinent information in a field book. Once the plant reintroducing.
is completely dry, it is mounted on archival quality paper One more important aspect for consideration in the
with a detailed label. Herbaria sheets are collected into development of an herbarium is your plant collection ethic.
folders by species and folders are filed alphabetically by Below is a list of ethics that can guide you. Look them over
family, genus, and specific epithet. The folders are stored and discuss them as a class. Should they be expanded?
lying flat, usually in metal cases or cabinets in climate Why or why not?
controlled rooms to help preserve them.

Ethics of Collecting Guidelines:

◆◆ Tread lightly—what does that mean to you? ◆◆ Be aware that you may be harmed by your interaction
◆◆ Don’t take any plants that you will not be pressing. with some plants. Take necessary precautions and
watch for plants that can sting, have thorns, or give
◆◆ Take care not to spread seeds of invasive plants.
you rashes.
◆◆ Know your region’s rare and endangered plants. If you
◆◆ Learn the process of collecting, pressing and
are lucky enough to find them, take only pictures of
mounting a plant collection by using readily available
these.
local weeds to start. Although pressing plants sounds
◆◆ Do not collect a plant if you do not see at least 10 others fairly straightforward it takes attention to detail and
of that kind in your location. Why is this important? careful handling to do it well. Practice the techniques
and then move on to developing a school herbarium
project.

Directions
1. Assemble a personal plant press. You will need owner’s consent. BE RESPONSIBLE; do not spread
5-6 pieces of heavy cardboard, several sections of weeds. Be sure to contain any seeds that may fall
newspaper, and 4 long, heavy rubber bands. Cut the off your collections and dispose of extra weedy
cardboard pieces to the size of a folded newspaper. materials that you bring back to the classroom in the
Use newspaper as your blotter paper to position trash.
your plant specimen, plus use additional layers of 3. To collect your first plant; carefully dig up a weed,
newspaper between each specimen to help absorb trying to get as much of the root system as possible.
moisture. Use an 8 ½ x 11 sheet of paper as a size Be aware that many weeds have deep tap roots that
guide; your finished specimen will be mounted on will break if you dig too shallowly. Try to collect a
this size paper. plant that is average size and vigor of nearby plants.
2. Make a weed collection from your home, roadside This will make a better example of the species than
or vacant lot (follow the steps below). Collect 4-5 a plant that is the smallest that you can find. Gently
different weed specimens. Do not collect from parks, clean the dirt from the roots of the plant.
natural areas, or personal property without the

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4. Arrange the plant on the inside of a folded 8. Take your press home. Lay it on a flat, dry surface
newspaper. Once the plant is dried, you will not be in a warm location to dry (a sunny window, the top
able to move parts around without breaking it. You of the refrigerator, a furnace room, or a car with
must be careful to arrange the plant to properly the windows rolled up will suffice). Add additional
show its leaves, roots, flowers and/or fruits. Lay a weights (books) to help squeeze the moisture out of
leaf out flat so that you can see the shape and show the plants. If you have a very succulent plant, change
the arrangement along the stem. Lay another leaf the newspapers every day for the first couple of
so that the underside is showing. Include flowers, if days.
possible, arrange some flat open and some in profile 9. Leave the plants in the press until completely dry.
and fruits. Include the roots if you can; brush the This can range from a couple of days to a couple
excess dirt off before putting in the press. If your of weeks, depending on the thickness of the plant
plant is too tall to fit on the newspaper, you will need material and the air temperature and humidity.
to bend the stem to make it fit. Another mounting
method if your plant is too large for one sheet of 10. Mount the specimen once it is completely dry. Use
paper is to cut the plant and position it on more than heavy cardstock paper for display. Carefully remove
one sheet. Number the sheets so that they can be the specimen from the newspaper by the stem. It
reassembled in the proper order. Try to minimize might be helpful to use tweezers when working with
overlapping plant parts; it can lead to moldy plant delicate plant material. Arrange the dried plant on
parts and makes them hard to see once they are dry. the paper and adhere with drops of white glue at
multiple points along the stem and the outer leaves.
5. Label each specimen with a number directly on the For heavy plants, you can glue strips of paper over
newspaper and a corresponding numbered entry them to hold at key points. Set aside and let the glue
into your field journal. Include the name of the plant dry before handling.
if you know it, the location, date, your name, and
any additional information that you can. Additional 11. Design a label to go on your specimens. Be sure it
information may include the names of other plants includes the plant name, date, your name, where it
growing nearby, the type of ecosystem (forest, field, was collected, and any special notes. Glue a label to
wetland), whether it was growing in the sun or shade, the bottom right corner of the paper on which you
pollinators observed, or notes about the soil. mounted your specimen.

6. If for some reason you cannot put your plant in the 12. Write a habitat description that goes with your
press right away, seal it in a plastic bag and keep pressed plant. Include a general description of
it out of direct sunlight until you can place it in the form and identifying features of your species.
the press. Try not to squish it or break any of the Specimens will fade with age so be sure to include
branches. notes in the description on the flower and leaf color.

7. Assemble specimens in your press like layers of a 13. Contact a plant expert (examples: a local nursery,
sandwich. The cardboard is the bread; add a few local Forest Service or BLM botanist, Native
layers of newspaper, then your specimen, another Plant Society member) if you are having difficulty
couple layers of newspaper, a piece of cardboard for identifying your specimen.
strength, and repeat until the press is full. Finish with 14. Visit one of the online herbaria listed in the resource
a final cardboard piece and bind with 4 large rubber section to see an example of a mounted plant
bands. specimen and label. 

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Plant Collection
In the Field!
Visit a real herbarium! If you are near a local university or botanical garden, take a field trip and check out their
herbarium. Visit the American Society of Plant Taxonomists website to find an herbarium in your area. Ask to see some
specimens from the 1800s and compare them to some more recent specimens of the same species. Are there any
noticeable differences?
Create an herbarium for your school. Give the herbarium a theme that can be expanded or added to from year to
year (examples: plants on the school grounds, or from a natural area that students visit regularly, or a broad ecoregion
collection). Offer tours of your herbarium to other science classes or to younger grades in your school.
◆◆ Be careful not collect too many samples of a single species. Work to fill gaps in the herbarium collection if it is an
ongoing project.
◆◆ Reread the Ethics of Collecting Guidelines in the Background section before going out
to collect.
◆◆ Learn which rare and endangered plants exist in the area from which you will be
collecting so that you can avoid collecting them. Over collection is one of the causes
of decline for several rare plant species. Instead, take a digital camera and make a
visual record of the plant if you are lucky enough to see one. Get an overall photo
of the plant, a wider photo showing the habitat, and multiple close-ups of leaves,
stems, flowers, and fruit. Include a ruler or other object for scale to show the size
of the plant. Take notes as you would if you were collecting a specimen. Mount the
photos and include the page in your herbarium.

Reflection
What are some of the things that you could learn by developing an herbarium
at your school? What would be the benefits to your class? How would a class 10
years from now benefit from your work?

How can you be sure that you are not damaging a rare plant population? Is
there a time that taking a rare plant specimen would be acceptable? Justify your
reasoning. Can you add at least one additional rule to the Ethics of Collecting
plants? What would it be?

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Taking it Further
Develop a filing system for the class herbarium. Specimens are commonly organized
alphabetically first by family, then genus, and finally the specific epithet. Write an
explanation of how your system works so that others can follow it. Organize a way to
track additional records, such as a notebook with a page devoted to each species and a
way to enter information about occurrences including the name of the observer, the date,
and location. Be sure to make it easy for visitors to access the needed records.

Self Assessments
1 Evaluate your pressed plant specimen. Are you happy with the way the
pressing turned out? If not, review the procedures. Did you accurately
follow them? If you are unhappy with your pressing, try it again, making
sure that the plant has as little moisture in it as possible and that you have
positioned
it carefully.

2 Design a label to go on your mounted pressing. Did you collect

all the information that was needed to make a good label?

3 Evaluate your written description. Did you use proper

botanical terminology? This may be important if you
need help from a botanist to identify your plant.

Resources
◆◆ The New York Botanical Garden herbarium is the largest in the western hemisphere, with over 1.5 million
digital specimens available online. This diverse herbarium has specimens from around the world, and includes
vascular plants, fungi, and lichens: http://www.nybg.org/science/
◆◆ The Ohio State University Museum of Biological Diversity Herbarium can also be accessed online. This
herbarium has worldwide coverage, with a focus on the flora of the Northeastern U.S. View the specimens at:
http://herbarium.osu.edu/
◆◆ The American Society of Plant Taxonomists website has a database of herbaria located in the United States
organized by state. Access the database at: http://www.aspt.net/databases/herbaria/naherbaria.php

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Page
Create-A-Plant
Imagination is more important than knowledge. For while knowledge defines all
we currently know and understand, imagination points to all we might yet discover
and create. —Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Time Estimate:
45-60 minutes, additional Overview
time for detailed plant In this lesson, students will explore plant adaptations and demonstrate
drawings their accumulated knowledge and understanding of plant identification
Best Season: by creating a fictional plant species. Working from a checklist of possible
Any traits, students will determine the physical characteristics, ecology, habitat,
history, and uses of their newly invented species. Students will show their
understanding of the connections between anatomy and habitat by creating
a field guide page with a sketch of their plant, a written description, and will
give their plant both a common and scientific name.

Preparation
◆◆ Prepare copies of the Plant Adaptations Chart for students to explore
Teacher Hints and use in designing their plants.
◆◆ Be sure that students have ◆◆ Have a field guide available. Point out features on the page such as
a basic foundation in plant the physical description of the plant, habitat, confusing species, and
terminology before using
special characteristics and uses. Show the students photos, drawings,
this lesson. The “Botanical
Terminology Challenge”
or diagrams of unique aspects of the species, measurements, plant
lesson provides a review descriptions, and habitat details.
or a means of learning ◆◆ This activity can be used as an assessment tool at the completion of
this new vocabulary. the Plant Identification Section. Students apply their knowledge of
◆◆ Information about scientific botanical terms, scientific names, habitat, and life history characteristics.
names can be found in Students will make creative connections between the traits of their
the “What’s In a Name?” plant and how the traits help the plant adapt to the habitat they create
lesson of this curriculum for it.

Additional Information Assessments

◆◆ Harris and Harris. 2001. Students will submit their checklist and field guide page for grading. Check
Plant Identification for the following:
Terminology: An Illustrated
Glossary. 6th edition. Spring 1 Does their plant sketch and description match the checklist options?
Lake Publishing, Spring
Lake, UT. 206 pages. 2 Isincluding
the written description complete, using proper botanical terms, and
metric measurements?

3 Did the student use proper format for writing scientific names?
4 Did the student put thought into relating plant anatomy/adaptations to
their habitat choice, dispersal mechanism and pollinator?

5 Was the student creative in making a unique species?

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Imagination is more important than knowledge. For while knowledge defines all
we currently know and understand, imagination points to all we might yet discover
and create. —Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ plant traits checklist Demonstrate your understanding of botanical vocabulary and natural
◆◆ Plant Adaptations Chart history by inventing a new plant species. You will explore the diverse
adaptive strategies plants use to survive in various habitats. You will choose
◆◆ drawing materials the physical and ecological characteristics of your species from a checklist of
◆◆ metric ruler traits and give it a common and scientific name. In the end, you will create a
◆◆ blank field guide template page with a detailed sketch of your new species and a written description
to be used in a field guide.
◆◆ various field guides
to use as examples

Background Information
Learning Objectives Plants can be found growing nearly from pole to pole on our planet, thriving
◆◆ Demonstrate knowledge under a vast diversity of conditions. From dry deserts to frigid tundras to
of botanical terminology rainforests, every environment provides a unique suite of challenges to the
◆◆ Correlate plant plants that live there. To survive, plants have adapted to the environments in
characteristics (form) with which they live through generations and generations of natural selection.
adaptation to habitat and Because plants are sessile (that is, they are immobile), they cannot move
life history (function)
around to find resources and more favorable conditions. This puts them under
◆◆ Apply knowledge of extraordinary pressure to come up with adaptive strategies to survive and
scientific and common names reproduce in the face of whatever challenges their environment delivers.In this
◆◆ Engage imagination to way, plants become a reflection of their environment, both past and present.
advance scientific and When you look at a plant, the characteristics you observe can give you clues
critical thinking processes about its habitat and the challenges that it faces to survive and reproduce.
◆◆ Associate visual images Every physical feature that you observe plays some functional role for the plant.
with new vocabulary
Not all adaptations are visible to the human eye. Physiological adaptations
by labeling drawings to
allow plants to survive in all kinds of environments, too. For example, to cope
accentuate important plant
identification characteristics with hot and dry conditions, some plants open their stomata only in the cool of
the night, and then metabolically fix and store the carbon dioxide they capture
until daylight, when they can photosynthesize without losing precious moisture
from open pores.In frigid temperatures, some plants can produce antifreeze
Vocabulary Words proteins that slow ice formation.
Adaptation
Spend some time looking at the Plant Adaptations Chart. This chart lists some
Habitat examples of adaptations that allow plants to survive under various conditions.
As you look over the chart, you will notice that there are many different strategies
for surviving in a particular type of environment. Some of these strategies are
almost complete opposites—for example, some desert plants have very short
life cycles that can be carried out entirely during a short period of precipitation,
avoiding drought altogether. Other plants living right next to these fast-paced
annuals instead have very long life cycles, growing extremely slowly to cope
with limited resources.The prevalence of desert plants using both of these very

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Background Information, continued
different approaches illustrates that there is no one right section contains information intended to help you
strategy for survival. indentify your species and understand its natural history.
Think about the unique conditions where you live. Is the Each field guide is different, but most contain sections
climate hot or cold? Does moisture fall as snow in the with general information, as well as specific information
winter? Are summers windy and dry? How are the plants about the leaves, flowers, fruits, ecology, and any special
that you see around you adapted to these conditions? notes that will aid in identification. Plants are an extremely
diverse group of organisms; the information presented in
This activity will give you a chance to showcase what you
field guides organizes this diversity and helps to distinguish
already know about plant anatomy and terminology and
one species from another.
expand your knowledge about adaptations. You will use
your creative side to create a fictional plant. Remember When you make your field guide page, be sure to include
that plants can appear as simple as a single tiny leaf, such all the details that someone will need to indentify your
as the pond-dwelling duckweed, or as complex as an plant. Many field guides also contain ethnobotanical
elaborate orchid that grows in a tree canopy. Your plant information regarding historical human uses of plants. Be
can be large or small, woody or herbaceous. Does it have sure to add this type of information for your created plant.
thorns or chemical defenses to keep it safe from predators? For example, is your plant used for food, as a tool, or for
What makes your plant well suited to grow in the habitat medicinal purposes? In what other ways could plants be
you choose for it? Be sure to give it the adaptations it will used?
need to survive there. Remember, a plant’s appearance Field guides include not only a written description, but
and traits are a product of the place where it lives and also a photo or drawing. Draw your plant, illustrating the
evolved. traits that you have chosen, being careful to show and label
When you open a field guide, you may see that each the features that make your plant unique.
species entry is frequently divided into sections. Each

Student Directions
1. Begin by choosing a habitat for your plant. Would characteristics of your plant. The list will guide the
you find it in the desert, forest, prairie, wetland, or evolution of your fictional plant. If you come across
elsewhere? Make your choice as general or specific as an option that you do not understand, consult
you like—perhaps your plant is a generalist that lives your terminology glossary, check a field guide or
in grasslands around North America, or maybe it is dictionary, or review earlier activities.
endemic to a natural area near your hometown. Take 3. Create adaptations in your plant that relate to the
a minute to think about what life is like in your chosen habitat type that you picked on your checklist. Use
habitat; is it dry, wet, shady, sunny, hot, cold, or the Plant Adaptations Chart to come up with ideas,
somewhere in between? Think about your habitat as but don’t be limited by the examples on the chart—
you work through the checklist; what plant traits do this is by no means a complete list. Brainstorm other
you think would be most successful in your chosen adaptations you have seen or heard of, or come
habitat? For example, large flat leaves may lose excess up with some that are completely new. Be sure to
moisture to evaporation and are not well suited to an explain each adaptation and how it benefits your
arid habitat such as a desert but would work well in a plant.
shady forest understory.
4. When you have completed your checklist, design
2. Work through your plant creation checklist. your field guide page. Your drawing should show
Choose one option from each section to define the

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your checked characteristics. Fill in the smaller boxes meters, while those less than 1 meter should be
with close-up detail of your leaf, flower, and fruit. Be expressed as centimeters (cm), and you might even
sure your drawings clearly match your choices on the want to use millimeters (mm) for very small details.
checklist. Include measurements for your overall plant size, and
5. Follow prompts on the field guide template checklist for individual details.
and write a description for your plant. Start with 7. Write a description of your fictional plant’s habitat.
a general description of the plant and progress to Consider light, moisture, elevation, and associated
the details such as leaf shape, leaf margin, and so vegetation. Describe how the adaptations help your
forth through the page. Use botanically correct plant survive in this habitat.
terminology for your descriptions. 8. Give your plant a scientific and common name. Use
6. A field guide will always include measurements to correct form for writing names. If you need a review,
help in identification. Metric measurements are look at the “What’s In a Name?” activity.
generally preferred in science. Measurements of
greater than 1 meter (m) should be expressed as

Reflection In the Field!

Tell the story of the evolution Visit a local natural area and closely observe the plants you
of your plant. What did its find there. What features do you notice that might help
ancestors look like? Where did each plant survive in its habitat? How do these adaptations
they live? What environmental
benefit the plants? Do you notice certain characteristics that
conditions and challenges (also
are shared amongst many species in the same area? Record
called “selection pressures”)
induced the changes and your ideas in your field journal.
adaptations that are now
evident in your plant? How
might it continue to evolve
in the future in a changing Self Assessments
environment?
1 Submit checklist and field guide page for assessment.
2 Do the checklist, sketches and description show that you have an
understanding of the plant terms used?
Taking it Further
Assemble all of the field 3 Ismeasurements,
the written description complete, using proper botanical terms, metric
and a scientific name written in the correct format?
guide pages for your class
into one field guide. Create a
dichotomous key to the plants 4 Did you relate your plant’s anatomy to adaptations to its habitat?
in your field guide. Your
class might even choose to
assemble them into fictional Resources
plant families.
◆◆ Harris and Harris. 2001. Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated
Glossary. 6th edition.Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake, UT. 206 pages.

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Plant Adaptations Chart
CHALLENGE ADAPTATION HOW IT WORKS EXAMPLES
LIMITED WATER
Hairs Hairs slow down the movement of air over the surface of leaves and Sagebrush,
stems to minimize water loss by evaporation. Light-colored hairs can also desert
reflect solar radiation. ironwood
Water Storage Some plants store large amounts of water within their stems and leaves Cacti, aloe
for use during dry periods. Waxy coatings and thorns help protect these
water stores.
Reduced leaves Decreasing or eliminating leaf surface area minimizes water loss by Conifers, cacti
evaporation.
Specialized root systems Deep root systems allow plants to reach low water tables. Alternatively, Mesquite,
extensive, shallow root systems maximize absorption of light saguaro cacti,
precipitation by capturing water that doesn’t infiltrate deeply into soil sagebrush
layers.
Specialized Life Cycle Rapidly developing annuals can carry out their entire life cycle during Ghostflower,
short periods of rain, avoiding drought periods. Other plants develop Bigelow’s
very slowly to minimize their requirements of limited resources, but live monkeyflower
for many years.
Dormancy Both mature plants and seeds can remain inactive for long periods of Ocotillo
drought. Growth can then be triggered very rapidly by precipitation.
CAM Photosynthesis Some plants can conserve water by opening their stomata only in the Cacti, purslane
(Crassulacean Acid cool of the night, and then storing the carbon dioxide they capture
Metabolism) until daylight, when they can photosynthesize without losing precious
moisture from open pores.
HIGH MOISTURE OR AQUATIC CONDITIONS
Hollow or spongy stems Air spaces in stems transport oxygen to waterlogged plant roots. Cattail
Flexible stems Plants growing in the water column can bend in currents without Water lily
breaking.
Prolonged seed viability Seeds can wait to germinate for many years until they come in contact Bulrush, cattail
with soil and air.
Floating leaves Buoyant leaves allow plants rooted in standing water to reach sunlight Water lily
and air. Stomata are located on the upper surface of the leaf for gas
exchange.
Lenticels Specialized pores allow plants to absorb nutrients, water, and necessary Willows
gasses from the water.
Modified root systems Modified and adventitious roots can extend above the waterlogged soil Mangroves
or water line to allow contact with oxygen. This also provides support in
soft soil.
Rot Prevention Anti-fungal or anti-bacterial chemicals can help prevent rotting. Cedar, larch

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Plant Adaptations Chart
CHALLENGE ADAPTATION HOW IT WORKS EXAMPLES
HOT CONDITIONS
Hairs Hairs can insulate a plant against heat. Light-colored hairs can also reflect Brittlebush
solar radiation.
Leaves used as shade The arrangement of leaves, spines and persistent dead leaves on the Joshua tree
plant can provide umbrella-like shade.
Altered daily rhythms Flowers may open only at night to attract nocturnal pollinators that avoid Evening
daytime heat. primroses
COLD CONDITIONS
Evergreen needles Evergreen needles allow plants to photosynthesize all year, extending the Pines, spruces,
short growing seasons in cold regions of the world. The narrow, waxy hemlocks
needles decrease water loss in regions where moisture is locked up as
ice. They also help shed heavy snow to prevent broken branches.
Deciduous leaves Shedding broad leaves during cold months prevents damage from the Oaks, willows,
cold and lack of water. Deciduous plants can be found where moisture maples
is plentiful in some seasons, but unavailable in cold seasons because it is
frozen.
Small size Small, low-growing plants, sometimes called “dwarf,” are more protected Arctic willow
from cold air, and require less water and nutrients.
Hairs Thick, woolly hairs help insulate plants against cold air and wind. Lousewort
Seasonal dormancy Dormancy during the cold months prevents damage from the cold Broadleaf trees,
and lack of water. Soil moisture is often unavailable in cold conditions larch
because it is frozen.
Antifreeze proteins Damage from freezing can be prevented with specialized proteins that Antarctic
slow ice formation. hairgrass
Tussocks A clumped or bunched growth form, sometimes called a tussock, helps Arctic
trap warmth and insulate plants from cold conditions. cottongrass
Underground structures Energy-storing structures like rhizomes and corms help plants get a head Arctic lupine
start in areas with a short growing season.
LIMITED NUTRIENTS
Symbiotic relationships Soil bacteria including Rhizobia spp. and Frankia spp. form nodules on Legumes, alders
the roots of certain plants and fix nitrogen into a usable form. Some
fungi can help plants increase their absorption of water and nutrients.
Under some soil conditions, certain nutrients can only be taken up by
plants with the help of these fungi.
Carnivory In nutrient-poor soils, some plants obtain nutrients by trapping and Pitcher plant
digesting insects and other arthropods.

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Plant Adaptations Chart
CHALLENGE ADAPTATION HOW IT WORKS EXAMPLES
LIMITED LIGHT
Vines Vining plants use larger plants as ladders to reach light without putting Muscadine
energy into producing large supporting trunks and branches.
Broad leaves Increased leaf area maximizes the photosynthetic capacity in light-limited Oaks, maples
conditions, but result in increased water loss as well.
Specialized life cycle Some understory plants in deciduous forests develop and mature early Spring beauty,
in spring in order to utilize light before they are shaded out by the trillium
growth of leaves on larger trees.
Height Trees can grow very slowly under low-light conditions, eventually Oaks, cedars,
reaching incredible heights in order to reach sunlight at the canopy of a maples,
forest. A very strong trunk and root system are required to support such hemlocks
height, which can only be obtained through plentiful water and nutrients.
FIRE
Serotinous cones Cones can be sealed tightly by resin, open only after the intense heat Lodgepole pine
of fire, which allows seeds to germinate under optimal conditions and
repopulate burned areas.
Resprouting Substantial underground structures like rhizomes, root crowns, and Many grasses,
branches are protected by the insulating soil and can allow plants to Rabbitbrush
survive and continue to grow after the aboveground portions have been
burned.
Thick bark Thick plates of armor-like bark can allow trees to survive some fires with Ponderosa pine
little damage.
HERBIVORY
Armaments Different types of armaments work against different types of herbivores. Cacti, roses
Large thorns and spines deter larger animals like deer, while hairs can be
effective at deterring insects.
Toxins A wide variety of toxins, both mild and potent, keep herbivores from Poison ivy,
eating certain plants. Effects can range from bitter tastes to skin irritation water hemlock
to fatal poisonings.
Protected crown Buds and stored carbohydrates located in the crown at the base of a Grasses
plant are protected and allow for quick and low-cost recovery if the top
of the plant is grazed.
Mast-fruiting This is a phenomenon where individuals of a certain species will produce White oak
very few seeds for several years, followed by a year of high seed
production. It is thought that this helps keep the population of seed
predators low so they don’t devastate the seed bank each year.

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Plant Creation Checklist
Habitat type (where does your plant live) Leaf Shape
wetland prairie/grassland cordate ovate
forest desert/arid lands
alpine peak other _______________ lanceolate palmate

Habitat Clues — adaptations your plant exhibits that other

make it suited to live here

Leaf Division
simple
Stem
single multiple compound (palmate/pinnate)

Leaf Attachment to Stem How does your plant protect itself

petiole sessile from predation?

Leaf Arrangement

alternate opposite

whorled basal

Pollinator (refer to Secret Life… lesson, or learn

more in the Native Plant Ecology section)
Leaf Margin bee butterfly
entire serrate beetle wind
bird moth
lobed other ____________ bat other _______________

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Plant Creation Checklist
Inflorescence Type Fruit Type (illustrate)

drupe pome
composite umbel

samara nut
raceme spike

legume berry
panicle solitary

other ___________________

Flower
Ethnobotanical Use (historical human use)
perfect flower imperfect flower
food medicinal
number of petals ___________________

number of stamens ___________________ fiber tools

other ___________________
Seed Dispersal Method (refer to Drupes…lesson)

mechanical/throw animal - edible

Author _______________________________________
wind/blow or shake water/float

animal - hitchhike animal - cache

other _______________

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Field Guide Page
Plant Name

Habitat:

Description:

Leaves:

Inflorescence/Flower:

Fruit:

Ethnobotanical use:

Field Notes (include adaptations and defense):

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 Teacher
T Page Mechanics of a Key
Obstacles don’t have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don’t turn around and give
Time Estimate: up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it
—Michael Jordan (1963-present)
Part 1: 40 minutes,
Part 2: 20-30 minutes
Best Season: Overview
All Learn how to identify plants using a dichotomous key by walking through
the steps of constructing a key to the students’ shoes. Once students are
comfortable with how a key works, they transfer their knowledge to keying
out native plants using local field guides.

Teacher Preparation
Teacher Hints ◆◆ Read background information and become familiar with the how a
dichotomous key works. Many field guides also have descriptions of
1. Set the stage for this activity how a key works and specifically how the key in that book works. If
by leading a discussion on you are using a specific guide with your students, it may be helpful to
human diversity and how read this section. It is usually found at the beginning of the guide.
important diversity is to the
◆◆ When trying out a dichotomous key on a native tree, try
health of the community of
starting with a native evergreen, which often are more
people. Link this to plant
simple to key out and can be used in any season.
diversity and health of plant
ecosystems (a more diverse ◆◆ Make copies of a tree key from a regional field guide
ecosystem tends to be more for students to use in Part 2 of the activity.
resistant to environmental
change).
2. Part 2 and 3 introduce
students to using two common Assessments
but different versions of a
dichotomous tree key. Walk
1 Student can explain how to use a dichotomous key
the students through the steps
while identifying a native tree. 2 Students can work in a cooperative group to construct a simple key
3. Most keys are heavy with
botanical vocabulary. Try 3 Students are able to key out a native plant using one or more
dichotomous keys
printing out the glossary from
this curriculum or providing
copies of Plant Identification
Terminology.
Additional Information/Reference
◆◆ Detka, Jon. Designing & Using a Dichotomous Key. Return of the Natives
A Cycle of Restoration Curriculum. Watershed Institute California State
University Monterey Bay.
http://watershed.csumb.edu/ron/roncor/cor/did.htm
◆◆ Harris, James G., and Melinda Woolf Harris. Plant
Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary 6th
edition. Spring Lake, UT: Spring Lake Pub., 2001.
 Student
S Project Mechanics of a Key
Obstacles don’t have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don’t turn around and give
up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it.
Materials Needed —Michael Jordan (1963-present)
Part 1:
◆◆ blank dichotomous Overview
key handout
Learn how a dichotomous key works by walking through the steps of creating
◆◆ flexible measuring tapes
a key to the shoes in your classroom. Apply your newly learned keying skills
Part 2: to using a key to native plants and you will be well on your way to identifying
◆◆ field guide with plant key native plants.
◆◆ overhead transparency
of key page
◆◆ native tree species Background Information
to key out (on school A dichotomous key is a useful tool that natural scientists use to identify all
grounds or use pictures kinds of living (or sometimes non-living) things. The word dichotomous comes
if not available) from the Greek dichotomia, meaning divided (from dicha, meaning “in two”).
A dichotomous key works by dividing one large group of objects (in our case
plants) into two smaller groups by using characteristics that do not overlap. The
wording is written as such that none of the objects in the group can belong to
both divisions. The key is put together in steps that you walk through in order,
Learning Objectives one step at a time. Each step will divide the group of objects into smaller and
smaller groups until you have just one option and an exact identification.
1. Learn to use a dichotomous
key A great way to learn how to use a key successfully is to construct one of your own.
The best test of your key is to give it to others and see if they can successfully
2. Develop the ability to phrase
key questions to construct a identify something with it. A key can be made in many ways and still get to the
key same end. The nature of the questions and the order that you ask them can vary;
it is only critical that the key works to get you to the correct answer.
3. Create a key for others
to use The key will provide a series of paired statements. It works kind of like a Choose
Your Own Adventure Book; each of the two statements will guide you along
a different path to another set of statements. Continuing in this step-by-step
manner, you will eventually discover an object’s identity.
Vocabulary Words Each step is made up of a pair of statements, called a “couplet.” Here is an
dichotomous example of a simple dichotomous key couplet. These paired statements split
evergreen, coniferous trees into one group, while deciduous, broadleaf trees
comprise a second group:
1a. Trees with leaves that are needle-like or scale-like and evergreen. . Group 1
OR
1b. Trees with leaves that are broad and deciduous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group 2
Hint: Pay attention to the numbers and letters at the beginning of each statement.
Each of the two statements in a couplet will always have the same number at the
beginning. If you choose the first statement (ex. 1a), the next steps you follow will
be indented below 1a. If you choose 1b., you will go forward choosing the next
steps indented below 1b.

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Each statement will tell you the number of the couplet to In this activity, you will make a dichotomous key to the
take next—just like the page directions in a Choose Your shoes in your classroom. Follow these simple guidelines to
Own Adventure Book. See the simplified example below. make your key a success:
This takes some practice to get used to! 1. Your first pair of statements should divide the shoes
in your class into two categories based on some fairly
Example: obvious trait, such as closed-toe shoes vs. sandals,
Imagine you find an evergreen conifer with needles or boots vs. shoes. Try to focus on traits that are
that are between 1.5 and 2 cm long, and cones that are commonly shared between several individuals, though
dark brown and about 2 cm long. Here is a possible it is okay to divide out one or a couple of individuals
dichotomous key, with the correct steps for this species earlier in the key if they are very obviously different.
written in bold: 2. Continue to build your key by asking more questions.
The objective of each step should be to identify a clear
1a. Trees with leaves that are needle-like or scale-
trait that divides the remaining individuals into only
like and evergreen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
two groups. Remember, it is vital that each statement
2a. Leaves are scale-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juniperus must be worded so as to have only two possible
answers.
2b. Leaves are needles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. The statement should refer to a trait that is obvious,
3a. Leaves are between 1.5 and 2.5 cm. . . . . . . 4 unambiguous, and observable. Traits that are opinions
(coolest, best, most fun, etc.) do not belong in a
4a. Seed cones are 3 to 8 cm long, cone scales
are dark purple, red, or brown. . . . . . . . . . . 5 dichotomous key.
4. Continue to pose questions in your key until all shoes
5a. Seed cones 3 to 7 cm long, leaves have been identified.
blue-green and square in cross
section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Picea glauca 5. Once complete, give your key to a partner and see if
they can follow it.
5b. Seed cones 4 to 8 cm long, leaves
dark green and flat in cross section.
Tsuga balsamea Directions
4b. Seed cones are 1.5 to 3 cm long, dark Part 1:
brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tsuga canadensis 1. Carefully read over the background information
before starting and refer to it as needed.
3b. Leaves are between 5 and 13 cm long. . . . . . . . 6
2. Either a teacher or a designated recorder should
6a. Leaves in bundles write down each key step that the class chooses as
of 5. . . . . . . . . . . . Pinus stroba you make your dichotomous key.
6b. Leaves in bundles 3. Start with the entire class placing one of their shoes
of 3. . . . . . . . . . . . Pinus rigida in a single group. This will help you visualize how
1b. Trees with leaves that are broad and deciduous . . . . . . . . 7 the key works.
4. The first step of the key will divide the class
7a. L eaves palmately lobed, up to 20 cm long; 25-35 into two parts by making a statement with only
m tall; bark brown-gray and furrowed; produces
two possible categories. Remember, as you ask
sweet sap that can be
harvested. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acer saccharum these questions you will want to use traits that
are obvious (easily seen) and measurable, not
7b. Leaves ovoid shaped, edges doubly serrate; 18- subjective (such as “cool”). Record the first question
30m tall; bark thin and white or reddish-brown, on your empty key sheet at the top. Now physically
shedding in move the shoes into the two new groupings.
paper-like sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Betula papyrifera

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Directions, continued
5. The next step is to divide your group of shoes again. 7. Once you have a completed key to the entire class,
Here’s a hint: notice that each grouping has only two choose a classmate and try to identify their shoe by
answers. For example: “Divide into those that have working through the key. Were you able to properly
blue laces and those that do not have blue laces.” identify them?
Notice that the question didn’t ask you to divide into 8. Discussion questions. How does the statement “Shoes
those with blue laces and those with green laces, since with mud on the bottoms” work? What if you used this
it is possible that other shoe lace colors, such as black, key with the classroom tomorrow? Would the muddy
brown, orange, gray, multi-colored, or pink may be shoe statement still lead to the same person? For the
present. Record your division on your key sheet and same reason, the easiest and best plant keys do not
physically separate your shoes into those groups. depend on having a flower or fruit visible; you might
6. Continue to work through the groups until each shoe have one to look at today, but next week is a different
has been individually identified. Be sure that you have story. It is, however, quite common for keys to focus on
recorded each step on the dichotomous handout. flower and fruit characteristics, as they are quite often
necessary for proper identification.

Part 2:
1. Key out a native tree species outside (or from of statements) where you were unsure about which
photographs if your school has no native trees) using a statement to choose and choose the one you did
tree field guide for your region. not choose the first time. See where this takes you.
2. The first step in this key will likely ask you if you have Sometimes keying out a difficult species can be a bit of
an evergreen or deciduous tree. Subsequent steps will an adventure so have fun with it!
help you to narrow down the identity of your native Hint: It helps to write down which choices you make
tree. as you key out a species.
3. Walk through the steps of the key by following the 5. Even if you think you know the name of the tree, work
numbers until you reach a name for your plant. through all of the steps in the key for practice. Then
4. Confirm that you have arrived at the right species by try another species. The more you do this, the easier
finding a description for the appearance and habitat it gets!
of your species and make sure that they match with
the individual you chose. For example, if you chose
a tree from a low wetland and then the species you
arrive at in the key lives high in the mountains, you
know you have made a mistake somewhere in the key.
This happens to professional botanists all the time.
When this happens, go back to any couplets (pairs

Self Assessments
1 Explain how to use a dichotomous key.
2 Cooperate as a group to construct a simple key, trade keys, and critique the results.
3 Identify a native plant using one or more dichotomous keys from local field guides.
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Taking it Further In the Field!
Using a field guide to identify native plants is the backbone of this section of
Using your field guide, key the curriculum. You have learned about plant terms, plant families, scientific
out two plants from the same names, plant keys, and you now have the skills and tools to identify plants.
plant family. Use plants from Take a local field guide out into nature and identify the plants you see!
one of the following families Don’t forget to look for helpful clues, such as the ecology of your plant.
Where does it live? Are you looking at a plant in a wetland,
(see activity “Plants Have grassland, on a mountain or in a forest? These are all
clues that will help you identify the plant you have
Families Too” for native
found. You now have the basic tools to identify
plant species suggestions): plants; it is now your challenge to increase your
◆◆ Liliaceae skills with practice, practice, practice!
(lily family)
◆◆ Fabaceae
(pea family)
◆◆ Apiaceae
(parsley or carrot family)
◆◆ Lamiaceae (mint family)
Reflection
Each plant you key out may be unique, but it is also a member of a larger
For an extra challenge, try:
ecological grouping. Plants live in communities and are part of an even
◆◆ Asteraceae larger ecosystem. Look at one of the plants that you have identified and
(sunflower family) write about how the plant you chose belongs to a larger community of
interacting species. Think about both the plant and yourself in the context
of your communities and in your larger ecosystems. What do you have in
common with your plants species? How does your role in your community
compare to that of your plant?

Resources
◆◆ Field guides for your ecoregion (see Appendix for listings)

◆◆ Detka, Jon. Designing & Using a Dichotomous Key. Return

of the Natives A Cycle of Restoration Curriculum.
Watershed Institute California State University Monterey
Bay. http://watershed.csumb.edu/ron/roncor/cor/did.htm

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Construct Your Own Key
Add more branches and boxes as necessary.
 Teacher
T Page Make A Field Guide
The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes.
—Marcel Proust (1871-1922)
Time Estimate:
Part 1: 60 minute session Overview
Part 2: Additional field and Students culminate the exploration of botanical skills learned in the plant
class sessions needed identification section of this curriculum by constructing a field guide to the
Best Season: plants (and more, if desired) of a natural area on or near the school grounds.
Spring,
Summer,
Fall Preparation
◆◆ Before taking students outdoors, scope out a suitable location for this
activity, preferably on the school grounds or close by. If possible, use a
natural area with a diversity of plant species.
◆◆ Divide the students into teams of four or fewer.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ Begin with “Mechanics of a Key” and “Invent- ◆◆ Consider the scope of your guide. For example,
A-Plant” activities in this guide. You and you could have students produce a guide to
your students will need to understand how just the trees in your school yard, or broaden
a dichotomous key works and how they are the scope to include both trees and shrubs.
constructed as well as the components of a field ◆◆ One possibility is to build your guide year by year,
guide page before beginning this activity. so that the first class produces a guide to trees, the
◆◆ The “In the Field!” section below can help your next year produces a section on shrubs, and the
school make a community service connection with following year adds a section for wildflowers.
a local park or natural area. Identify a location that ◆◆ To make this lesson more challenging, instruct your
is accessible to your students and approach the students to choose plants for their key that have a lot
governing organization for permission. Explain of physical similarities (i.e. several conifer species).
what your students will be doing and that they will To make this lesson easier, have your students
present them with the finished project. Invite a staff choose plants that are obviously very different.
person from the organization to help mentor the
students. Invite them on the field tripto the natural
area to learn more about its ecosystems and history.

Assessments
Exchange keys among student groups and have What works well about the key? Did they include
each group test other groups’ keys for effectiveness. terminology that you could understand? Were the
Write a peer review of the key or guide that others steps of the key easy to follow? What constructive
have constructed. The review should be balanced, suggestions can you give for improving the ease of use?
noting both positive attributes of the guide and
giving constructive suggestions for improvement.

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The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes.
—Marcel Proust (1871-1922)

Materials Needed
Part 1: Overview
◆◆ flagging tape Put your new plant identification skills to work. Use your knowledge of
◆◆ dichotomous key handout dichotomous keys, plant terminology, families, and scientific names to
(Mechanics of a Key lesson) construct a key to a natural area on or near the school grounds.
◆◆ clipboard
◆◆ pencils
◆◆ waterproof marker Background Information
Part 2: In this activity, you will design a field guide to the plants (and more if you like!)
on your school grounds or a natural area in your community. A field guide will
◆◆ field guide template
(Create-a-Plant lesson) be an excellent asset to your community and will provide visitors to the area
with important natural history and botanical information. Your teacher may ask
◆◆ colored pencils that you engage in additional community service opportunities, such as using
◆◆ digital camera (optional) your field guide as a tool to lead groups on tours, or giving presentations to
◆◆ computer (optional) groups to promote use of the area.
The previous activity, “Mechanics of a Key,” gives you the groundwork for
constructing a dichotomous key, which will be necessary to include for people
to be able to use your field guide.
Learning Objectives To ensure the success of your dichotomous key, each question can only have
◆◆ Construct a dichotomous two possible answers. Your key will not function properly if there are more
key to plants in your area than two answers per question. Read the following pair of statements and find
◆◆ Apply plant terminology the problem: “Plant is less than 30 cm tall.” OR “Plant is more than 30 cm tall.” In
correctly which category would a plant that is exactly 30 cm tall be placed? This statement
◆◆ Compare and contrast plant needs to be reworded to read: “Plant is less than or equal to 30 cm tall,” OR,
structure and function “Plant is more than 30 cm tall.” Now there are only two possible options.
The Invent-A-Plant activity will give you an idea of the type of information
that should be included in a field guide. Review the background information
for this activity. Remember to use the other skills from the plant identification
Vocabulary Words section (such as terminology). Each page in your field guide should include a
photo or drawing (or both) that shows the general look of the plant with close-
dichotomous key ups for distinguishing features. The following is an example of what a page for
the paper birch (Betula papyrifera) might look like. Key features to be sure to
include for each plant are in parentheses:

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 Student
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Example: Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera)
◆◆ General description: Deciduous; medium-sized elevations; open to dense woods; found mixed with a
tree, averaging 16 meters tall, up to 30 meters; young variety of other species, generally in second-growth
branches and trees have reddish brown color; in mature forest. (where it lives; with what other species; specific
trees, the white bark peels from the trunk in papery soil types or habitats if relevant)
strips, and is generally marked with distinct horizontal ◆◆ Enthonobotany: The peeling bark can be used for
lines and raised pores. (deciduous vs. evergreen; tree, basket-making and canoes; the sap was chewed and
shrub, grass, or forb; height; bark characteristics) used as glue. (how Native American tribes or other
◆◆ Leaves: Alternate; simple; oval to round with sharp- people use this species)
pointed tips; about 10 cm long; green above, pale ◆◆ Notes: Young stands of paper birch provide palatable
below; double-serrate margins. (arrangement; simple vs. browse and good cover for deer and moose. Porcupines
compound; color; size; basic shape; margin description) eat the inner bark. The seeds provide food for a variety
◆◆ Flowers: Staminate catkins (4-10 cm) form in the fall and of birds and small mammals. Colonizes rapidly following
mature in May-July. Female catkins (2.5-5 cm) emerge in fire. Do some research to learn more about your plants
May-July. (where applicable: color; number of petals; wildlife uses and other cool facts. Consider including
symmetry; size; arrangement; time of emergence) observations about your species in the area you are
◆◆ Fruits: Winged nutlets, 1.5 mm x 1 mm; wings broader working—for example, perhaps there is a large stand
than main body of nutlet; light brown. (type, color, size, of your plant on the south edge of the property, or
description, mode of dispersal) you notice that the plant seems to prefer the shade of
certain trees, etc.
◆◆ Ecology: Generally in moist sites, from low to medium

Student Directions
Part 1
1. Divide into teams of 4 or fewer. none of your options are subjective or relative.
2. Each team should first select individuals of different For example, you cannot ask if a plant is tall or
plant species from a small area. To make this project short. You must give specific measurements.
more challenging, choose plant species that share ◆◆ Be careful with statements that can vary greatly
more obvious similarities. Place a flag next to each from one individual plant to the next (such as
one and number consecutively with a permanent colors or measurements). Be sure to observe
marker. Choose plants with flowers or fruit if they are several individual plants of the same species
available. Try to choose plants that are fairly close before deciding to include these characteristics
together for ease of comparison. Carefully examine in your key.
each of your plants. ◆◆ Consider the time of year. If you are doing this
3. Devise the first pair of statements for your key. activity in the spring, the same species might be
Remember: much taller later in the summer. You can cross-
◆◆ Begin with statements that are broad and general check your information with a field guide for
and apply to all of your individuals. For example: your region or an online source.
“Plants have woody stems” OR “Plants are 4. Continue working through your key in this manner
herbaceous (non-woody).” All paired statements until your key directs the user through the series of
should have only two possibilities. Be sure that statements to the individual plant.

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Directions, continued
5. Fill in your blank key handout when you are confident group and try to work through their key filling in the
that the questions you have chosen will lead the number of the plants for the answer. When you are
reader to the individual plants. done, look at the answer key. How did you do? What
6. When finished, exchange the test keys with another parts of their key work well and are clear? What parts
are confusing? How would you improve their key?

Part 2: Make a field guide for a natural area of your schoolyard.

1. Do a complete survey of the plant species in the 3. In the classroom, use the internet and other field
area you will be describing. Note the habitat and guides to collect research about your species. Collect
specific locations where each is growing. Record additional information on bloom times, flowers,
vital information for each of the plants that are in fruits, and the scientific name. Be sure to find out to
your key on the identification handout. Describe the which plant family your species belongs.
plants as completely as possible, using correct plant 4. Assemble your information together in the form of
terminology. Include a sketch or photograph of the a field guide page for your species. The first pages
species. of your guide should be a dichotomous key to all of
2. Use a published plant field guide to identify the species. Devote a half or whole page of your field
your species. If you are unable to make a positive guide to each plant. Include a description, drawing
identification, collect a specimen to press (ONLY or photograph, the common and scientific names,
collect if you have permission) and check with local and anything else interesting that you discovered
experts who can help you identify them (check the in your research. Use published plant field guides
appendix of this guide for a list). as examples for the type of information that is
important to include.

Taking it Further
◆◆ Design a brochure or booklet for a natural area at or near
your school.
◆◆ Use a computer program to design the brochure to advance your
technological design skills. Include a simple map, a key for identifying the
plants, descriptions, photos, and the common and scientific names for all the
plants in the key. If available, include some site history information in your brochure.
Make your brochure available for others to use by putting up a display at the front
of the school, sharing with other classrooms, or giving a presentation to a teacher staff meeting,
parent or community group. Or, create a kiosk at the natural area and have your brochure
available for curious visitors.
◆◆ Work with an elementary school to make a field guide to schoolyard plants. Design a simple key
that uses only pictures or drawings. Teach a group of younger students to use it.

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In the Field!
Volunteer to make a brochure or field guide to be used in a city or county park.
◆◆ Have a staff person accompany you on your visit to help define the area for your field
guide and to help with identification. Go to the site and choose a short interpretive
walk for the field guide. Choose the plants that you would like to include in your field
guide. Divide into groups with each group managing a part of the field guide. Different
groups can be in charge of making a simple map with identification stops, constructing a key, taking photographs,
and writing the descriptions.
◆◆ Return to the classroom and use a computer to make a brochure for the park. The brochure should have the name
of the park and credit the class as creators of the brochure (example: created by Any School, 8th period biology
students, 2008). Ask an expert to review your brochure for accuracy and your teacher to proofread for errors.
When you have finished the project, present the park with a printed brochure and
an electronic copy for future use.

Science Inquiry
Use your inquiring mind. Design a different way of sorting or classifying plants to
identify them. Some field guides divide plants by growth form or flower color or
plant family. What other ways can you come up with? No classification system is
perfect. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the system you chose?

Reflection
Like most skills, plant identification improves with practice. Do you feel that you have the tools you
need to identify plants? Write the steps that you would use to indentify a new plant. Make a list of skills
you need to practice or improve on to make plant identification easier for you. This can be called your
plan of study for plant identification. Could this planning process help you learn another skill or help
with a different subject at school?
Write in your journal. What do you gain by learning the names of plants? Can you connect with and
appreciate the plants without learning their names? What are some of the other ways that you can
experience plants other than by identifying them?

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 Teacher
T Page The Place I Call Home
Life is like a landscape. You live in the midst of it but can describe it only from the
Time Estimate: vantage point of distance. —Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974)
Two sessions, and/or time
outside of class Overview
Best Season: In this lesson, students will take an in-depth look at their home ecoregion.
Any The major, Level I ecoregions of the United States can be broken down
further into Level II and Level III ecoregions, which are nested within one
another. Each group of students will be assigned to study one of the Level
III ecoregions that comprise the Level I ecoregion where they live. They will
present their research to the rest of the class.

Preparation
Teacher Hints ◆◆ Print copies of the profile of your Level I ecoregion from the “Level I
◆◆ Consider setting a minimum ecoregion descriptions” handout from the “Exploring the Ecoregions of the
number of resources United States Lesson”, or have your students access the information online
students must use to at: ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/cec_na/CEC_NAeco.pdf
research their ecoregion.
◆◆ You will need to look at a map of the Level I ecoregions (see website above)
◆◆ This lesson works well when to determine which Level I ecoregion you call home. Appendix III lists the
preceded by the Exploring Level III ecoregions that are nested within your Level I ecoregion. Assign one
the Ecoregions of the of these Level III ecoregions to each group of students to study and present
United States lesson, where to the class.
students are introduced to
the concept of ecoregions
and the ways in which abiotic
factors influence the biotic
elements of a region
Assessments
1 Name and describe a rare or invasive plant
species found in your ecoregion.

2 Name and locate one (or more) natural areas in your ecoregion.
3 Describe at least two primary land-uses in your ecoregion.

Additional Information
◆◆ Descriptions of Level I ecoregions: ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/
cec_na/CEC_NAeco.pdf
◆◆ Descriptions of Level III ecoregions: http://www.cec.org/sites/default/
files/Atlas/Files/Terrestrial_Ecoregions_L3/TerrestrialEcoregions_L3_
GeoPDF.zip

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Life is like a landscape. You live in the midst of it but can describe it only from the
vantage point of distance. —Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974)
Materials Needed
◆◆ profile cards for your Level
I ecoregion (Appendix III) Overview
◆◆ poster board OR What makes your ecoregion special? Whether you have lived in your
◆◆ Powerpoint ecoregion for a long or short time, it holds many surprises. In this lesson,
◆◆ computer and you will take an in-depth look at your home ecoregion. The major, Level I
internet access ecoregions of the United States can be broken down further into Level II
and Level III ecoregions, which are nested within one another. You will be
assigned to study one of the Level III ecoregions that comprise the Level I
ecoregion where you live to understand your ecoregion in greater detail.
Learning Objectives You will present your research to the rest of the class.
◆◆ Use logic and creativity
to relate the physical and
geographic attributes Background Information
of an ecoregion to its In the last lesson, we learned about the way climate and major geologic factors
biological characteristics influence the different regions of our country. In this lesson, we will shift our
◆◆ Use reliable resources to focus to a smaller scale. You will study your own ecoregion in greater detail, to
research an ecoregion gain a better understanding of the place that you call home. You will use the
◆◆ Compile and present knowledge gained from the last lesson to look for similar patterns within your
information own local landscape. As you become familiar with your own ecoregion, think
about what you already know based on your observations of your surroundings.
Ask yourself the following questions about the place you call home:
◆◆ Where do I live?
Vocabulary Words ◆◆ What is the nature of this place?
topography
◆◆ What sustains my community?
rainshadow
Picture where your hometown is located on a map of the world. Are you near or
geology far from the equator? One of the primary factors that influences the “personality”
latitude of your ecoregion is the latitude. This affects the overall climate of your region,
and the prevalence of seasons. As you move from south to north, the climate
generally becomes much cooler, due to the angle and duration of sun exposure.
The Earth’s tilted axis means that ecoregions located far to the south or north of
the equator spend part of the year pointed away from the sun, causing winter.
The farther from the sun an ecoregion is located, the more pronounced the
seasonal changes are. Think about the yearly seasonal changes you observe.
Are they subtle or dramatic? You might detect changes in temperature, weather
patterns, migrating animals, and vegetation.
Now think about where you are located on the continent. If you live near the
Great Lakes or near the ocean, you might experience the moderating effects
of water on climate. Water responds very slowly to changing temperatures, so
regions adjacent to large bodies of water often have relatively warmer winters
and cooler summers than inland locales of similar latitude. If you live in the

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Background Information, continued
interior of the country, far from large bodies of water, you Pacific Northwest produces rainforests of immense trees.
likely experience seasonal changes that are much more The timber industry that sprung up to harvest these trees
extreme. led to the growth of cities and towns throughout the
Next, consider the elevation where you live. How far northwest, such as Seattle, Washington. Then there are
above sea level is your hometown? How might that affect small towns in the Midwestern corn belt, where much of
the climate? Elevation can make a big difference on both our country’s food supply is grown. The extensive fibrous
large and small scales. For example, snow might be a rare root systems and nitrogen-fixing associations of native
occurrence in one location, while another location just a prairie vegetation helped to form the deep, fertile soils in
few miles away and a few hundred feet higher in elevation this region, making it an ideal place to grow food crops.
might experience snow regularly in the winter. Where is your hometown? What was it about the natural
landscape that led to the settlement of that location?
Geology and topography (the surface shape of the
landscape) are also key parts of every ecoregion’s character. What sustains your community? The economy and culture
Is the area where you live influenced by the rainshadow of the place you live reflect its natural history. In North
effect? You might live on the windward side of a mountain Dakota, for example, Mandan tribes grew squash, beans,
range, and thus receive a great deal of precipitation as air and corn in the fertile soils deposited by floods along the
masses rise in elevation and release their moisture. Or, banks of the Missouri River and its tributaries. If you look
perhaps you live on the leeward side of a mountain range, at satellite imagery of the Missouri today, you can see farm
where little precipitation falls and the climate is more arid. fields lining the rivers where farmers still benefit from the
Aspect, or the direction a slope faces, is important to the fertile soil deposits and accessible water. Farther from the
local climate, too—a town located on a north facing slope rivers, cattle now graze the same bunch grasses that once
might still be facing winter-like conditions when the warm sustained a different ungulate, the American bison. While
weather of spring has arrived on south-facing slopes. our country has changed considerably over the years, our
various communities continue to be sustained by many of
How do these abiotic factors—geology, topography,
the same ecosystem processes. What are the major land
latitude, climate, and soils—affect the native vegetation
uses in your region? Do you live among forests, where the
in your area? Think back to what you know about plant
timber industry is still a major industry, or in an agricultural
adaptations. What kinds of adaptations do plants need to
area? From which rivers does your community draw its
survive where you live? Consider the local native plants that
drinking water? What are the historic and prehistoric
you know. How do they exhibit some of these adaptations?
legacies of land-use in your area?
Why do you live there? Our cities and towns are located
Many of us now live in urban areas, where our communities
where they are for a reason. New York City, for example,
may not be obviously centered around agriculture or
grew out of a flourishing beaver trade. The winding
forestry. But though they may be inconspicuous, natural
waterways and wetlands were lush with a diversity of
processes are still present and going on all around
native forests and marsh vegetation that supported a wide
us. Whether you live in the city or on a farm, our lives
variety of life forms, including a robust beaver population.
are intertwined with the natural features of the places
It was the lucrative beaver trade that led to European
where we live.
settlement of the area and eventually dramatic growth
into the city it is today. On the other side of the continent,
the heavy rainfall captured by the Cascade Range in the

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Student Directions
1. Break into groups of two to four people. You will be 8. Your presentation should discuss the following:
working together to study one section of your Level 9. Location: Where is your ecoregion located? Use a
I ecoregion. map to show the general location of your ecoregion,
2. Begin by reading about about your Level I and relate it to the location of major mountain
ecoregion. Your teacher will give you a hardcopy, ranges, oceans, and lakes.
or you can find the EPA website at ftp://ftp.epa. 10. Physical Characteristics: Describe the general
gov/wed/ecoregions/cec_na/CEC_NAeco.pdf. This topography of your ecoregion. Is it mostly
profile page will have information on the physical mountainous, or does it primarily cover large open
setting, biological setting, and human activities that plains? Are there many wetlands, rivers, or lakes in
characterize your ecoregion. your ecoregion?
3. Your teacher will assign your group to study one 11. Climate: What is the average annual temperature?
of the Level III ecoregions that is nested within the What is the annual average precipitation? At what
larger Level I ecoregion in which you live. time of year does this precipitation usually fall,
4. Access a description of your Level III ecoregion at and in what form (e.g. rain or snow)? How do the
http://www.cec.org/sites/default/files/Atlas/Files/ physical characteristics of your ecoregion affect
Terrestrial_Ecoregions_L3/TerrestrialEcoregions_ the climate? How might they affect climates of
L3_GeoPDF.zip This will provide a good neighboring ecoregions? How might neighboring
background, but you will need to do additional ecoregions affect the climate of your ecoregion?
research elsewhere. Good sources of additional 12. Biological Characteristics: What are some of the
information include: publications and websites most common groups of native plant species in
from the Bureau of Land Management, the EPA, the your ecoregion (for example, is your ecoregion
United States Forest Service, or the United States dominated by coniferous trees, deciduous trees,
Fish and Wildlife Service; brochures, websites, or or small shrubs)? Why might this group of species
travel information for natural areas or parks within thrive here? Hint: Think about the physical
the ecoregion. characteristics and the climate in your ecoregion,
5. You will likely encounter unfamiliar terminology. and what adaptations plants need to survive in such
Part of your task will be to look up unknown words a setting.
and use your new vocabulary to help your class 13. Human Activities: What are some of the primary
understand your ecoregion. land-uses in your ecoregion? What features of
6. Use the information to prepare a presentation your ecoregion make this a profitable use of the
to give to the class. Use posters or Powerpoint to land? What are some of the notable impacts on
include visual aids that will help your classmates the landscape caused by these land-uses? Can you
picture your ecoregion. Be sure to include a map think of ways these impacts might be minimized or
that indicates the location of your ecoregion. reduced?
7. Much of the material that you will be asked to 14. Diversity within Ecoregions: Even Level III
discuss during your presentation will not come ecoregions are very large, and the landscapes
directly from research, but from brainstorming they encompass are very diverse. Your Level III
your own hypotheses based on your understanding ecoregion has many different plant communities
of the interplay between physical, climatic, within it. Use a combination of research and your
and biological features. Be sure to refer to the own observations to describe the variety of plant
background information for help with this, and communities encompassed by your ecoregion.
share ideas within your group to come up with What abiotic factors might affect and help form
creative and informed hypotheses. these communities? Hint: A botanist is a good

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Student Directions, continued
15. person to contact for more information here; try How are they adapted to live in your ecoregion?
reaching out to botanists from the Bureau of Land 17. Be sure to cite the sources you used for research.
Management (BLM), US Forest Service, US Fish and
Wildlife Service, or other agencies, non-profits, or 18. Present your information to the class. Be sure that
watershed councils. everyone in your group plays a part. Use your
creativity to display images and information that
16. Local Plants: Include a profile of one native help your classmates to picture your ecoregion.
plant and one invasive plant that occurs in your
ecoregion. Include descriptions of the appearance,
adaptations and habitat of your two plant examples.

Class Discussion
◆◆ How does human activity impact your ecoregion now? How do you expect it to change in the
next 10 years? The next 50 years? Include both negative impacts and positive impacts.
◆◆ What actions can you take to minimize harmful impacts and enhance positive impacts on your
local area?

Taking it Further
Build an ecoregion guidebook: Each group should create a profile page for their group’s
Level III ecoregion. Include information with the headings: Physical Characteristics,
Climate, Biological Characteristics, Human Activity, and Plant Communities. Add pictures
that help illustrate the natural features of your ecoregion. Put all of the profile pages
together to make a guidebook for your entire Level I ecoregion. Work together to design
a cover and a description of the ecoregion as a whole for the introduction.

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In the Field!
Go on a field trip or go on your own time to a natural area in your own Level III ecoregion. Bring a hand lens and your
field journal. Find and observe several samples of different native plant species and take careful notes in your field
journal about each plant. Use your knowledge of plant adaptations to explain how each species is adapted to your
ecoregion. Where else might these species thrive? What factors do you think limit the range of each species?

Science Inquiry
Do this exercise before beginning work on your ecoregion presentation: Use your knowledge
of the physical characteristics of your ecoregion, latitude, and other features to predict where
the divisions for the smaller ecoregions that comprise your ecoregion might lie. Use Google
Earth to examine the location of mountain ranges, large bodies of water, and valleys.
Look up (or draw from your own experience) the wind patterns in your part of the
country to help you understand the climate. Draw your predicted divisions on a map
of your Level 1 ecoregion. Explain how you came up with your divisions.

Reflection
What sets your Level III ecoregion apart from the others around it? What makes
it a special place? Think about what you like about the different seasons: winter,
spring, summer and fall. Are there things that you enjoy doing outdoors that are
enhanced by or only possible in your ecoregion? Do you have a special place
that you like to visit? Describe it. If you don’t have a particular special place, think
about characteristics that would make an outdoor place special to you—describe
it. What are some things that you can do to help the conservation efforts in your
community, ecoregion, and state?

Assessments Resources
1 Name and describe one native
and one invasive plant species
◆◆ Descriptions of level I ecoregions: ftp://ftp.epa.gov/
wed/ecoregions/cec_na/CEC_NAeco.pdf
found in your ecoregion. ◆◆ Descriptions of level III ecoregions: http://www.cec.org/
sites/default/files/Atlas/Files/Terrestrial_Ecoregions_L3/
2 Name and locate one (or more)
natural areas in your ecoregion.
TerrestrialEcoregions_L3_GeoPDF.zip

3 Describe at least two primary

land-uses in your ecoregion.

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 Teacher
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Between every two pines is a doorway to a new world. — John Muir

Time Estimate:
1 hour or more—can be
Overview
divided intotwo sessions In this lesson students will collect data to compare and contrast two or more
ecosystem types in your ecoregion. Using this data, students will identify
Best Season: key adaptations that plants have evolved to survive in different ecosystems.
fall,
spring

Preparation
◆◆ Obtain meter square frames or hula hoops. Meter square frames are much
easier for incorporating math.
◆◆ Identify areas for study. Students will need two different ecosystem types
to study. It is helpful if the two systems are near or adjacent to one another,
but this is not necessary. Try to find two areas that are distinctly different.
Teacher Hints Ideas include an open prairie or grassland, a deciduous forest, a coniferous
forest, a riparian area, or a wetland. In an urban environment this could be as
◆◆ Students will choose simple as different sections of a park or open lot, as long as different biotic
two distinctly different and abiotic features can be observed.
ecosystems, such as a prairie
◆◆ Provide copies of the Plant Adaptations Chart (from the Create-A-Plant
and a forest, and compare
lesson).
biotic and abiotic factors in
those areas. Since students
will be learning about biotic
and abiotic factors and their Assessments
influence on ecosystems,
consider supplementing this
lesson with other lessons on
1 Create visual displays of data (e.g., graphs,
tables) comparing observations.
soils and natural cycles, such
as energy, water, or nutrients. 2 Explain similarities and differences among ecosystems.
◆◆ “Nothing in biology makes
sense except in the light
of evolution.” (Theodosius
3 Demonstrate an understanding of the connection between the
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors of an ecosystem.
Dobzhansky). Emphasize
evolutionary adaptation
to the specific ecosystems
4 Name a characteristic that would allow a plant to
survive in each of the following situations: low light, high
the students study. light, wind, low moisture, and high moisture.
◆◆ Interactions in ecology are
rarely simple. Help students
to understand that not only
do abiotic factors affect
biological organisms, but
Additional Information
that the reverse is true, also. ◆◆ Background on succession: Pidwirny, M. (2006). Plant Succession.
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition: http://
physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9i.html
◆◆ Missouri Botanical Garden, background on Biology of Plants and Plant
Adaptations: http://mbgnet.net/bioplants/adapt.html

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Between every two pines is a doorway to a new world. — John Muir

Materials Needed Overview

Each team needs: In this lesson you will collect data to compare and contrast two or more
◆◆ clipboard, pencil, ecosystems in your ecoregion. Using your data, you will identify key
and data sheet characteristics that plants have evolved to survive the conditions in different
◆◆ thermometer suitable ecosystems.
for air and soil
temperature readings
◆◆ meter square frame Learning Objectives
or hula hoop
◆◆ Collect and evaluate ecosystem data to compare two ecosystems
◆◆ trowel
◆◆ Identify plant phenotypes (plant characteristics)
◆◆ small metric ruler
adapted to specific environmental conditions
◆◆ compass
◆◆ Identify connections between biotic (living)
and abiotic (non-living) things

Vocabulary Words
ecosystem
Background Information
adaptation Through careful observation of different ecosystems, an ecologist can study
how plants adapt to different environmental conditions. In this lesson you will
biotic
identify key ecosystem properties and compare them between ecosystems
abiotic in the region. You will investigate questions such as: How do soils differ in a
quadrat forest, grassland, and wetland? Do plants in one ecosystem have different
communities characteristics than plants in another ecosystem? As you study and compare
succession ecosystems, learn how plants and animals adapt to their environment, and what
conditions they need to survive.
disturbance
climax community Ecosystems are self-sustaining systems in nature that include both the living
organisms and the nonliving elements within them. Ecosystems are dynamic;
allelopathy
energy, nutrients and water constantly cycle through them. Within each
mutualism ecosystem there are communities made up of biotic (living) organisms,
competition including flora (plants) and fauna (animals). Interactions between all the
parasitism organisms tie the ecosystem together into a functional unit.
predation Interactions between organisms can be classified into different types. In
phenotype mutualism, two species both benefit from their interaction with each other. The
relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legume plants, and between
natural selection
pollinators and flowering plants are two examples of mutualisms. The opposite
of mutualism is competition, when two organisms struggle to acquire the same
resource. Competition is generally costly to both organisms. Plants compete for
sunlight, water, space, and nutrients. They employ several methods for this—
they shade out the competition, send out far reaching roots, and sometimes
even produce chemicals (allelopathy) to poison their competition. Other
interactions can occur between herbivores and plants (predation), and parasites
and plants (parasitism). In some cases, plants can even parasitize other plants.
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Background Information, continued
All ecosystems change over time in a process called to other conditions and challenges, such as drought, flood,
succession. Succession can be rapid or slow, but is a fire, wind, and limited space? Keep in mind that plants must
continuous process that occurs in all types of ecosystems. also defend against predation and attract pollinators—all
The successional “clock” can be reset after an ecosystem is at the same time, and all in the name of survival.
disturbed. Naturally occurring disturbances can include
fire, flood, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. Manmade
disturbances may result from habitat restoration, logging,
farming, or any activity that clears away the current
vegetation, fungi, bacteria, and microorganisms that are
key to ecosystem function. In the absence of a disturbance,
succession generally occurs so slowly that it is difficult to
observe or detect it. This type of succession is illustrated
when grassland changes to forest, or when a pond fills in
over time. If no disturbances interrupt the succession cycle,
it eventually comes to a near standstill, a point where the
ecosystem is hardly changing at all. This standstill is referred
to as the climax community.
In this lesson you will examine abiotic (nonliving) factors
such as air, water, and sunlight and observe how they
affect biotic (living) factors in two distinctly different
ecosystems. By making detailed site observations, you will Individual plants cannot adapt to conditions within their
connect plants’ phenotype (physical characteristics) to own lifetime. However, over many generations, through
the characteristics of the ecosystem in which they live. For natural selection, the most “fit” phenotypes (the ones
example, plants are adapted to different levels of sunlight, best suited to the environment) will be more successful,
moisture, temperature, and wind. Low-light environments and increase in frequency and number. For example, if
frequently include plants with larger leaf surface areas a narrow-leaved plant germinates in a heavily shaded
to capture more sunlight for photosynthesis. In high- environment, it is unlikely that the plant will secure enough
light environments, leaves tend to be narrow to reduce light to survive and reproduce. If this phenotype is unable
surface area and minimize the loss of moisture through to reproduce, it will not persist in this environment. In
evaporation. Look for these types of patterns when you this way, plant communities are gradually shaped by the
make your observations. Think of other adaptations ecosystems they inhabit. In turn, these plants affect and
plants could exhibit. Look at leaf margins (edges), surface change the rest of the ecosystem.
area characteristics (e.g., shape, texture, and size) as well
as the angle of the leaf to sunlight. How might plants adapt

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Student Directions
Compare two different ecosystems (e.g., forest vs. grassland, woodland vs. wetland), by examining air and soil
temperatures, soil moisture, surface litter, wind speed, canopy cover (shading), plant community composition, plant
characteristics, evidence of wildlife, and how all these factors come together to make
up an ecosystem.

1. Divide into teams. For 30-45 minutes, following steps ◆◆ Take soil temperature readings at 3 cm and 10 cm
2 through 10, collect and record data about your first depths. With a trowel, slice into the soil layer to
ecosystem. 3 cm, insert your thermometer and tuck the soil
back around it, leaving it for 3 minutes before
2. On your data sheet, record the date, time, general recording the reading. Repeat this process at 10 cm.
weather conditions (e.g., sunny, cloudy), and a simple
site description. 8. Plant studies:
◆◆ Canopy cover: Estimate the percent of your
3. Use a square meter frame or hula hoop as a quadrat. quadrat that is covered by overhead vegetation
Place the meter square frame or hula hoop into (trees or tall shrubs). Imagine that you are lying
a random section of the ecosystem. Calculate in on the ground with your head in the quadrat and
centimeters the total area of your quadrat, then figure look at the sky. Zero percent (0%) cover would
out the dimensions of 1%, 5% and 10% of the total mean that no overhead vegetation is visible;
area. For example, in a one square meter plot, is 1% complete cover (100%) would mean that you
10 cm by 10 cm, or 5 cm by 5 cm, or 2 cm by 2 cm? cannot not see the sky above your quadrat.
This will help you estimate later. Use the data sheet
to record your observations as you work through the ◆◆ Percent ground cover: estimate the percent of
steps outlined below. your quadrat that is covered in vegetation. Can
you see bare ground, rocks, or woody debris
4. Air temperature: take a reading 1 meter from the between the vegetation? Record in percent the
ground. Allow 3 minutes for the thermometer to makeup of the ground cover (e.g., forbs/herbs,
register the correct reading. grasses, moss, etc.) as indicated on the data sheet.
5. Light levels: estimate how much sunlight reaches ◆◆ Plant observations: how many different species
the ground in your quadrat. To do this look up of plants do you see in your quadrat? It is not
and figure out what percent of the sky you can see necessary to identify specific plants by name.
through the canopy. Count the number of different plant species with
leaves that: are very narrow (less than 1 com),
6. Wind speed and direction: estimate wind speed
narrow (less than or equal to 3 cm), and broad
on a scale of 0 (no wind) to 10 (strong wind).
(greater than 3 cm wide). Record the total number
7. Soil studies:
◆◆ Place your hand on the soil to feel for
moisture levels. Stick your finger in 2 cm to
check if it is different from the surface. Is it
wet (mud on your hand), moist, or dry?
◆◆ Surface litter: examine the dead material
and decomposition (such as leaves, stems,
dead insects, etc.) on the surface of the soil.
List what you see and measure the depth
(thickness) of the litter layer in centimeters.

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of species you see. Estimate the height of each 10. Aesthetics: Describe any patterns you observe
type/layer of plant cover (e.g., herbaceous, shrub, in textures, colors, or contrasts at your site. When
tree). Note leaf characteristics (e.g., waxy, fuzzy, looking for patterns it can be helpful to “soften” your
smooth), leaf margin type (e.g., wavy, toothed, gaze; try not to focus on any one thing but view the
smooth), and life cycle stage (e.g., blooming, landscape as a whole.
fruiting, shedding leaves) for each type of plant. 11. Spend another 30-45 minutes repeating steps 2-10
9. Evidence of wildlife: in a different ecosystem, then analyze the results of
your two studies.
◆◆ Look in your quadrat for insects, spiders
and other invertebrates. Describe or try
to identify them. Make a quick sketch
and record what they were doing, (e.g.
eating, flying, sitting under leaves).
◆◆ Look closely for evidence of animals you
don’t see. Are there chewed leaves, webs,
tracks, holes, or frass (insect droppings)
or scat (animal droppings) visible?

Class Discussion
1. In what ways are the two ecosystems alike? How are they different? What are some of the factors that cause the
similarities and differences between the two ecosystems?
2. What are some connections between biotic and abiotic factors in each ecosystem? What are some ways that
you think the abiotic factors affected the biota of the ecosystems? What are some ways that you observed the
biota affecting the abiotic characteristics of each ecosystem?
3. How do you think plants in the two ecosystems influence the light, temperature, and soils around them?
4. What plant characteristics did you observe that appear to be adaptations to their environment?
5. How do you think plants in the each ecosystem interact or affect each other?
6. In what ways are plants and animals likely to interact in one or both ecosystems? Consider at least three

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Taking it Further Science Inquiry
Compare other ecosystems, Can you make any inferences about how the individual plant phenotypes,
looking for the connecting the makeup of plant communities and the ecosystem characteristics are all
patterns of biotic and related? Use your data to examine this subject further.
abiotic factors. More specific
◆◆ Organize and display the data from your class in a graphic format.
ecosystem types include:
deciduous woodland, conifer ◆◆ Analyze the data in the graphic format to
forest, wetland, wet prairie, visualize possible patterns.
dry prairie, shrublands, ◆◆ From the data and analysis, propose a
desert, high alpine, lawn, or question or hypotheses that can be tested to
different successional stages support your inference. Work with your team
of any of these examples. members to write your hypotheses.

Reflection
Pick one of the ecosystems and make a mind map for it. Put the name of the ecosystem
in a circle at the center of a page; add the biotic and abiotic factors, listing each in
circles that surround and attach to the center circle. Search for relationships between
the factors and connect the circles with lines. Write the connection or interaction along
the line. Use the discussion questions as prompts. Write about one of the interactions
from your mind map in detail. Explore all the possible connections between the two
interacting elements, as well as what abiotic factors might influence them. How have
the organisms adapted to be successful in the ecosystem?

Assessments
1 Create visual displays of data (e.g., graphs, tables)
comparing observations between the ecosystems. Resources
◆◆ Basic website on studying ecosystems: http://
2 Explain similarities and differences
between the ecosystems you studied.
scienceaid.co.uk/biology/ecology/
◆◆ Pidwirny, M. (2006). Plant Succession.
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd
3 Demonstrate an understanding of the
connection between the biotic (living) and
Edition. http://www.physicalgeography.net/
fundamentals/9i.html
abiotic (nonliving) factors of an ecosystem. ◆◆ Missouri Botanical Garden, Biology of Plants, Plant
Adaptations. http://www.mbgnet.net/bioplants/
4 Name adaptations plants might have to survive
in each of the following situations: low light, high
adapt.html
◆◆ Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992).
light, wind, low moisture, and high moisture. Biology of Plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth
Publishers.

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Worksheet
Ecosystem Comparisons
Team Members __________________________________________________________
Date ______________________

Site 1 Site 2

Time:

Location/site Site location description:

and weather
description Overall weather
description:
Air temperature:

Weather Data Sunlight:

Wind :

Soil temperature:

Soil Moisture:

Surface litter:

Rocks:

Texture:

Additional observations
(color, consistency):
Canopy cover/type and
percent:
Percent Cover
Ground cover/type
and percent:

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Site 1 Site 2

# plants with very narrow

leaves (≤ 1 cm):

# plants with narrow leaves

(1-3 cm):

Plant # plants with broad leaves

Observations (> 3 cm):
(characteristics)
Height herbaceous layer:

Height shrub layer:

Height tree layer:

Additional observations
for each type of plant (leaf
characteristics, life cycle
stage):

Wildlife –Direct
Observations or
Evidence

Texture:

Aesthetic –
visual patterns
Color:

Contrasts:

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Site Analysis Name:
Which site had the greatest number of plant species?

How are the plants similar at the two sites?

How are the plants different at the two sites?

How do you explain the differences in the plants between the two sites?

How do you think the abiotic elements affect the plants growing at each site?

What connections did you observe between living and non-living things in each environment?

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 T Teacher Leaf to Landscape:
Page Ecological Scale
Nature is painting for us, day after day, pictures of infinite beauty.
Time Estimate: —John Ruskin (1819-1900)
1–1.5 hours
Best Season: Overview
Any
Students will use drawings to understand the different perspectives gained
from making observations on different ecological scales. Students will
focus on the local habitat by drawing three different views: one landscape
view, one smaller scale view, and one magnified close-up view. This activity
encourages aesthetic appreciation for the local landscape while exercising
flexible thinking skills and hand-eye coordination. Drawing emphasizes
careful observation of detail and patterns in the natural world.
Additional Information
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo, and Charles
Walsh Schwartz. A Sand County Teacher Hints
Almanac: And Sketches Here ◆◆ Encourage doing this activity in pen for the upper grades; it discourages
and There. New York: Oxford editing. The object is to practice observation skills and gain appreciation
UP, 1987. Print. for their surroundings, rather than to produce a perfect drawing.
◆◆ Assorted nature writings of ◆◆ Stress to students that this exercise is to help observe what is
John Muir, Aldo Leopold, around them, rather than to judge their drawing abilities.
Henry David Thoreau, Rachel
Carson, Wendell Berry, Bernd ◆◆ Read quotes from literature of descriptions of
Heinrich, and others. landscape perspectives (see Resource section).
◆◆ Mitchell, Joseph. “The ◆◆ Repeat this activity in different landscapes (prairie, forest, wetland),
Rivermen.” In Up in the Old or in the same place during different seasons. This activity is more
Hotel. New York: Random challenging in a forested setting with a limited landscape or vista.
House, 1993. ◆◆ Between each drawing session, regroup and share what students
◆◆ Pyle, Robert Michael. The saw, as well as their feelings about what they saw at each step. This
Thunder Tree: Lessons from an is a good way to keep students on schedule—or some will become
Urban Wildland. New York: so involved in one drawing that they won’t finish the activity.
Lyons, 1998. Print. ◆◆ Have students use their 5 x 7 frame to draw a template on their
◆◆ Tallmadge, John. The Cincinnati paper for each of the three drawings before starting. Stress that
Arch: Learning from Nature in their drawing should fill this frame. Also, encourage them to
the City. Athens: University of spend the entire 20 minutes drawing. If they finish drawing before
Georgia, 2004. Print. the activity is over, they can go back and add more to it.

Assessments Preparation
1 Summarize the activity by
comparing and contrasting
1. Prepare 5 x 7 rectangular viewing
frames for students to use for
2. Pick out a good location where
students have a view of the larger
views, and discussing the their artwork. Or, assemble landscape as well as interesting
processes associated with supplies and have students details close up. Try to avoid
different ecological scales. prepare their own before areas with too many distractions if
beginning the activity. Another possible.
2 Participate in the activity; option is to purchase old empty
work independently picture frames from a second
and join discussions. hand store.
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 Student Leaf to Landscape:
S Project Ecological Scale
Nature is painting for us, day after day, pictures of infinite beauty.
—John Ruskin (1819-1900)

Overview
You will begin to understand the different perspectives gained from making observations on different scales. You
will focus on the local habitat by drawing three different views, one landscape view, one smaller scale view, and one
magnified close-up view. This activity encourages aesthetic appreciation for the local landscape while exercising
flexible thinking skills and hand-eye coordination. Drawing emphasizes careful observation of detail and patterns in
the natural world.

Background Information
Materials Needed By making observations on different scales, from landscape to microscopic, you
can observe patterns in nature from many perspectives. A nimble mind that
◆◆ 5” x 7” viewing frame
can make observations on multiple scales and from many perspectives will be
from photo mat board,
able to approach complex problems with greater ease.
cardboard or poster board
As we observe the form of the landscape at different ecological scales, we can
◆◆ pencil or pen
contemplate the functioning or processes that occur at those different levels
◆◆ hand lens or magnifying glass to make our ecosystems function as a whole. For example, at the landscape
◆◆ optional colored pencils scale, we might observe patterns related to processes such as climate, nutrient
and water cycling, and soil formation. At a human scale, we can examine wildlife
habitat, erosion, herbivory, and many other functions. On a microscopic scale,
we can focus on photosynthesis, pollination, and decomposition.
Learning Objectives As you observe patterns in each of the three scales, you will also observe
the work of the natural processes that are occurring. At the landscape scale,
◆◆ Practice observation skills
larger patterns and processes are at work. Look for patterns in the vegetation,
on multiple scales
notice relationships between topography and vegetation type, and ponder
◆◆ Translate observations to the environmental factors such as climate, soil type, geology, landforms, and
paper through illustration water that create the patterns you see in your frame. For example, where do
◆◆ Interpret and compare individuals of a particular type of tree occur? Do they correspond to other
multiple views of the features in the landscape? In the close-up view, do you see plants growing in
same landscape clusters or individually? Do you have different layers of plants (ground level and
◆◆ Encourage flexible canopy)? What kind of colors, textures, and contrasts do you see? Can you see
thinking skills things moving (such as insects) in your view? In the microscopic view, look very
closely at one part of one plant (such as the underside of the leaf). Look for
patterns and textures, colors and contrasts. Do you see hairs in certain areas,
or can you see pores on the leaf surface? Think about what types of processes
Vocabulary Words might create the patterns you see.
When looking at patterns within a landscape, be aware of large scale abiotic
abiotic microscopic
patterns creating what you see, and also notice the micro-abiotic factors that
landscape perspective create patterns. Looking for these small-scale patterns can explain why a certain
macroscopic ecosystem plant grows in one place but is absent from a similar looking area just meters
away. Look for patterns and textures, colors and contrasts. Think about what
types of processes might create the patterns you see. What patterns and
processes might you find at all three scales?
Patterns we observe in vegetation can be directly linked to abiotic factors of the
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 Student Leaf to Landscape:
S Project Ecological Scale
Background Information, continued
ecosystem, be it on a macro or microscopic scale. In this areas. The rock could provide relief from harsh winds. The
activity, focus on the abiotic factors you see at a human scale. warmth and protection of the rock could be a benefit to
For example, with a large rock or boulder in a meadow, we insects and reptiles. All of these impacts could be taking
might ask, “How does this rock affect the plants that grow in place in the space of a couple meters. What other abiotic
the meadow?” Plants growing close to the rock could take factors could affect plants growing nearby (examples:
advantage of differences in microclimate, such as moisture slope, soil type, light, water, wind, temperature variances)?
trapped by the shade on the north side, additional heat How does each plant affect its neighbors?
stored in the rock to keep the plant warm through the Use this opportunity for observation and drawing to pay
night, shade on the roots, cooler morning sun/afternoon close attention to details and patterns around you. While
shade (or the opposite). If the rock is located on a slope, you draw, formulate hypotheses to explain why you are
the rock could channel water towards or away from certain seeing the features and patterns that you observe.

Directions
1. Discuss what things you might notice in a landscape your drawings and feelings while making observations
or macro view. With your eyes closed, listen to your at the close-up scale.
teacher read an inspiring quote from literature. 4. In the microscopic view, pick one plant to look at in
Imagine how the scene must have looked to the greater detail. Isolate an area of the plant by looking
writer. through a hand lens and explore in close detail what
2. Spread out. Look through your viewing frame at arm’s you see. Fill your drawing frame with what you see
length, select a spot, and draw the landscape view in the hand lens. Pay particular attention to patterns,
you see in your frame on your paper. Take your time textures, and colors as you draw. Look at your subject,
to observe before beginning. Look for and include in then take a minute to draw, and then look again.
your drawing patterns of color, texture and contrast. Repeat this process until you have sufficient detail.
Regroup and share your drawings and feelings while Fill your entire frame with what you see! Regroup
looking at the landscape. and share. Did this view turn up any surprises? What
3. Discuss the process at work in a close-up view and processes are at work to create what you see at this
listen to your teacher read a quote. Now select a spot scale?
to observe and draw the detail of your landscape
close-up. Use your viewing frame to look at an area
at your feet and draw what you see. Look for details,
differences in size, color, shapes. Regroup and share

Resources
◆◆ Mitchell, Joseph. “The Rivermen.” In Up in the Old Hotel. New York: Random House, 1993.
◆◆ Tallmadge, John. The Cincinnati Arch: Learning from Nature in the City. Athens: University of Georgia, 2004. Print.
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo, and Charles Walsh Schwartz. A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There. New York:
Oxford UP, 1987. Print.
◆◆ Writings of John Muir, Aldo Leopold, Henry David Thoreau, Rachel Carson, Wendell Berry, Bernd Heinrich,
and others.

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 Student Leaf to Landscape:
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In the Field!
Use this activity as a companion to the “Ecosystem Comparisons.” This activity will help you connect your visual
observations with the biotic and abiotic factors of a site. With practice and over time, this will allow you to analyze the
patterns you are seeing and infer the processes that you have observed.

Science Inquiry
◆◆ Draw a microscopic view of a leaf and use it to explore plant adaptations through your drawing and inquiry thinking
skills. Draw a 5” x 7” frame and fill it with what you see in the magnifying glass or hand lens view.
◆◆ Write and answer this question, “What other thing, in nature or man-made, does this remind me of?” Ask yourself,
“Why does it remind me of this?” Was it because it had hairs or fuzz, what about the vein pattern, or margin? Add
this to your answer.
◆◆ Now ask yourself, “Could the function of the leaf be similar to what it reminds me of?”
◆◆ Analyze your idea. Could this function help the plant adapt to the environment in which it is found? How would
this help the plant to survive or reproduce? For example, say your leaf has tiny hairs or fuzz, maybe it reminds you
of a fuzzy blanket. What is the function of a fuzzy blanket? What does this tell you about fuzz on a leaf? What other
functions could a fuzzy leaf serve?

Taking it Further
Leaf drawing tips: Measure the long axis of your leaf. Multiply this number by 2. Draw a faint line on the page that
is this long. Measure the width of the leaf and multiply this number by two. Draw a faint line this long across your
first line so that each line crosses the other in its middle (like a plus sign). These lines will guide how wide and long
to draw your leaf and help you draw on the correct scale. Other parts of the leaf (petiole, distance between veins,
etc.) can also be drawn to scale by measuring and multiplying by 2. Then include a scale bar in your drawing. If you
are working with a big leaf you can use the same method to make a cross but divide the measurement by 2 to get
the length and width.
◆◆ Inferring processes: Have each person share their landscape picture with a friend or with the class. Compare
and contrast each drawing. What processes are emphasized in one drawing versus another?

Reflection Assessments
Use your drawings as a source of inspiration for a journal
entry. Think back to the readings your teacher read to you
1 Summarize the activity by comparing
and contrasting views, and discussing
at the beginning of this exercise. Describe one of your views the processes associated with different
in detail like the author your teacher read to you. Describe ecological scales.
your landscape so that the reader can imagine exactly what
you experienced. Don’t forget to include the smells, weather,
and sounds that made your spot special. Which scale do you
2 Participate in the activity; work
independently and join discussions.
like the most and why?

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 T Teacher Survival Quest:
Page A Pollination Game
Bugs are not going to inherit the earth. They own it now. So we might as well
make peace with the landlord. —Dr. Thomas Eisner (1929–present)
Time Estimate:
1 session (30-45 min) Overview
Best Season: In this lesson, students gain a basic understanding of co-evolution as it applies
spring to native plants and their pollinators by studying local flowers.

Preparation
◆◆ Use this lesson in conjunction require feeding, that they change
with the lesson “Secret Life of what they eat, or migrate. Your
Flowers” for students that need students will probably come up
a refresher on flower anatomy with more.
and for additional background
Additional Information information.
◆◆ Field component hints for
observing pollinators:
◆◆ The Xerces Society’s
◆◆ The discussion in the “Taking it ◆◆ Have students wear neutral
Pollinator Resource Center:
Further” section asks students for colored clothing and ask them
http://www.xerces.org/
strategies a pollinator may use if not to use scented products
pollinator-resource-center/
it is unable to find a food source. (perfumes, hair gels, etc.).
◆◆ University of Iowa Bug Guide Some avenues to explore with
for the U.S. and Canada: ◆◆ Schedule observations for
students are that pollinators have
http://bugguide.net midday on a sunny day with low
different life stages that don’t
wind.
◆◆ Use the map on the Native
Seed Network website to
find a native plant list for
your ecoregion. http://www.
Teacher Hints
nativeseednetwork.org/. Cross ◆◆ You can use a list of native specific species of insects but
reference these species with plants from your ecoregion it will be helpful for them to
those found for your region (found on the Native Seed classify insects by order (i.e.,
on the Xerces Society website. Network website) as a starting beetle, fly, and bee) and to
point for this activity. If you differentiate between a moth
have a native wildflower garden and butterfly. The Xerces
at your school, this is a good Society website is a good
Assessments opportunity to talk about insect resource for locating a pollinator
diversity and different types guide and information for your
1 Explain mutualism between
flowers and pollinators.
of pollinators as a part of your
garden project.
area. The University of Iowa Bug
Guide for the U.S. and Canada
◆◆ The second part of this provides a good overview of
2 Gain understanding of co-
evolution, and be able to
activity should be completed different types of insects.
in a natural area. If you don’t ◆◆ Create a monitoring log and
explain the process as it relates have access to a natural area, record pollinator observations
to plants and pollinators. an alternate activity can be from year to year in a native
completed using the USDA wildflower garden at your
3 Relate flowers’ traits to specific
pollinators that they attract;
Plants Database. school.
◆◆ Supply students with a basic ◆◆ Use this lesson in conjunction
make predictions about guide to insect identification. with your studies of evolution.
pollinators by looking at flowers. They will not need to know

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 Student Survival Quest:
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Bugs are not going to inherit the earth. They own it now. So we might as well
make peace with the landlord. —Dr. Thomas Eisner (1929–present)
Materials Needed
◆◆ botanical field guide Overview
◆◆ insect field guide In this lesson you will explore co-evolution as it applies to native plants and
◆◆ clipboard and pencil their pollinators by examining flowers out in the field.
for each team
◆◆ hand lens
Background Information
◆◆ binoculars (optional)
Have you ever heard someone
◆◆ pipe-cleaner
mention the phrase “the birds
and the bees”? Do you know
where that phrase comes from? It
Learning Objectives comes from plants and how they
reproduce! Birds and bees play
◆◆ Explore the concept of
co-evolution of flowers key roles as pollinators in plant
and pollinators reproduction, by transferring the
genetic material from flower to
◆◆ Define mutualism and
describe how flowers and flower. Pollination is the transfer
pollinators demonstrate of pollen from male flower parts
this concept (stamen) to the female flower
parts (stigma) and is how plants reproduce sexually. Through co-evolution,
◆◆ Increase your appreciation
for the value of pollinators plants and their pollinators have developed a mutually beneficial relationship,
adapting their form and function to make both their lives more successful. As
◆◆ Examine one of the
such, the lives of plants and their pollinators are tightly intertwined. Without
interconnections between
plants and animals pollinators the health of our native plants and ecosystems would falter. In
within ecosystems addition, pollination greatly benefits humans. Estimates suggest that one third
of the human food supply is dependent on the work of pollinators to produce
crops such as blueberries, almonds, melons, pears, apples, and even chocolate!
Pollinators can be insects such as bees, butterflies, flies, and beetles,
Vocabulary Words hummingbirds, and mammals such as bats and small rodents. Many plants, such
co-evolution as grasses and coniferous trees, are pollinated by wind. Some plants, such as the
mutualism peanut, are self-pollinating and may not even require a pollinator, although this
pollination is rare in nature.
generalist Plants and their pollinators have developed an intimate ecological relationship
specialist during the process of co-evolution. Plants, being stationary organisms (no legs!),
need a means to transport their pollen to other plants for sexual reproduction.
For many plant species, animal pollinators visit flowers to get food in the form
of pollen and nectar and in the process, unwittingly transfer pollen to other
plants in their travels to other flowers for another feast. Picture a bee diving into
a flower, going head first deep down to reach the nectar glands at the bottom
of the flower. Stamens hang down from above, dangling dusty pollen, which
brushes the hairy back of the bee as it forages for sweetness. As the bee leaves,
it unintentionally carries that pollen to the next flower, where it dives down to

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Background Information, continued
forage again, dropping the pollen it carries there onto the excess pollen and improved pollination efficiency, thereby
sticky stigma, pollinating the flower. improving reproductive success. Pollinators have a reliable
What does a flower that is wind pollinated look like? First, food source, thereby reducing the amount of energy spent
it generally has no petals or very tiny petals, since petals foraging. Pollination benefits the plant and the pollinator, a
are for attracting pollinators and can block the flow of relationship that is called mutualism.
wind. Secondly, as wind pollination is uncontrolled, the Pollinators have adapted physical characteristics that allow
stamens of wind-pollinated flowers are long, dangling, and them to gather and transport pollen as they seek food.
produce lots of pollen, thereby increasing the chance of the Some insects have fuzzy hair that brushes against the
pollination.The stigmas of wind-pollinated flowers are also anthers of a flower and carry pollen, and some bees have
often large, exerted, and feathery, so they can comb the air structures called pollen baskets on their legs specifically for
for pollen. transporting the protein rich food back to the hives.
Flowers have evolved an amazing array of scents, colors, Plants have developed many interesting and unique methods
markings, and shapes that make them attractive to specific of attracting pollinators. Some orchids have developed
pollinators and facilitate the transfer of pollen to the flowers that look or smell like female insects, using sight or
pollinator. Some plants have evolved physical barriers that scent to trick male insects into visiting and pollinating the
restrict the access to their nectar to one specific type or flower. Some orchids, such as, the mountain ladyslipper
species of pollinator. For example, trumpet shaped flowers (Cypridedium montanum) and the fairyslipper (Calypso
favor the extended beak of the hummingbird; Secondly, bulbosa) have a pouch-shaped flower part, which is easy to
as wind pollination is uncontrolled, the stamens of wind- enter but, because of strategically located small hairs, limits
pollinated flowers are long, dangling, and produce lots of the pollinator to a single exit, forcing the pollinator to walk
pollen, thereby increasing the chance of the pollination. A directly through its pollen. Moth pollinated flowers tend
special petal on lupine flowers acts as a lever, limiting access to be pale colored or white and highly scented, often only
to all but the heaviest of insects, the bumblebees. opening or releasing their scent at night to attract the night-
Pollinators are rewarded with high-quality food for their flying moths. Some flowers smell like rotten meat to attract
services. Pollinators feed on different flower products, such flies as their pollinators. In many cases, these flowers bloom
as sugary nectar, protein-rich pollen, fatty oils, resins or early in the season before other insects are active. Skunk
waxes. Pollinator specificity reduces the need to produce cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) is one example of this.

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 Student Survival Quest:
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Student Directions
Part 1:
1. Work in teams of two to complete the pollinator data 2. Look in local field guides (or better yet, in the field)
table. Your quest is to find local native flowers that for flowers that display the traits you are seeking to
will attract each of the listed pollinators on the table. complete your sheet (color, shape, scent, etc.)
Use the Pollinator Chart for guidance in flower shape, 3. For additional information about bloom times or
color, and other features needed to attract the target flower photos, check out http://plants.usda.gov/.
pollinator.
4. Try to locate two different native plant flower
sources for each pollinator in your chart.

Part 2: The Survival Quest Challenge

5. Choose an insect or bird pollinator (not wind) from match the traits that the pollinator is attracted to
the data sheet. Your challenge will be to feed it for and will be blooming in the time periods needed.
the entire season! If the pollinator is active for a long period, you will
6. Research your pollinator to find out when it is active probably need multiple flowers with staggered
in your area. For example, a migratory hummingbird bloom times to make it through the season.
might be in your area from March to September, or 8. Discussion: What might happen if you (and the
a butterfly may have two hatch periods with adults pollinator) are unable to find the flowers needed at
flying in May and July. These will be the target times the proper times? What are some of the possible
for you to feed your pollinator. options for the pollinator? What will happen to the
7. Armed with this knowledge, find flowers that will plants whose pollinators cannot locate them?

Taking it Further
Design a native plant garden with one or more pollinators in mind.
Choose flowers with the traits that attract the intended pollinator.
Look also at bloom times and try to include flowers that will bloom
in succession over a long period of time. Manage your site for
pollinators: refrain from using pesticides, leave older growth standing
to provide habitat for over wintering insects, and allow plants to
reseed themselves. Consider constructing nest sites for bees and other
pollinators—you can find instructions and suggestions on the Xerces
Society website. Monitor the site and create an observation log for
future students to assess pollinator activity over time in the garden
area.

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In the Field!
◆◆ Put your pollinator knowledge to the test. Work in teams, spread out from other teams, and pick one flower
or group of flowers to observe. Use the Pollinator Observation sheet and start by filling in the “Flower Traits”
section.
◆◆ Now back away from your flower and sit quietly observing. One team member can watch through the binoculars
while the other acts as recorder. Switch half way through your observation period.
Closely observe your flower for 15-20 minutes.
◆◆ After the observation period, answer the remaining questions on your sheet.
◆◆ Pollinators can be affected by weather conditions. Try observing flowers at different
times of the day or evening (possibly even at night!). Most insects will be active at
midday on a warm day; wind can discourage butterflies and moths. Hummingbirds
tend to be more active in early morning and late evening. Moths and bats are more
active at night. What if you are not able to observe any pollinators? What does this
tell you?
◆◆ Finish by taking a pipe-cleaner and trying to collect pollen from your flower. Take
note of where you find it, distances, amounts, and hidden avenues to access it. Does
this fit with the rest of your observations?

Science Inquiry
Now that you have a background in understanding pollination services, investigate
the reproduction of insectivorous (insect eating) plants. As a class or in small groups
make a list of “I wonder” questions you would like to investigate about insectivorous
plants and pollination. Choose one question to investigate further. If you are fortunate
enough to have access to an insectivorous plant, carry out your investigation in
person and make first-hand observations. Otherwise you will need to conduct your
investigation through research.
For background on carnivorous plants:
◆◆ Botanical Society of America. http://www.botany.org/carnivorous_plants/
◆◆ International Carnivorous Plant Society. http://www.carnivorousplants.org/

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 Student Survival Quest:
S Project A Pollination Game
Reflection
Create a unique flower/pollinator relationship. Choose a species to be your pollinator—it could be a bear, human,
slug, alien, or whatever you choose. Now invent a flower that will attract your pollinator and only your pollinator.
Describe in writing or sketch what your flower looks like. List how it attracts the pollinator, how it limits access to the
pollen to only your pollinator, and how the pollen is carried for transfer to the next flower. Remember to make it a
mutualistic relationship—what will your pollinator receive in return?
Also consider the following: scientists predict that plant/pollinator relationships may be greatly affected by climate
change. How might climate change affect the plant/pollinator relationship?

Self Assessments
1 Define the word mutualism and explain how plant-
pollinator interactions are a mutualistic relationship.

2 Explain the concept of co-evolution and how

it relates to plants and pollinators.

3 Be able to goup flowers by traits to predict their pollinators.

Resources
◆◆ US Forest Service, Celebrating Wildflowers website: http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/index.shtml
◆◆ Assorted wildflower field guides for your region
◆◆ USDA Plants Database http://plants.usda.gov/ for flower photos and information
◆◆ The Xerces Society’s Pollinator Resource Center. Find information about native pollinator plants for your region, as well
as pollinator identification guides and much more: http://www.xerces.org/pollinator-resource-center/

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 Student Survival Quest:
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Survival Quest: Pollinator Data Table

Native Plant Bloom dates Pollinator

1.
Bee
2.

1.
Hummingbird
2.

1.
Butterfly
2.

1.
Fly
2.

1.
Wind
2.

1.
Beetle
2.

1.
Moth
2.

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 Student Survival Quest:
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Pollinator Observation Sheet (In the Field section)

Names:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Time:_________________________

General Weather Conditions:______________________________________________________________________

Location of Plant Observed:_______________________________________________________________________

Name of Plant:_________________________________________________________________________________

Sketch your flower: Predict the pollinator for this flower ___________________________
Flower traits that indicate which pollinators:

1.

2.

3.

Observations of the flower:

Visitors observed? What were they doing How long Where did they go when Name or sketch
(record all seen) (watch carefully)? did they stay? they left? of visitor

Did your observations support your pollinator prediction?

What questions do you still have after your observations?

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 3-121
Pollinator Chart
Flower
Bats Bees Beetles Birds Butterflies Flies Moths Wind
Trait
Color Dull white, green, Bright white, yel- Dull white or Scarlet, orange, Bright including Pale and dull to Pale and dull red, Dull green,
or purple low, blue, or UV green red, or white red and purple dark brown or purple, pink, or brown, or color-
purple; flecked white less; petals ab-
with translucent sent or reduced
patches
Nectar Absent Present Absent Absent Present Absent Absent Absent
guides
Odor Strong musty; Fresh, mild, None to None Faint but fresh Putrid Strong, sweet; None
emitted at night pleasant strongly fruity emitted at night
or fetid
Nectar Abundant; some- Usually present Sometimes Ample; deeply Ample; deeply Usually absent Ample; deeply None
what hidden present; not hidden hidden hidden
hidden
Pollen Ample Limited; often Ample Modest Limited Modest Limited Abundant; small,
sticky and smooth, and not
scented sticky
Flower Regular; bowl Shallow; have Large, bowl- Large; funnel- Narrow tube Shallow; funnel- Regular; tubular Regular; small
Shape shaped—closed landing platform; like, like; cups, strong with spur; wide like or complex without a lip and stigmas
during day tubular perch support landing pad and trap-like exerted
*Pollinator chart taken from: US Forest Service, Celebrating Wildflowers website, May 16, 2008, http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/syndromes.shtml U.S. Forest
Service Rangeland Management Botany Program, 1400 Independence Ave., SW, Mailstop Code: 1103, Washington DC
 Teacher What’s Going Down
T Page
Underground
We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the
soil underfoot. — Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Time Estimate:
45-60 minutes
in classroom or lab Overview
Best Season: Students explore soils and the connections between cycles of nutrients,
spring, microorganisms, and plants. Observe evidence of interactions between
summer, plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi in the soil. Gain an
fall understanding of the roles bacteria and fungi play in ecosystems, and the
benefits of bacteria and fungi in the soil, observe evidence of interactions.

Preparation
◆◆ Collect an assortment of root samples (or have students collect) — include at
Teacher Hints least one legume, one conifer tree, and one bunch grass. Collect root ends
from conifers (cedars, pines, firs, spruces or hemlocks) from a healthy forest;
Soil biology is an important and
complex subject and this lesson trees in a landscape setting may or may not have mycorrhizal fungi. Several
only scratches the surface of the legumes—such as clover, lupine, and vetch—are commonly found in lawns or
knowledge a good botanist will weedy areas. To find a bunch grass, the easiest place to go is a prairie or wetland.
need. Consider expanding this Bunchgrasses are grasses whose stems are joined in a clump or bunch rather
lesson to study the chemical and than appearing as individual stems like in a lawn. bserve evidence of interactions
physical characteristics of soil, Arrange lab: prepare a root sampling bag for each lab group. Use a gallon
nutrient cycling, and the soil food resealable bag to contain an assorted sample of the roots mentioned above.
web and how they relate to native Gently knock off excess soil; the roots do not need to be completely clean.
plants. Each group will need: hand lenses, data sheets, and dissecting microscopes.
Microscopes can be shared between groups.
◆◆ Allow students time to carefully examine their root samples. After initial
Assessments observations, encourage them to look more closely using the microscopes.
They can gently wash root tips in water and dissect root sections and nodules,
Name and describe at least
exposing additional interesting colors and tissue structure.
one interaction between
1 plants and microorganisms that
occurs under the soil surface.
Additional Information
2 Cooperate in a group to
make observations, record ◆◆ USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service: http://soils.usda.gov/
education/
data, and discuss findings.
◆◆ Soil Science Society of America: https://www.soils.org/
3 Define the term rhizosphere
and list at least three processes
◆◆ USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service. The Soil Biology Primer:
http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/biology.html
that take place there. ◆◆ Portland State University, Ecoplexity: http://ecoplexity.org/

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S Student What’s Going Down
Project
Underground
We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the
soil underfoot. — Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Materials Needed
◆◆ root samples Overview
(a sampling that includes In this lesson you will explore soils by learning about the relationships that
nitrogen fixing nodules, connect nutrients, microorganisms, and plants. You will study how plants,
mycorrhizae, and roots) bacteria, and fungi work together in mutualistic processes that take place in
◆◆ gallon resealable bags the soil. You will use hands-on skills to observe evidence of these interactions
◆◆ hand lens on the roots of plants, gain an understanding of the roles bacteria and fungi
play in the ecosystem, and explore some of the benefits of having bacteria
◆◆ dissecting microscope and fungi in the soil.
◆◆ ruler

Background Information
Learning Objectives Humans are enamored by the beauty and utility of plants and our interactions
with them. Our interactions occur most often with the above-ground parts: stems,
◆◆ Gain understanding of leaves, flowers and fruit. These parts provide structure, energy (photosynthesis
soil microorganisms
through the leaves) and sexual reproduction (transmission of pollen through
◆◆ Gain understanding of the flowers). But we often forget that the ecosystems we are a part of do not
the nitrogen cycle stop at ground level; in fact, the soils beneath our feet are amongst the most
◆◆ Use visual observations to biologically diverse and active habitats known to science! A single teaspoon of
find plant/microorganism soil may contain many, many millions of living organisms, from earthworms and
interactions arthropods to fungi and protozoa. All of these living organisms interact with one
◆◆ Describe the processes that another in complex food webs.
you observe on plant roots
Underground are the hidden parts of plants—the roots. Plants are unique in
◆◆ Diagram and explain that they exist both above and below ground. Think of plants and their roots as
the soil food web being liaisons or ambassadors between the aboveground portions of ecosystems
◆◆ Describe mutualism as a that we can see and the belowground components beneath our feet. Soils are
biological interaction reservoirs of resources like essential mineral nutrients, and it is plants that make
those resources available to those of us who live above ground.
Roots and their interactions with the soil are incredibly important to plants,
their function in ecosystems, and their utility to humans and other species.
Roots provide essential services such as taking up much-needed moisture and
essential mineral nutrients, anchoring the plant and holding the soil in place, and
providing reproduction by some asexual methods. Roots also provide homes to
symbiotic bacteria and fungi in the soil that are critical to the survival of plants
and all species that depend of them (that’s pretty much every living thing!).
The most common types of root systems are fibrous roots and taproots.
Fibrous roots have multiple branches that are similar in size. This type of root
system is found on grasses and other monocots (plants with a single seed
leaf or cotyledon). Taproots consist of an enlarged main root with extremely
fine branching roots. Most dicots (plants with two seed leaves or cotyledons)
have taproots. The carrot is a familiar taprooted dicot. Although most roots

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Vocabulary Words Background Information, continued
are found underground, there are Most plants require soil as a medium
fibrous roots
exceptions, such as adventitious for growth and to provide moisture
taproot roots. Adventitious roots grow off the and mineral nutrients. Soil is teeming
adventitious root stem and sometimes help support with life and activity! Within the
corm the stem (as in prop roots) or start a rhizosphere (an area approximately
tuber new plant by anchoring an arching one millimeter thick surrounding plant
branch where it touches the ground. roots) the biological activity is ten
rhizome
Something that all roots share is their times greater than elsewhere in the soil.
bulb
lack of nodes (small bumps where new Microorganisms are attracted to and
monocot leaf or stem growth begins). feed on the sugars and other organic
dicot Sometimes adaptive stem growth compounds that seep from plant roots.
nitrogen fixation is found underground and can In turn, the microorganisms in the
legume be mistaken for roots. Corms, rhizosphere layer help to break down
rhizomes, and tubers are all types and decompose dead plant cells. The
rhizobia bacteria
of underground stems. A corm is an respiration of these microorganisms
Frankia bacteria produces carbon dioxide that acidifies
underground structure covered with
mycorrhizal fungi papery leaves (e.g., lily), a rhizome is alkaline soils. The microorganisms also
hyphae an underground horizontal stem (e.g. produce gummy substances that hold
mycelium iris), and a tuber is a thickened rhizome soil particles together. These activities
adapted to store food (e.g., potato). benefit plants, but the rhizosphere can
ectomycorrhizae
A bulb is another underground also harbor microorganisms carrying
endomycorrhizae diseases or microorganisms acting
structure that is actually a bud with
rhizosphere as parasites and producing galls. The
thickened, fleshy layers called scales.
symbiotic Onions are bulbs you eat. Although rhizosphere hosts many very important
mutualistic all of these are root-like structures symbiotic associations, two of which
that even perform root-like functions, we will study in this lesson—nitrogen-
they are actually stem tissue growing fixation and mycorrhizal.
underground.

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Background Information, continued
Nitrogen-Fixation Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium). It underground net of white cottony
is a common agricultural practice threadlike connections between the
Nitrogen is a macronutrient, an
to harvest crops and then plant a roots of plants, help capture needed
essential nutrient for plant growth,
species of legume to add nitrogen but hard to find nutrients for the
and for all living organisms. Although
back into the soil. The legume family plants with which they grow, such as
nitrogen gas makes up the majority
contains many plants we commonly phosphorous and zinc, among others.
of the atmosphere (80%), nitrogen
eat (e.g., peas, beans, and soybeans) Some nutrients do not move readily
gas (N2 ) is unavailable for plant (or
or grow for livestock food (e.g., clover through soil, so plants may have a hard
animal) use. Plants can only take up
and alfalfa), as well as a diversity of time finding sufficient levels needed
nitrogen in the form of ammonium
native plants. Nitrogen-fixing rhizobia for optimal growth within their own
(NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-). In the
bacteria are commonly added to root system. Mycorrhizal fungi
rhizosphere, bacteria inhabit the
agricultural legume seed crops inhabit the roots of plants to get food
roots of plants and form nodules
and backyard garden plantings to (carbohydrates), and in return their
that capture N2 from the air and
maximize their nitrogen-fixing effects. hyphae (thin, thread-like growths
convert it to a form that plants can
In native ecosystems, nitrogen-fixers that spread through the soil) absorb
use. Nitrogen fixation is the process
provide the majority of the available nutrients that the fungi then share
by which atmospheric nitrogen gas
nitrogen for other plants to uptake. with their host plant. This association
(N2 ) is converted into ammonia by
After it is taken up by plants, nitrogen allows plants to mine larger areas
a group of bacteria called rhizobia.
is available for wildlife, livestock, and to obtain the nutrients they need.
The ammonia created by this process
humans to consume in the vegetation The mycorrhizal hyphae form
is subsequently available for many
they eat, providing critical building interconnecting networks between
important biological molecules such
blocks for proteins and DNA in their soil particles and the roots of plants,
as amino acids, proteins, vitamins,
bodies. Because nitrogen is constantly and will often network between the
and nucleic acids (to form DNA).
being lost from the soil and it is roots of many neighboring plants.
In the rhizosphere, the roots of
primarily replaced by nitrogen-fixers, You can see evidence of some types
specific species provide the bacteria
nitrogen-fixing species are critical to of mycorrhizae in their aboveground
with a home (a nodule), water, and
native ecosystem function, especially reproductive structure—a
carbohydrates. In return, the plant
in prairies, where soils are nitrogen mushroom! However, not all
receives nitrogen in a useable form
poor. However, in some ecosystems, mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of
right next to its roots. Nitrogen-
agricultural practices have resulted in mycorrhizae and not all mycorrhizae
fixing bacteria are host specific,
an overabundance of nitrogen, which produce large visible reproductive
meaning they have the ability to
can facilitate invasion by non-native structures.
infect and nodulate only the roots
species. Mycorrhizal associations occur on
of certain plant species. One of the
most common of these associations is Mycorrhizal associations almost all plants with the exception
between plants of the legume family of a few species, like crucifers such as
The second important belowground broccoli and mustard. Much remains
(Fabaceae) (e.g., peas, beans, clover,
association we will examine is unknown about mycorrhizae and soil
vetch, and lupine) and the group of
between plant roots and mycorrhizal biota in general.
bacteria called rhizobia (in the genera
fungi. These fungi, which form an

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Student Directions
1. Form small groups (2-3) for the lab section. Each holding your plant and soil in place and think about
group will receive a sample of plant roots to examine. how the roots you are looking at might be adapted
2. Remove root samples from the bag and spread for accomplishing these tasks in the environment in
out on a piece of paper. Observe the roots closely. which they are found.
Divide the roots into similar looking groups. On your 5. Read the background information from this activity.
data sheet give each group a sample number. Discuss with your group whether any of your
3. Note the roots’ general characteristics such as type root samples exhibit characteristics associated
(taproot vs. fibrous), shape, color, texture (woody with rhizobia (nitrogen-fixation) or mycorrhizal
vs. fleshy), length, girth. Look carefully for nodules relationships. Add this to the “relationship observed”
and record in your notes if you find them. Are there column, and include a quick sketch of what the
any underground structures such as bulbs or corms? nodules or hyphae look like.
Record a description using the above characteristics 6. Dissect roots to try to understand abnormalities from
to help you differentiate the root samples. Use words the inside. What do they look like? How are they
and sketches to produce a complete description that different from normal looking sections of the root?
would help someone identify which roots are which. 7. Share your group’s findings with the class. Did the
4. Examine your root samples more closely using some groups have similar findings or were the results
of the tools available in your classroom. Use a hand different? Did the root samples come from a
lens or dissecting microscope to get a closer look at variety of plants? Look at the plant tops. Are there
the details of your roots: root hairs, root tips, color similarities between the roots from different samples
changes, root thickness changes, unusual branching that correspond to similarities between the plant
patterns, foreign material attached, and anything else tops?
that you observe. Add your observations to your
data sheet. As you do this, imagine the job your roots
need to do such as taking up water and nutrients,

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Taking it Further
◆◆ Learn more about soils, which are
a key factor in plant growth and
distribution. Look into the chemical Self Assessments
and physical properties of soil
and how they affect plant growth. 1 Name and describe at least one interaction
between plants and microorganisms
Additional soil characteristics that are
that take place at the soil level.
important to plant growth include:
pH, nutrient cycles, particle size,
organic matter, and water infiltration. 2 Work as part of a cooperative group to make
observations, record data, and discuss findings.
◆◆ Study the components of the soil
food web and how they work 3 Define the term rhizosphere and list at lease
three processes that take place there.
together. Diagram a simple web.

◆◆ View a worm composting bin and

diagram the soil food web you
find there.

Resources
◆◆ Soil and Water Conservation Society (SWCS). 2000. Soil Biology Primer. Rev. ed. Ankeny, Iowa
◆◆ Soil and Water Conservation Society. 2010: http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/biology.html

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In the Field!
Collect legume plant samples for the Science Inquiry project. Collect one sample
of the same species of legume from different habitats. Clovers, lupines, vetches, and
peavines are common legumes that are found in many habitats and lend themselves well to
this project. Collect samples from as many different habitat types as possible. Try to
gather samples from natural areas (with a minimum of human disturbance), a lawn, weedy
lot, roadside, and any others that you can find. For each sample dig the entire plant with as
much of an intact root system as possible. Gently shake or crumble excess soil from the roots.
Place each sample in a separate resealable baggie and be sure to label it with the species,
habitat type, site location, and date. Samples should be refrigerated if they will be stored for
more than a couple hours. Proceed to the Science Inquiry section.

Science Inquiry
Study environmental influences on rhizobia. Develop a question and related hypothesis that can be tested in the field
about how the environment in which a plant lives influences nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Gather data by comparing your
collected root samples. Analyze the root samples in a lab setting to look for evidence of rhizobium infection (nodules).
Count and record the nodules from each sample. Make a graph comparing the number or density (number of nodules
per centimeter of root) of root nodules per plant and the location that the plant was found. For example, you could
compare sun vs. shade plants, wetland vs. prairie plants, roadside vs. away from the road plants, or plants in disturbed
human environments vs. natural areas. Combine or compare your data with other groups to increase the data set.
What kind of observations/conclusions can you make? Do all environments show the same level of rhizobial activity?
Why do you think you have these findings? Are there environmental factors that could influence rhizobial activity?
Take into consideration temperatures and herbicide/pesticide use as well as the influx of nitrogen that comes from
manure and fertilizers in agricultural fields. How might all this added nitrogen into the soil affect nitrogen-fixers and
the plants in these environments? Research this topic further in scholarly journals or online.

Reflection
How would a restoration ecologist need to consider nitrogen-fixing plants
and mycorrhizae when planning to restore a native ecosystem? Would this be
different in a prairie versus a forest? How might this differ in your ecoregion
versus another ecoregion?

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Root Sample Data Sheet

General root
Sample characteristics Describe evidence of any
Observations
number (root hairs, tips, thickness, relationships observed
foreign material attached)

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

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 Teacher Plant Wars: A Tale of
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“We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn
Time Estimate: bushes have roses.”­ —Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)
30-45 minutes
Best Season:
spring,
Overview
summer, In this lesson, students will explore how plants defend themselves from
fall herbivores using physical (thorns, waxy leaves) and chemical (poison)
defenses. Students will read, research, discuss, observe, and speculate about
the chemical defenses of plants, how they work, and how humans use them.
They will also look at how other species counteract these chemicals in the
intricate dance of co-evolution.

Teacher Hints Preparation

◆◆ Use this lesson in conjunction ◆◆ Locate suitable outdoor sites for plant observations.
with your studies of evolution. ◆◆ Introduce the plant observations with class discussion. Ask
◆◆ See the Ethnobotany section students to brainstorm: “How do plants defend themselves from
of this curriculum for more insects and browsing animals?” Keep a list of their ideas.
about plant medicines. ◆◆ Conduct the plant observations during class or assign them for outside of
◆◆ Take time to explore the class time. Without giving students any background information, have them
“Science Inquiry” section complete the plant defense observations. Copy just the activity directions
for project ideas related for students to carry in their field journal to guide their observation session.
to plant chemicals.

Additional Information
Assessments ◆◆ The Natural History Museum of London. Seeds of Trade
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/: the history and uses of plants used by humans.
1 Explain the difference
between physical and
Search by plant name, use type, or geographical distribution.
◆◆ Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. Plant
chemical plant defenses. Defenses--Plant-Insect Interactions (Without the Insect). http://insectzoo.
msstate.edu/Curriculum/Activities/defense.html - lesson using
2 Describe how co-evolution
between plants and
poinsettias to test plant defenses (they have a milky sap similar to
milkweed).
herbivorous insects can occur. ◆◆ University of Colorado at Boulder, Biological Science Initiative http://
www.colorado.edu/Outreach/BSI/k12activities/chem_ecology.
3 Make detailed observations and
use them to make inferences.
html - 2 lessons on plant chemical defenses (high school); allelopathy
investigation, and plant chemical defenses for herbivory.

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“We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn
Materials Needed bushes have roses.”­ —Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)
◆◆ field journal
◆◆ copy of directions Overview
In this lesson you will explore how plants defend themselves from herbivores
using physical (thorns, waxy leaves) and chemical (poison) defenses. You will
Learning Objectives read, research, discuss, observe, and speculate about the chemical defenses
of plants, how they work, and how humans use them. You will also look at how
◆◆ Hone observation other species counteract these defenses in the intricate dance of species co-
skills; record data and evolution.
discuss findings
◆◆ Gain understanding of
different methods of plant
defenses against herbivory Background Information
◆◆ Learn about the Plants face a large challenge that most animals do not face: they are sessile.
process of co-evolution That is, they cannot move around. This presents a number of challenges: plants
between two species cannot flee to escape predators, they cannot move to find a more hospitable
◆◆ Increase understanding of environment, and they cannot search for limited resources. Since plants cannot
interactions between species escape less than ideal circumstances, they must evolveIn this lesson, we will
in plant communities focus on the evolution of physical and chemical plant defenses. We will also
◆◆ Gain understanding look at how other species counteract these defenses in the intricate dance of
of human interactions co-evolution.
with plant chemicals Plants may not be able to flee from their predators, but they have evolved
physical and chemical strategies to defend themselves from attacks from hungry
herbivores. Herbivory is the process of animals eating plants. If you have ever
gone blackberry picking and had your arms and hands shredded by giant
Vocabulary Words prickles, you know that consuming blackberries comes with a price! The prickles
co-evolution on blackberries are just one of several types of defenses that plants have evolved
herbivory to deter herbivory.
allelopathy Some of the physical defenses that protect plants’ vulnerable and valuable parts
phytochemical are thorns, hairs, and spines. The effectiveness of each depends on the type of
phytotoxin herbivore attempting to consume the plant. Large thorns may be more effective
against mammalian herbivores such as deer, while hairs are better deterrents to
antioxidant
some insect herbivores. Some plants also produce compounds such as waxes
angiosperm and resins that physically alter the external texture of the plant, making feeding
challenging. In such cases, an insect may have difficulty gaining traction on a leaf
surface or physically biting through the leaf cuticle. Other plants attract and/
or house insects that defend the plant. A particularly famous example of this is
the Acacia-ant symbiosis, in which ants live inside the large, hollow thorns of the
Acacia tree and aggressively deter herbivores. Still other plants, such as some
species of gooseberries, produce spiny fruits that deter animals from consuming
the seed.
While all plants share the same basic chemical processes that support growth
and metabolic functions such as photosynthesis and respiration, many plants

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Background Information, continued
produce secondary chemicals to for sucking sap (aphids), and long butterfly is often found in gardens and
defend themselves against herbivores proboscises for drinking nectar agricultural fields, and is considered
as well as against other plants. These (butterflies). This process of two a pest since its food needs put it in
secondary chemicals act as toxins that species adapting in response to each direct competition with agricultural
can disrupt an herbivore’s metabolism other is called co-evolution. productivity.
or make the plant indigestible. When The diversification of insects likely Still other herbivores are generalists,
talking about plant defenses you will provided the selective evolutionary feeding on a much broader range of
encounter terms like phytochemical pressure that led to plant defense (and host plants. The painted lady butterfly
and phytotoxin (phyto- means offense) adaptations. For example, is a generalist whose larvae are known
“plant”). some plants have adapted to produce to feed on more than 100 different
In order to compete with other chemicals that inhibit the absorption plants from three or more families.
plants for space, sunlight, nutrients, of nutrients in the digestive tracts Generalists usually have a broad
and water, some plants have evolved of herbivores or act as poisons to habitat range—the painted lady is
ways to keep other plants out of kill the herbivore directly. In turn, found in Africa, North America, South
their way. Some plants produce some herbivores have adapted their America, Asia, and Europe. It may
phytochemicals that disrupt the metabolism to to feed on poisonous seem that a generalist has the best
growth, reproduction, or survival of plants in spite of the plant’s attempt survival strategy, but such a lifestyle
other plants. This process is called to deter them with chemical defenses. has its downsides. A generalist must
allelopathy. For example, the black Such changes come at a cost—some compete for food with many other
walnut tree produces a chemical that butterfly larvae have become such specie s, and might need to travel
suppresses other plants under its specialized feeders that they are widely to secure enough resources
canopy. If you know of a black walnut limited to eating just a single species for its needs.
tree nearby, see if you can find any of plant! The plant still gains some A further twist on plant chemicals
other plants growing underneath it. benefit from its poisons, since very is that some butterflies that have
Not all phytochemicals are used for few herbivores can tolerate eating it. adapted to eating poisonous plants
defense. Plants also use chemicals for The specialized herbivore benefits are able to store the phytotoxins in
beneficial interactions with insects, from the very limited competition their own body for their defense,
such as the colors, and scents essential for food. Can you think of other making them poisonous or
to attract and support pollination. benefits of this limited relationship unpalatable to their predators. The
to the plants or herbivore? What larvae of the monarch butterfly feed
The evolution of angiosperms
about the downsides? What happens on the milkweed plant, storing toxic
(flowering plants) coincides with
to these specialized herbivores if chemicals found in the plant’s sap.
an explosion in the diversity of
the population of their host plant The toxic chemicals are passed from
insect species on Earth. Insects have
declines? the larval stage to the adult butterfly
repeatedly adapted their eating
behaviors to co-evolve with changing Some herbivores eat a larger variety stage. This makes the monarch
plant characteristics though time. For of plants, but are still limited to butterfly (and larvae) foul tasting to
example, early insects had mandibles species from a single plant family. A its predators. Birds quickly learn to
(jaw and mouth parts) for biting and common butterfly, the cabbage white, avoid the orange and black pattern of
chewing primitive vegetation. As is such an example. The cabbage the monarch butterfly.
more complex vascular plants evolved, white larvae feed only on plants in Restoration ecologists can take
insects adapted more specialized the Brassicaceae, or mustard family, advantage of certain insect-plant
mouth parts, such as probing stylets such as cabbage and broccoli. This interactions to control invasive weeds.

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Background Information, continued
To control some invasive plant species, down through generations of native yew (Taxus brevifolia), also comes
biological controls can be introduced peoples to the work of scientists from this category. Yet another
to an area threatened by the invasives. worldwide, we have figured out group of chemicals contain flavonoids
These are generally insects that how to use many of these amazing that make up red, blue, yellow and
originate in the native ranges of the phytochemicals for both our pleasure white color pigments. The flavonoids
invasive weed in question and have and our pain. Some plant chemicals can act as antioxidants, which are
evolved to specialize only on that exhibit addictive properties— thought to be beneficial to human
particular weed species—thus, they from opium in heroin to nicotine cells. Blueberries, red grapes and
can help keep those populations in in tobacco to the caffeine found in strawberries, foods known for high
check without also feeding on native chocolates, colas, and coffee. Other antioxidant levels, contain color
plants. plant chemicals contain essential pigments from flavonoids. Many
Phytochemicals also affect humans, oils like citronella and menthol and plant chemicals are also known for
since we can also be herbivores. Over toxic compounds found in latex and their antiseptic, antiviral, and/or
time, through knowledge passed resins. The anti-cancer drug Taxol, antibacterial properties, all of which
originally isolated from the Pacific are important to humans.

Directions:
Observing plant defenses
1. Choose an area to look for plant defenses; it could not touch the sap to your skin or taste anything! Do
be located in your schoolyard, home garden, or a you observe any oozing or liquid material coming
natural area. Create a journal page or data sheet from the damaged leaf or branch? Note whether it
of your own. Find one plant exhibiting evidence of is clear or milky. Smear the substance on a piece of
physical defenses and one that you think has some paper. Is it sticky? What does it look like (e.g., color,
chemical defenses. Record the date and location; consistency)? Rip a piece of the leaf or cut across
include the scientific name of the plants and a the surface. What do you see? Crush your leaf with
detailed description, including the habitat. a rock on your paper. Grind it well (but don’t rip the
2. A plant must survive in a dangerous world to paper), and smell it. How would you describe the
reproduce. Answer the following: How do you think odor? What pigments or colors do you observe on
your plant defends itself? Add sketches if needed. the paper?
This requires careful observations. Look for any
physical characteristics that you think might be used
to deter herbivores. Examine the plant for textures
like fuzzy leaves or physical structures that could
be used to shield vulnerable parts. Make notes on
what you find. What kind of herbivore do you think
is being deterred? Small herbivores like insects may
need different deterrents than larger herbivores like
mammals.
3. Pick one leaf from your plant. Caution—some plants
contain skin irritants and toxins; take precautions. Do

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Directions, continued
4. Does the plant show any signs of wildlife use? For 6. Return to the classroom and read through the
example, describe any chew marks, leaf tunnels, background information again. Does it help you
unusual growths, scars on the stems, or insect eggs. understand your observations?
Note their location on the plant. Make predictions or 7. Discuss these questions in class: What types of
direct observations of what caused these signs. Do defenses did you observe? Did the background
you see any evidence of plant defenses (e.g., sealing reading help you understand your observations?
off wounds, unusual growth patterns)? Continue to Does your plant exhibit both physical and chemical
use sketches to help record your observations. defenses? If you observed herbivory damage or
5. Look at the immediate area around your plant. Does crowding, brainstorm different adaptations that
your plant seem to be successfully competing with might prevent these from occurring on the plants you
neighboring plants for resources? Look for excessive observed.
crowding from other plants. Does your plant look
droopy, wilted or show unusual coloring (leaves
yellowing, purplish or brown colored areas)? If your
plant appears robust and healthy without crowding
from neighboring plants, why do you think it is not
crowded? Maybe you have a landscape plant that
people have weeded around. If you are in a natural
area, how do you think your plant competes for
space?

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Taking it Further
Some native plants are known to be poisonous at some level to humans, wildlife, or livestock. Choose one
plant or plant family from the list below (or find your own), and carry out additional research. Find out the
category of chemical(s) it contains and write about its effects on mammals. Some plants store their poisonous
chemicals in only certain parts (e.g., seeds), while others contain the compounds throughout the plant. Include
this information in your research write-up.
Ranunculaceae (Buttercup family)................................many in this family
Fabaceae (Pea family) ......................................................many, including some lupines and milkvetches
Apiaceae (Carrot family...................................................many, including water hemlocks and poison hemlock
Liliaceae (Lily family)..........................................................many including Death camas, Zigadenus venenosus
Urtica dioica .................................................................... Stinging nettle
Hypericum perforatum......................................................St. Johnswort
Asclepias spp. ..................................................................Milkweeds
Dicentra spp. ..................................................................Bleeding heart
Toxicodendron spp. ............................................................Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac
Rhododendron spp. ...........................................................Rhododendron

Self Assessments
1 Explain the difference between physical and chemical plant defenses and name two of each.
2 Describe how co-evolution between plants and herbivorous insects can occur.
3 Make detailed observations and use your observations to make inferences.

Resources
◆◆ Armstrong, Wayne P., Wayne’s Word On-line Textbook of Natural History. Palomar College Arboretum.
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/chemid1.htm.

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In the Field!
Being able to identify poisonous plants can be important to your health and comfort. Go
on a field trip and take your local field guide to identify as many poisonous plants as you
can find. Use the poisonous native plant list from this lesson to start. Many invasive plants
also contain poisonous compounds and could be added to your list. Several of the plants
from the list can cause severe skin reactions when touched, so keep your distance! In your
poisonous plant search, continue to look for signs of herbivory, and note any signs in your
field journal. Remember that insects may have adapted to tolerate chemicals found in these
plants.

Science Inquiry
◆◆ Allelopathy describes how plants use phytochemicals to affect the growth of neighboring organisms. Allelopathy
might be a factor in the enormous success of some invasive plant species. Design an inquiry project to test this
theory using a local invasive plant.
◆◆ Make detailed observations of an invasive plant in its natural surroundings. Do you see evidence that it is
suppressing competition from neighboring plants?
◆◆ Plants can manufacture phytochemicals in specific plant parts or throughout their entire system. How can this
knowledge help you set up your inquiry project?
◆◆ Formulate a hypothesis or question statement about the allelopathic properties of the invasive plant.
◆◆ Test your hypothesis. One possible way to do this is to water seedlings with slurry made from the invasive plant
and water. Make the slurry by blending the entire plant or a specific part of it (e.g., the leaves) with water. How
might the slurry affect the results of your test? Determine how frequently you will water the plants, as well as how
long you will collect your data.
◆◆ Gather data. What will you measure? What methods will you use to collect data? How often
and how long will you collect data? What will be your control?
◆◆ Analyze your data. Does it support your hypothesis? How could you improve the focus
of your hypothesis or testing next time? Example: If your test showed that Canada thistle
suppressed radish seedlings, could this be extrapolated to Canada thistle suppressing all
plant growth? Why or why not? Brainstorm ways to improve on your inquiry project.

Reflection
Humans, as part of the ecosystem, participate in many different biological interactions with plants. Name two plant
interactions in which you participate. Analyze one in depth. How would it affect the ecosystem if the plant you
interact with was no longer part of the environment? How would it affect you? What changes could ripple through
the ecosystem? What other organisms would be negatively affected? Would any organisms be positively affected?
Identify one way that you can positively affect plants in your day-to-day life.

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Why try to explain miracles to your kids when you can just have them plant
Time Estimate: a garden?  —Robert Brault, gardener (contemporary)
several class sessions

Best Season: Overview

fall,
winter Explore the definition of the term “wildflower” and explore people’s
perceptions of the word. Research native flowering plants for your local
habitat. In this lesson, students embark on a native plant garden project
by working through the planning stages in the first of three lessons. This
lesson offers service-learning opportunities to share knowledge with your
community.

Teacher Hints Preparation

◆◆ Collect plant species lists from natural areas and field guides for your
◆◆ For your planting projects
ecoregion. Consult with natural resource agencies, native plant societies,
use local sources for seed,
parks and natural areas, and extension offices for help with species lists.
and native plants whenever
possible. Beware of ◆◆ Assemble a variety of wildflower seed packets or labels for student teams to
“wildflower” mixes; many use in research. Packets can be found at garden centers, plant nurseries, and
contain species that are not mail order. Find mixes that state the species contained.
native to your ecoregion, or ◆◆ Site preparation is covered in Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II. It is
even native to North America. best to start this process as early as possible, once a site has been identified.
◆◆ Continue this lesson as a
multiyear project. Classes
can add to the garden and
do long term monitoring Assessments
on the project. Gather data
and survival rates from past
1 Give the common and scientific names of 2-3
wildflowers that grow in your ecoregion.
planting to assess the long
term results. Results can
be compared from year to 2 Give one reason to conserve
native plant species.
year. Students can collect
seed from the garden for
future seedling projects 3 Work as part of a group to
prepare a project presentation (example: oral report, or poster).
or to sell for fundraising.
◆◆ Species recommendations
for your ecoregion can be
found on the Native Seed
Network webpage. Use the Additional Information
map feature on this site to ◆◆ Species recommendations for your ecoregion can be found
locate your ecoregion and on the Native Seed Network webpage, found at http://
see a list of native species www.nativeseednetwork.org/ecomap?state=USA.
that grow there. Where
community data is available,
use species that naturally co-
occur in plant communities.

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 Student Nurture a Native Garden Project:
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Why try to explain miracles to your kids when you can just have them plant
a garden?  —Robert Brault, gardener (contemporary)
Materials Needed
◆◆ plant species lists and field
guides for your ecoregion
Overview
◆◆ computer/internet What is a wildflower? Explore the definition of “wildflowers” and people’s
perceptions of the word. Put together a journal page of 8-10 native flowers
◆◆ wildflower seed mix packets that you like. Work as part of a team to plan a native garden for your
with ingredients lists schoolyard. Share your project as a community service activity.
◆◆ graph paper
◆◆ clipboard
Background Information
◆◆ compass
“Wildflower” is a term with different meanings for different people. To some,
◆◆ measuring tape
wildflower describes the mix of weeds blooming in a vacant lot, to others the
beauty of the flowers produced by native plants, and to still others a cultivated
mix of small flowering plants. This activity will help to define the term “wildflower,”
Learning Objectives as well as view the word “wildflower” with a critical eye.
◆◆ Gain appreciation for local Garden stores, mail order suppliers, and upscale gift shops are all sources of
flowering species and their “wildflower” seed mixes. Unfortunately these mixes are often the source of
place in the ecosystem seeds that can become invasive in your region. Some wildflower mixes are
labeled Eastern or Western, but rarely are they specially mixed for one state let
◆◆ Use research skills to compile
alone one ecoregion within a state, or even better yet one plant community. The
a list of 8-10 native flowering
problem arises with the way the seed mixes are used. Manufacturers of these
plants from your ecoregion
seed mixes are probably intending them for yards and flower beds, but many
◆◆ Increase plant knowledge and times they are not used for these purposes. Many people view wildflowers
identification ability over time as something beautiful and at the same time beneficial to the environment.
◆◆ Work as part of a team to They end up being spread at country weddings, memorial services, to beautify
plan a native plant garden pasture land, or to re-seed construction sites. In these cases the seed is left to
spread into unintended locations and natural areas, and possibly start invasive
plant problems. Oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare), an introduced species
from Eurasia, is such a plant; it has become a common weed in many places
Vocabulary Words throughout North America.
native species Why should you care about introduced wildflowers? Introduced plants can
wildflower crowd out native species, affect critical ecosystem interactions, and disrupt the
invasive balance of natural systems. Not all introduced plants cause problems, but some
easily become invasive. Most people do not usually weigh these factors when
deciding whether to spread wildflower seed.
How can you help raise awareness in your community? One step your class
can take is to begin a native plant demonstration garden for your community.
Why create a native plant garden? It can provide the aesthetics of beautiful
flowers, and become an integral part of a restored ecosystem. A schoolyard
native plant garden may not supply the complexity or diversity of a natural
ecosystem, but it will support the local ecology by providing habitat for native
pollinators and other invertebrates, small mammals, birds, and some reptiles and
amphibians. A well-planned native garden will require few outside resources
(e.g., water, fertilizer) once it is established. Creating the garden and maintaining
and monitoring the site over time will supply an outdoor laboratory site for
continued classroom use and research.
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Student Directions
Part 1: Research 9. Class discussion: “wildflower” can be a misleading
1. What is a native wildflower? Write a definition using term that is open to interpretation. How would you
your present knowledge. Save this definition to change the term or the image to better define it?
consult again at the end of the lesson. How would you educate the public of your image
change and why it is necessary?
2. Make a pictorial bouquet of native flowers specific
to your local ecosystem. Follow the steps below Part 2:Creating a Native Plant Garden—
to identify 8-10 native flowering plants to include. Site Planning
Choose flowers that you find attractive, in a variety of 1. Divide into teams that will each perform a task: (1)
colors and shapes. map the school grounds, (2) create a species list for
3. Start by compiling lists of native plants found in your your native garden, (3) identify native garden sites,
ecoregion. Species lists may come from the Native (4) perform baseline plant survey of sites, (5) market
Seed Network website, or from field guides written project to school administrators, and (6) locate seed
for your area. or plant sources for your garden.

4. Narrow your list to species that are well suited to 2. Team 1: Map the school grounds, identifying
grow in your local ecosystem. Look at the ecology locations of possible garden sites. If you have a small
or cultural information sections of field guides for area to work with, use measuring tapes and graph
help. Be sure to pay attention to requirements and paper to make a scale map. If you have a large area
preferences like elevation and moisture. you might use pacing to make an estimated map
or approach the school office to see if they have a
5. Assemble a field journal page to showcase your 8-10 school map that you could use as a template. Create
flowering species in a pictorial bouquet. Draw the a master map (by hand drawing or on the computer);
flowers or use color photos (taken yourself or printed make several copies.
from copyright-free digital library sources). Arrange
and adhere your bouquet in the middle of the page, 3. Team 2: Research flowering native plants to include
and arrange field notes around the outside of the in your garden. Create a list of 10-15 native plants
bouquet. Give the common and scientific name, that are suited for your schoolyard ecosystem. Look
habitat information, and pollinator, if known, for each at sun/shade, moisture levels, and soils. Additional
of your species. criteria could include species that are commonly
available in your area, grow relatively easily from
6. Now compare your native plant flowering bouquet seed, are aesthetically pleasing, and are important
with the species lists found in purchased wildflower nectar sources for local pollinators. There may be a
seed mixes. nearby natural site that you can use to get ideas of
7. Work in teams to research one of the purchased what species will do well in your garden.
wildflower seed mix packets. List the flower species
from the ingredients list. Research each plant’s
range, and note whether it is a plant native to your
ecoregion. When finished, prepare a bar graph that
compares native to non-native species found in the
seed packet. Share with the class and discuss: how
many of the different wildflower seed packets would
be suitable to plant in your ecoregion?
8. Revisit your definition of a native wildflower. Has
your definition changed? Rewrite a definition to
better represent your current knowledge.

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Student Directions, continued

1. Team 3: Identify one or two suitable sites for the native 3. Team 5: Market the native wildflower garden to the
garden. Sites could be a little-used patch of grass, an principal and the school groundskeeper. Give them an
underutilized corner, neglected garden spot, or the overview of the benefits of a native wildflower garden,
entrance to your school. Try to make it a place that your class’s planning work, and a proposal for taking
people will visit and consider if it is a spot that teachers on a native wildflower garden project. Use PowerPoint
will allow students to visit alone. Make sure to find or visuals during your presentation. Conclude your
out if the school has plans for a new building or ball presentation by asking for their approval to continue
field and do not put your garden there. Check with with the native plant garden.
the maintenance staff at your school and make sure 4. Team 6: Using the list of 10-15 native wildflower species,
they are on board. You don’t want them to mow your locate sources of native seed or potted plants. Native
garden! Observe and make detailed notes on each plant nurseries, seed sellers, and local plant growers can
of your target sites. How much direct sunlight does it all be sources. A local watershed council or conservation
get, and for how many hours a day? What are the soil district may be able to give you recommendations of
moisture levels at wet and dry times of the year? Make seed and plant material sources. Contact the sources
special notes about building overhangs or water sources in person, by phone, or by email to introduce yourself
nearby. In addition, look for a site that can be enjoyed and your school. Give them a brief introduction about
and appreciated by the student body and school your project and what you hope to accomplish. Many
visitors. Mark your two top choices on a copy of the providers will donate or give discounts to school
map created by the mapping team. projects.
2. Team 4: Conduct a baseline plant population survey 5. After all the teams have completed their projects, come
of the two sites identified by the site location team. together as a class to make decisions. Each team should
Identify plant species presently growing at the site. Add share their work with the group. As a group, pick your
the location of all native plants (if there are any) to the final choice for the site and species to include. Keep
map created by the mapping team. Include a key of the school groundskeeper apprised of your final site
plant species on the map. location.

Taking it Further
Take on a community service aspect for this project:
◆◆ Write and submit a news article for your school or community
paper about native wildflowers and your school native
wildflower garden project. Make the article informative by
stressing the importance of native plant communities for local
pollinators or benefits of a native wildflower garden.
◆◆ Educate the public about the drawbacks associated with
wildflower mixes used in wild areas. Create a marketing
campaign to get the word out. Posters, letters to the editor,
and speaking to community groups, are some possible ways
of getting your message out.

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In the Field!
Plan a follow-up field trip to a natural area to view native wildflowers blooming in the spring. Many U.S. Forest Service
offices have lists of wildflower hikes in the area. Inquire about peak viewing dates to guide your planning. Ask also if
they have a species list for the area. Inquire into the possibility of having their local botanist lead the hike. Take your
field journal and/or a camera to record your flower observations.

Science Inquiry
Take baseline monitoring information for your native wildflower garden site. Observe
and record soil moisture levels, diversity of plant populations, and insect and wildlife
observations or signs. This information can be used in future monitoring and science
inquiry projects. Do this in both fall and spring and compare your data. Is your site
more diverse in the fall or spring? Try doing this type of monitoring in two different
habitats. Are some habitats better to monitor in fall and some in spring? What about
summer? What do you think? Design a study to test this.

Assessments
1 Give the common and scientific
names of 3 wildflowers that
Reflection
Choose your favorite native wildflower and document all the connections
grow in your region.
between the plant and the local ecosystem that you can confirm or even
2 Give one reason to conserve imagine. How did the seed get to where it started? What does it need
to grow? What kind of pollinators does it support? How does the flower
native plant species.
connect to you? Did learning about native wildflowers increase their

3 Team participation in the

project: working together
appeal to you? Do you have any feelings of connection to the ecosystem
you live in? Can you identify 1 or 2 things that you can do personally to
promote native plant conservation?
with other members, finishing
assigned duties, and helping
out where needed.

Resources
◆◆ U.S. Forest Service Celebrate Wildflowers website: http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/index.shtml
◆◆ Native Seed Network species list by ecoregion: http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/ecomap?state=USA
◆◆ Native Plant Societies: look online to find a chapter near you.
◆◆ USDA Plants Database: http://plants.usda.gov/

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The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn.
Time Estimate: —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)
6-8+ weeks (continuing project)
Best Season: Overview
Spring (dependent on region) Part two of this native garden project will focus on starting seeds and growing
plants for your native plant garden. In the process, students will learn about
seed germination techniques and basic plant care. Potted plants grown by
the students will be the basis of a science inquiry project that will contribute
to a knowledge base for future seed projects.

Preparation
Gather or purchase supplies needed well in advance of starting this project.
Potting soil can sometimes be hard to locate in the winter months.
Teacher Hints
◆◆ Review appropriate
background information for Assessments
each section before starting
(seed treatments, planting,
1 Demonstrate knowledge of
seeds, seed germination,
plant care, hardening off,
and adaptations as they
and transplanting).
apply to local species.
◆◆ Set up a student watering
schedule for potted plants.
◆◆ Extend the science inquiry
2 Participate in an experiment,
gaining skills in science
section by requiring students
inquiry steps.
to write up a scientific
report on their experiment.
The reports can be saved 3 Follow through on a long
term project requiring
or summarized for future
classes to re-test or build attention to detail.
on the experiments and
contribute to the ongoing
research for this activity.
4 Submit a written report of
the science inquiry project.

Additional Information
◆◆ A Partnership for Plants in Canada – additional lessons about growing native plants:
http://www.bgci.org/canada/edu_act_class/

◆◆ Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural Landscapes Landscaping with Native Plants Guide – reasons, ethics, design, seed
treatments, planting, local genetics: https://archive.epa.gov/greenacres/web/pdf/wo_2004b.pdf

◆◆ American Horticultural Society Plant Propagation: The Fully Illustrated Plant-by-Plant Manual of Practical
Techniques. Alan Toogood, editor. DK Publishing, Inc. New York.

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The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn.
Materials Needed —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)

◆◆ native wildflower seeds

◆◆ resealable bags
Overview
◆◆ permanent marking Part two of this native plant project will focus on starting seeds and growing
pen (e.g. Sharpie) plants for a native wildflower garden at your school. Learn about preparing
seed, germinating, planting, and how to care for plants. Your potted
◆◆ pots plants will be the basis of a science inquiry project that will contribute to a
◆◆ trays knowledge base for future projects in the garden.
◆◆ potting medium
◆◆ watering wand
◆◆ fertilizer
Background Information
Seeds are the reproductive units of flowering plants. They are typically made up
three parts: the embryo (immature plant), endosperm (stored food), and seed
coat (covering). The function of a seed is to protect and nourish the embryo
Learning Objectives and to assist in the dispersal of plants to new locations.
◆◆ Understand the biology of Seeds require optimal conditions for germination (sprouting) to ensure
seeds, seed dispersal, forces survival for the fragile young seedling. Most plant seeds mature in late summer
of nature that work on seeds, or fall, but seeds will not germinate until the following spring when weather
and seed adaptations conditions are favorable. This lag time between when a seed is produced and
◆◆ Start and grow native seed germination is called dormancy. Seeds rely on specific cues from their
plants from seeds environment to tell them when conditions are right to begin growth. To break
dormancy, seeds may require warmth, cold, moisture, certain levels of light, or
◆◆ Prepare a site and plants
specific combinations of these factors, depending on the species and habitat
for a native plant garden
conditions. Some seeds are even fire dependent, requiring high temperatures
◆◆ Set up a science inquiry or in some cases, smoke, to release them from the resinous materials that protect
project using native plant them.
Seed dispersal, the distribution of seeds away from the source plant, contributes
to the health of the species. Seeds dispersed to new favorable locations can
Vocabulary Words grow without competing with the parent plant. Plants exhibit many different
embryo methods of dispersing seed, using wind, water, fur, birds, or insects to get from
place to place. Can you think of any plants that use humans as their primary
endosperm dispersal agents?
seed coat Under natural conditions, seeds will germinate when they are ready. We can
dormancy manipulate conditions to prompt seeds to germinate outside of their natural
scarification cycle. Seed treatments are used to mimic the natural processes for breaking
dormancy and to eliminate the barriers to germination.There are three general
stratification
types of treatments (and many variations) used to break seed dormancy of
germination native plants: 1) cold-moist stratification; 2) scarification; and 3) other special
treatments including heat, alternating between warm and cold, harvest timing,
and the use of chemical plant hormones. These last methods are only used in
special circumstances and won’t be addressed in this lesson. Some seeds have
double dormancy and require combinations of treatments. You will need to do
research on the species you have chosen for your garden to determine what
kinds of seed treatments you will need to do.

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1. Cold-moist stratification is a technique 2. Scarification is the act of breaking through

used to fool plants into “thinking” spring has arrived the seed coat. This can be accomplished by rubbing
and it is time to germinate. Many plants evolved in sandpaper across the seed coat, by pouring hot water
areas where winters are cold and moist, followed by onto the seeds, using an acid to break through the
a spring that is warm and moist, and those are the seed coat, or using a razor blade to nick the seed coat.
conditions that we must mimic in order to convince Different scarification techniques are used depending
these species that it is time to germinate. To do this, on the permeability and thickness of the seed coat.
you can put seed in a mixture of moist sand, peat, More often than not, scarification is an easy process of
soil, or vermiculite in a cooler, or if it is cold enough, gently scratching the seed coat with sandpaper. Acid
outside, in a temperature of about 5 °C. Much cooler scarification is used for seeds with tough, thick seed
and the seed will freeze; much warmer and it might coats. The acid acts as a mimic of the conditions the
not receive enough chill to germinate. The seed is seed encounters when passing through an animal’s
stored under conditions that mimic common winter digestive tract. Soaking seed in near-boiling water
temperatures. The moisture level should be similar to breaks down the waxy cuticle associated with some
a damp sponge. It is common to use a 30 day period species. Nature takes care of this process on its own.
of cold-moist stratification, although some species How do you think it does this?
may need as little as 1 day or as much as 90 days (or
up to 6 months for some alpine species). Following the
time in the cold, transfer your seeds to a warm (20 °C)
environment mimicking spring and continue to
keep them moist. Many native plants such as sedges,
buttercups, native lilies, and others require cold-moist
stratification, though not all do. They should begin to
germinate in 1-2 weeks.

It is important when germinating seeds and growing plants in artificial conditions to keep the area as clean as
possible to minimize conditions that can lead to rot and disease. To start, always wash your hands before handling
seed. It is advisable to buy sterile media (e.g. potting soil) or sterilize it yourself in a 400 degree oven for one hour.
By physically treating the seed to conditions that mimic nature, we are able to accelerate the germination process
when growing seeds in the classroom or greenhouse setting. If the seeds were planted in the field in the fall, the
physical and biological processes they encountered on the soil will naturally break dormancy to allow the germination
process the following spring. Sometimes it will take a seed years to break dormancy in nature.

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Student Directions
Growing Native Plants from Seed: Identify local native plants to grow from “Nurture a Native Plant Garden
Part 1”. Locate sources of seed to purchase or ask for a donation.
Seed Treatment
1. Follow the general guidelines below or any specific Medium and large seed that you will want to plant
instructions you received from the source of your in individual pots should be stratified in germination
seed. Consult www.nativeplantnetwork.org for boxes with moist blotter paper.
specific seed treatments for your species. 5. Label the bags with a permanent marker and include
2. Seeds planted directly outdoors in the fall will not species name, date, treatment regimen, and seed
need pre-treatment. source.
3. Scarification—Only if your species requires 6. Refrigerate the bags for at least 30 days unless the
scarification (does it have a hard, impermeable seed instructions you found for your species indicate
coat?) Lightly rub your seeds with sandpaper until otherwise. Check the bags weekly for signs of mold
you have a small spot where water can get into the or algal growth.
seed. You do not need to (and should not) remove 7. If you don’t know the preferred method of
the entire seed coat. You can check for a breach in treatment, do an experiment with several different
the seed coat with a hand lens. methods (i.e. scarified vs. not, 14 days of cold
4. Stratification—For cold-moist stratified seed. For vs. 30 vs. 60) and compare the results from your
very large or very small seed: fill a resealable bag experiment to determine the best technique. Write
⅔ full with sterilized sand, vermiculite or peat and down and save your protocols for future classes.
moisten so it is damp but not flooded. Mix seeds in
with the damp planting medium in the bag and seal. Continue to the planting directions on the next
Be sure your medium stays moist the whole time. page after completing the discussion below.

Discussion
◆◆ What natural process are we imitating by using
sandpaper to penetrate the seed coat?
◆◆ How does seed scarification link to the food web?
◆◆ Which seeds require moist-cold stratification and
which do not?
◆◆ What is the shortest length of time required for
stratification and what is the longest?
◆◆ How long can you keep seeds in cold-moist
storage?
◆◆ How can you relate what treatment the seed needs
to the local climate patterns?

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Student Directions, continued

Planting Seeds
1. Fill 4” pots ⅔ full of damp planting medium. Tap the 3. Place your pots in trays and gently water with a fine
pots to remove air spaces and add more medium mist.
if necessary to be ⅔ full. Plant one or two seeds 4. Place plants in a greenhouse if available, a south-
in each pot. Carefully cover the seed and gently facing window, or under florescent lights for 12 hours
press it into the potting medium. You will need two per day.
pots each for the science inquiry section. If you are
starting extremely small seed, too small to work with 5. Check your plants daily, keeping them moist but
individually, use the following method. Once the not wet. If your plants are in a greenhouse make
seed has been through stratification, gently spread a watering schedule and take turns with your
the seed mixture on the top of your potting media classmates.
in a tray to make soil contact. Be careful to not cover 6. Watch for germination and keep plants moist until
your seed with potting soil. the become established. Once established, adjust
2. Label your pots and trays with your name, species the watering schedule as recommended for your
and date with a plant tag or masking tape. species. Wetland plants will need more moisture
than upland plants.

Harden-Off Plants
1. A few weeks before planting out the seedlings, frost. Slowly introduce the plants to direct sunlight
prepare them for the outdoors by a process called by increasing the hours they are exposed over the
hardening-off. Plan your outdoor planting date two week period. At the end of the hardening off
after the last frost date for your region. Gradually process the plants should be accustomed to the
move plants outdoors into a protected area two number of hours of sunlight that they will be exposed
weeks prior to your planting date. Bring them back to in the garden (this will vary from shade to full sun).
in at night or cover them with frost cloth for the first 2. Your seedlings are now ready to transplant out in the
couple of nights, and on nights that you expect a wildflower garden.

Discussion
◆◆ Compare germination rates for those
Taking it Further
species that require treatment to those ◆◆ Chart the growth of your plants: when did they
that do not require treatment. germinate, get their first true leaves, reach a certain
height? Compile the information in graphs with labels.
◆◆ Can seeds be planted too close together,
or too far apart? If you grew multiple ◆◆ Explore seed germination rates. Count out a specific
species, which germinated the fastest? number of seeds and write down the number (100
seeds makes for easy math but this can be done
◆◆ Did your species all require treatments?
with any number). Keep track of the number that
◆◆ What natural processes are each germinate and record that number. What percentage
of the treatments mimicking? of your seeds germinated? What trends do you
◆◆ Why is it important evolutionarily for seeds to see? Do some of the seeds germinate faster than
require these treatments prior to germination? others? If so, why? Why might some species have high
germination rates while others have low germination
◆◆ What does it protect them from?
rates?

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In the Field!
Start the native garden preparation for your transplant seedlings. Draw a map of the garden area on graph paper.
Indicate which areas you will plant with each species. Check online to find out the full size of the species that you will
be planting in the garden, so your spacing will be right when they are full grown. An overcrowded garden can be a
frustrating maintenance project in the long run. Mark on the map where to place the plants. Use this map on planting
day to guide where to plant. You can always adjust the map as inevitable changes are made on planting day. Begin site
preparation as early as possible. If you start in the fall, cover the site with overlapping pieces of cardboard or several
thicknesses of newspaper. Hold this down with a generous layer of compost or fall leaves. This will smother the weeds
and grass and amend the soil in preparation for your transplants in the spring.

Science Inquiry
Design a science inquiry project:
1. As a class, brainstorm growing protocols for native species that could be scientifically tested. Examples of
variables that could be tested are: types of soils, fertilization amounts and types, seed chilling or stratification
methods, scarification and methods, temperatures, lighting conditions, addition of mycorrhizae or microbes, or
come up with your own ideas. Narrow your choice to one variable to test.
2. Design a question to be tested based on the one variable. Work with two groups of 10 or more plants; one group
to test your variable and the other to act as a control. Label the groups with your name and treatment or control.
3. Using your prior knowledge and simple research, formulate a hypothesis or a statement of what you expect to
happen. Write down your hypothesis and include your reasoning. This is the beginning of your scientific report.
4. Design a sheet to collect your data. As a class, decide what data you will be collecting (plant height, number
of leaves, largest leaf dimension, and others) and the frequency that you will collect it. Date each collection of
data and use metric measurements when gathering data. Data can be recorded manually or on a computer
spreadsheet program.
5. Consider continuing your experiment outside or you can conclude your findings when the plants are put in the
garden.
6. At the conclusion, write up your results in a scientific report. Start with your hypothesis, outline the steps of your
experiment, graph your data, analyze your results, and state your conclusion. Did your experiment support your
hypothesis or not? Did the experiment lead to any new questions to test?
7. Pool the class data and analyze as a whole. Were your individual results
consistent with the class results? If not, why might they be different? Did the
experiment produce clear results? Did the class results prove your hypothesis or
not? What challenges did you have? How could the experiment be improved?

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Reflection
This project requires many steps, covers a great deal of time, and requires working in pairs and teams in a cooperative
environment. What part of this project did you find the most fun or rewarding? What parts did you find most
difficult? What did you learn about your strengths and weaknesses during this project? What did you learn about
your working style over the course of this project? How does this fit with working in a team environment? What do
you think are the benefits and weaknesses of working as part of a group? What could you do to make this a more
positive experience? How do you feel your project will impact future generations?

Self Assessments
1 Discuss your understanding of seeds and their
adaptations to the local environment.

2 Participate in a group science inquiry

experiment. Develop a hypothesis, gather
and analyze data, make conclusions.

3 What did you learn by writing the report?

Resources
◆◆ Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural Landscapes Landscaping with Native Plants Guide: http://www.epa.
gov/greenacres/wildones/wo_2004b.pdf

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To own a bit of ground, to scratch it with a hoe, to plant seeds and watch their
Time Estimate: renewal of life - this is the commonest delight of the race, the most satisfactory
2 or more sessions thing a man can do. —Charles Dudley Warner (1829 - 1900)
Best Season:
Spring Overview
Students learn transplanting techniques, how to organize and carry out the
planting day, and planning a garden celebration. The third stage of this project
connects students with community through a service-learning project.

Preparation
◆◆ Plan far in advance for this day. You will need to (or have your students) research
Assessments to determine the best time to transplant. This may vary by the species you have
1 Students draw and describe
in a cartoon storyboard, or
and the region in which you live. Contact local nurseries, extension services, or
watershed councils for advice.
write out simple step-by- ◆◆ Prepare for pre-planting activity by making a copy of transplanting steps (see
step directions, how to plant copy page at end of lesson). Cut this list into strips, each with one step, and put
a transplant in the garden. the slips of paper into an envelope for each team of students. The transplanting
steps are listed in the correct order on the copy page. You may wish to refer to
2 Students write a job
advertisement and description
this list as a key when helping students.
◆◆ Encourage your students to create illustrated transplanting storyboards as part
for their role in the planting
of a community service-learning project, as well as to reinforce their learning.
day celebration as if they were
going to hire someone to do
the job they did. Be sure to Teacher Hints
have a list of qualities that
would make someone good ◆◆ Empower your students art projects, new plantings, or
for the job (e.g. organized, by offering them specific general maintenance. Extend
attention to detail, experience leadership roles in this stage. the project by working with
with native plants, etc.). ◆◆ Facilitate leadership by guiding other schools or natural areas
students into planting day to add wildflower areas at their
3 Students discuss the
benefits of their project
committees, working with
students to outline individual
site. Collect and use your own
seed. Sell seed or transplants
to the local ecosystem duties, and helping them as a fundraiser for the garden.
and to the community. create reasonable timelines. ◆◆ After finishing planting, walk
◆◆ Additional community service through the planting area and
connections: buddy up with do some quality control to
ensure that the transplants were
Additional Information an elementary school class and
well-planted. Check for exposed
use the student storyboards
◆◆ Wild Ones: Native Plants, to help instruct the young roots and for plants that are in
Natural Landscapes students in transplanting. holes that are too shallow or
Landscaping with Native too deep. Make sure plants are
Plants Guide – goes into ◆◆ Continue this project from year
marked so they can be easily
reasons, ethics, design, seed to year; hold a garden birthday
watered while they are adjusting
treatments, planting, local party where everyone adds
to their new environment.
genetics: https://archive. gifts to the garden through
epa.gov/greenacres/web/
pdf/wo_2004b.pdf

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To own a bit of ground, to scratch it with a hoe, to plant seeds and watch their
renewal of life - this is the commonest delight of the race, the most satisfactory
Materials Needed thing a man can do. —Charles Dudley Warner (1829 - 1900)
◆◆ transplanting sequence
instruction slips
Overview
◆◆ storyboard template
Plant the fruits (or flowers) of your labor in your native plant garden! Learn
◆◆ drawing materials transplanting techniques, organize, and plant your garden area. Take a
◆◆ shovels leadership role by organizing project committees and a garden celebration.
◆◆ pin flags Share your project with your community through your celebration, media
◆◆ gloves coverage, or working on a planting project with a buddy class at an
elementary school.
◆◆ water
◆◆ mulch
◆◆ celebration supplies Background Information
In the “Nurture a Native Garden Project” thus far you have learned about local
native flowering plants, seed starting techniques, and how to grow transplants
(seedlings). In this third and final lesson you will plant your garden and celebrate
Learning Objectives your hard work and the birth of this garden with your community.
◆◆ Work as a group: form By creating a native plant garden that is adapted to local conditions, you are
committees, plan project, helping local ecosystems and the critters who use them. The native garden will
outline individual provide habitat for wildlife and pollinators, and use fewer resources, such as
responsibilities, create a water and fertilizer, than a garden of non-native ornamental plants. Native plants
timetable, and complete are adapted to local soils and climatic conditions (although these are changing
your planting project as the climate changes). Like all new gardens, the newly planted native plants
◆◆ Learn and demonstrate will appreciate a little added care the first year or two and will always require
proper planting techniques weeding and maintenance as vigorous non-natives try to invade. Learn and
◆◆ Creatively share the follow proper planting techniques so you will maximize the chances that your
project with other students plants will survive. To protect the new plants from competition, hold moisture
and the community in the soil, and make new plants easier to find, be sure to mulch or spread a
protective layer of compost, leaves, or other natural materials around the base
◆◆ Increase your knowledge
of your plant. Don’t forget to water throughout the first and possibly second
of the local ecosystem
summer, to establish healthy plants for the future.
There are several things that you can do to ensure the long term success for your
project. Work with your teacher to create a plan for continued maintenance.
Vocabulary Words Future classes can water, weed, and mulch established plants. Native gardens
transplant can use help defending against competition from invasive plant species. You
can also collect seeds and increase populations each year by growing additional
mulch
transplants. Work with the grounds maintenance staff and come up with a
long-term plan to keep the garden happy and healthy.
Encourage them to eliminate pesticide use on your
schoolyard in order to protect local pollinators and
wildlife that will be attracted to your plantings.
No matter the size of your project, planting day should
be a celebration of your successes and a dedication for
your native plant garden. Consider including a nature
reading, original poetry, a song or art work at your
celebration. A large celebration could extend to the
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Background Information, continued

entire school or even be a community plants to be enjoyed year round.
event. Invite guests such as your Invite the media to cover your event
parents, principal, superintendent, and take pictures and submit a story
mayor, retired teachers, and your to your school paper. Don’t forget to
City Council and encourage them acknowledge donors or volunteers
to help with the planting. Use the that have helped make your project
celebration as a service to educate possible. Also remember to have fun!
the community on the benefits of a Your native plant garden is a great
native plant garden. Create a guide accomplishment and contribution to
to the native plants in the garden, your native ecosystems and to your
or design a mural of the blooming community!

Student Directions
Pre-planting activity
1. Work in teams of 2-4 students. Each team will receive 2. Create a cartoon storyboard of transplanting steps
an envelope of transplanting steps. Work as a team to use with elementary students. Draw a simple
to arrange the slips in the correct order. When you illustration and number each step of the process
are finished, check your order against the teacher’s in the boxes of the storyboard. Laminate the
key. storyboard for outdoor use. Use the storyboards
during a community planting or donate them to a
young elementary class for a gardening project.

Organizing the planting

1. Assemble a planting map. Use the maps from Part I, does this affect which species you should plant
and add an overlay that marks the planting locations there? Mark the sites on the ground with labeled
for your transplants. Take into consideration the pin flags (color coded flags work well if transplanting
mature size of the plants and space the planting assorted species), making sure they correlate to the
sites accordingly. Be sure to keep in mind light map.
requirements. As some of your species grow taller 2. Gather needed supplies: shovels, watering
over the years, what areas will become shady? How containers, mulch, pin flags, gloves, and planting map.

Planting Day
1. Plant out your plants in spring when soils are dry 3. Use the planting map to match the species to the
enough to work. If you are unsure of timing, consult planting location. Color coded pin flags will help you
with local gardening experts (e.g. Extension Service, locate exact spots.
or garden nursery staff). Harden-off transplants 4. Start with planting sites in the middle of the garden
starting 2 weeks before your proposed planting date and work towards the outer edges. This will help
(see “Nurture a Native II” for instructions). to prevent accidently trampling plants. Place the
2. Gather all supplies and plants. Review planting steps colored pin flag next to the new planting to help
and do a planting demonstration. people avoid stepping on them.

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Planting Day, continued

5. Remember to take your time while planting. This is 7. Set up a student watering schedule to help the
not a race. It is important that the transplants are new plants establish and get them through the dry
handled with care and placed in a properly sized summer months. Check with the groundskeeper;
hole, with no large air pockets or exposed roots so they may be willing to help over summer break.
they can thrive. 8. Some native plants can be started by direct seeding
6. Label plants with plant tags and mark the locations in the fall or early spring. Use this method to
on the garden map. An accurate map will be supplement your plantings or if you are working in a
essential for future monitoring of the site. very large area. Also, bulbs should be planted in the
fall.

Celebration
1. Make planting day a celebration or plan a garden 4. Make a sign for your garden site.
dedication. As with most large projects, they can be 5. Create a local wildflower booklet or brochure to go
easier if broken into smaller parts. Divide the class with your garden.
into committees and delegate responsibilities. Keep
the celebration simple; pick and choose what best 6. Videotape or photograph before, during, and
fits your class and resources. Below are ideas you after, write a summary, and put together a project
might consider, plus add your own. scrapbook.
2. Invite the media to your planting day or act as your 7. Conduct a fundraiser for future garden maintenance
own press coverage. Take photos and submit an expenses. Make packets of mixed native wildflower
article to your local paper. Don’t forget to include seeds to sell.
the who, what, where, when, and why. 8. Include an information sheet with the species
3. Have a ribbon cutting ceremony and invite the included in the seed packet and the importance of
school board, school administrators, and staff. using local native plants in our landscapes.
Choose a class representative and an invited guest to 9. Can you think of other ways to commemorate your
cut the ribbon together. project?

Taking it Further
Suggestions for a long-term commemoration of the project:
◆◆ Adopt a buddy class from an elementary school and
invite them to your planting day and celebration.
◆◆ Alternatively, visit their school and help them plant a native plant garden.
Lead a wildflower craft project or create a game to play for the day.
◆◆ Commemorate your garden project artistically: create a mural (paint on
a wall that is adjacent to the garden area, or on canvas to hang indoors),
make mosaic stepping stones, build a bench or garden art, make a
fabric or paper artwork quilt for the school hall, make a scrapbook and
include student garden-inspired art work, hold a poetry contest.

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In the Field!
Grow extra transplants and share with the community by planting in parks and public natural areas. Approach your
city, county, or state parks offices first. Explain your project and the benefits to the local ecosystems. Ask for permission
and guidance to select proper planting locations. You might even find that if you approach the parks department
before starting your project they might donate money, supplies, or knowledge to help you.

Science Inquiry
Investigate different mulching materials. Set up a test plot in your garden area that has
similar soil and sunlight conditions. Select 24 plants of the same species and similar health
and size. Plant them in a row or transect with 0.5-1 meter spacing, depending on their size,
between plants. Test 6 different mulching materials using four plants along the transect
for each material. Mulch ideas might include: woodchips, compost, cardboard, plastic,
straw, and others. Be sure that all the test plants receive the same amount of added water
over the test period. Monitor for several months, or years, if possible. Gather data on the
size and vigor of the plants, as well as the effectiveness of excluding weed growth at the
base of plants.

Reflection
Read the section from A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold that corresponds to the month you are in. Aldo
Leopold was attuned to the natural world and appreciated even the smallest parts of his ecosystem. Write about
your environment, tuning into the smallest pieces. What did you learn about your environment in this project?
What is happening in your garden right now? How does the native wildflower garden connect you to the larger
ecosystem? Something will be happening in your garden every moment of the year. Even when it appears that
very little is happening, challenge yourself to find something. Remember to think about processes that you cannot
see, inside plants or below the soil’s surface.

Self Assessments
1 Rate yourself as a committee member.
Did you participate in making decisions,
volunteer for a task, complete your task by
the timetable, and work well with others?

2 Give instruction or demonstrate the steps

to transplanting plants into the garden.
Resources
3 Describe the benefits of the native plant
garden to the local ecosystem.
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A Sand County Almanac.
Oxford University Press, USA.

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Preplanting activity. Transplanting sequence

instruction slips: make a copy, cut into strips, and place in an envelope for each team of students.

◆◆ Dig a hole (as deep as and wider than the pot) and place the soil carefully to the side.

◆◆ Support the top of the plant with your hand across the top of the pot, being careful not to crush the plant,
and turn the pot upside down.

◆◆ Gently squeeze or tap the pot to release the plant.

◆◆ Tease the roots out, if they are tightly coiled around in a circle, loosen the roots to encourage new growth.

◆◆ Place the plant in the ground so that the crown (where the stem and roots meet) is right at the soil surface,
not above or below.

◆◆ Make sure the roots are pointing down (not up) and spread out inside the hole, especially the root tips.

◆◆ Refill the hole with the dirt removed when digging, making sure to fill in all around the roots.

◆◆ Gently press the dirt around the plant to fill air holes and completely cover the roots.

◆◆ Mulch around the base of the plant to conserve moisture and suppress weed competition.

◆◆ Water.

◆◆ Stand back and admire your work. Wish your plant luck out there in the wild!

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Storyboard Template

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T Teacher
Page Weed Explosion
A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson
Time Estimate:
Classroom: 1 session.
Hands-on: 3-4 sessions over a 2
Overview
week period Students will learn the characteristics of invasive plants, how they affect
species and ecosystems, and the human impacts of their invasion. Students
Best Season: will examine a widespread weed, bull thistle, and study its effects using a
spring mathematical simulation to track a bull thistle introduction and expansion.
fall Students will explore what happens when one seed of bull thistle lands and
create a data table and graph the growth of the adult population over a five-
year period.

Preparation
Introduce students to the factors that limit the spread of plant populations;
Teacher Hints natural limits (e.g. disease, predators, geographic, soil, and climatic limitations)
as well as human limits (e.g. herbicides, pulling). Brainstorm with your students
Taking it Further hints: to create your own definition of a weed, and discuss the related terms from the
◆◆ Noxious weeds are defined vocabulary list. What makes a weed an invasive plant? Are all weeds invasive?
under the Federal Plant Are all non-native species weeds? Are there any native species that are weeds?
Protection Act of 2000, as well Lead the class into listing the characteristics of what makes a plant a weed. Do
as by most states. Students can invasive plants have the same limiting factors as native plants, why or why not?
explore noxious and invasive
species as defined both
federally and by their state,
Assessments
and learn about the different
classifications of weeds.
1 Use math skills to complete 3 Discuss the difference between
data tables, figure percentages, eradication and control and
◆◆ The USDA’s Introduced, and graph data where each is appropriate
Invasive, and Noxious Plants
webpage has information
on federally-listed noxious
2 Name 4-5 characteristics
of invasive plants
4 Identify several ways that invasive
plants are introduced and
weeds as well as links to strategies to prevent their spread.
state-listed noxious weeds.
Science Inquiry hints:
◆◆ Look for dandelion seed Additional Information
heads during spring and
early fall. They should be ◆◆ USDA Introduced, Invasive, and Noxious Plants webpage:
readily available on the school http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxiousDriver#federal
grounds, nearby disturbed ◆◆ The National Invasive Species Council website:
areas, roadsides, or gardens. https://www.doi.gov/invasivespecies/
◆◆ Alien Invasion Curriculum, an invasive plant K-12
curriculum: http://www.weedinvasion.org/
◆◆ Cornell Environmental Inquiry Program. Invasion Ecology: http://
ei.cornell.edu/ science inquiry program for high school age students.
◆◆ Vaccaro, Lynn. Breaking into the Seed Bank, High
School Lesson: http://csip.cornell.edu/Curriculum_
Resources/CSIP/Vaccaro/Vaccaro_Seed.html
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A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Materials Needed Overview

◆◆ bull thistle worksheets What is a weed and what makes a weed an invasive plant? Learn how invasive
◆◆ graph paper plants affect ecosystems, how to prevent invasive introductions, and how
◆◆ colored pencils introductions are being managed. Look at one invasive species, bull thistle
(Cirsium vulgare), found throughout the United States. Use a simulation to
◆◆ calculator
model a bull Use a simulation to model a bull thistle introduction and create
◆◆ For Science Inquiry Section: a graph to show its growth and spread over a five year period. Watch how a
◆◆ shallow planting tray single seed falling onto bare ground can create a weed explosion when left
◆◆ sterile potting soil unmanaged.
◆◆ dandelion data sheet
◆◆ resealable plastic bag Background Information
Invasive plants are a growing threat to native plant populations worldwide.
Disturbances to ecosystems can result from natural causes such as wildfires,
Learning Objectives disease, or normal succession cycles, and from human causes. Whenever
land is cleared by natural disturbance or by cultivating, logging, or housing
◆◆ Become familiar with
developments, then left bare, there is an opportunity for invasive plants to take
weedy vocabulary
a hold.
◆◆ Gain insight into the
Due to our modern mobile, global society, people are a prime cause of the
traits that allow a species
spread of invasive plants. Humans often contribute to the spread of invasive
to become invasive
plants without even being aware of it. Exotic plants are brought for ornamentals
◆◆ Identify ways that invasive into gardens from all parts of the world, with little knowledge of the consequences
plants can disrupt the of their impact on the local ecosystem. Weed seeds can come mixed in with the
balance of an ecosystem, and seeds of crops, or with other imports. Seeds can travel embedded in the tread
cause economic damage of car and bike tires, and even on your shoes. Humans are not the only means of
◆◆ Use mathematical skills in spreading seeds; wildlife and pets can carry seeds on their fur, eat and deposit
making predictions, data them in their feces, and birds deposit seeds along fence rows and under trees.
collection, and graphing Seeds can even catch a long ride on the feathers of migrating birds.
It is very difficult for scientists to predict which plants will become invasive
and which will not. Not all introduced plants become invasive. Those that do
Vocabulary Words generally share a variety of characteristics that allow them to be successful
native seed-bank invaders. These plants are usually generalists, tolerating a wide range of
environmental conditions. They are able to reproduce quickly, tend to produce
non-native germination abundant seed, and disperse their seeds with ease--all traits that give them a
weed eradication jump on slower growing native plants. Their large numbers of seeds frequently
noxious biennial overwinter in the top layers of soil to form a seed bank that can carry over
for years. The seeds in the seed bank wait until the conditions are perfect for
invasive perennial
germination, and then grow rapidly. Introduced plants that become invasive
exotic annual also have few natural population controls in their new environment. In moving
introduced to a new place, they leave behind the diseases, parasites and predators that
may have helped to control their numbers in their own native ecosystem. In
fact, many, species that become invasive are not particularly common in their
homeland, but once they escape disease and predators, their populations are
unchecked and can explode.

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Background Information, continued
There are many misleading or confusing terms used to productivity.
describe introduced species. Invasive, introduced, weed, To slow the devastating economic and environmental
non-native, exotic, and noxious are all words that are effects of weeds, invasive plant management is usually
frequently used to describe plants that are not native to an broken into two categories, control or eradication. Many
ecosystem. However, not all of these plants become invasive weeds are so common and widespread that there is little
and cause problems. Most landscaped yards are filled with hope of eradicating them from the landscape. Instead
beautiful plants that do not endanger native ecosystems; the focus on these species is on maintaining control and
these plants can be called introduced, non-native, or limiting new expansions. Early detection of new invasive
exotic. “Weed” is a generic term that is commonly used to species is handled differently. These plants have been
refer to troublesome plants, but the term weed can also targeted because they are problems in some areas, but not
be used to describe any plant that grows where you do yet reached neighboring areas or spread out of control.
not want it. Many native plants could be considered weeds By training people to recognize these newly introduced
if they grow where people do not want them. The term species, and with sufficient effort to remove them when
“noxious weed” actually has a legal definition: “any plant they are found, eradication (complete elimination) may be
designated by a Federal, State, or county government as possible.
injurious to public health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife,
Methods to control invasive plants are grouped into
or property.”
four categories: prevention, mechanical (mowing and
fire), biological (releasing insect or disease predators
and parasites), and chemical (herbicides) control.
Prevention is the least expensive and the least harmful
to the environment but involves extensive coordination
throughout the state to be sure that all are aware when a
plant species is a threat. Mechanical methods of control
generally involve interrupting some stage of plant life cycle
by hoeing, mowing, cutting, burning, or mulching to kill
the plant or to prevent seed production. Biological control
methods often use herbivory to the plant (e.g., importing a
beetle that specializes on eating a certain weedy species)
or disease-causing organisms to control specific plants.
Chemical control uses herbicides to kill the plant or
chemical means to suppress seed germination. Challenge
Why should we be concerned about invasive plants? yourself to identify ways that you may inadvertently spread
Invasive weeds have been identified by many land invasive plants, and what steps you could take to prevent
management agencies as the number one obstacle to the spread. Try to control weeds with the least toxic
promoting healthy ecosystems. Invasive plant populations method to protect yourself and the environment. If
can rapidly expand to dominate natural plant communities, everyone were conscious of invasive species and helped
destroy wildlife habitat, reduce plant and animal diversity, to control their introduction and spread, our native
and cost millions of dollars to control or in losses of land ecosystems and our economy would benefit greatly.

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Student Directions
Work with a partner or individually. a caption to your graph, and label the axes to show
1. First read through the Bull Thistle Introduction units and scale.
Scenario worksheet, which contains the information 5. Map how far the bull thistle could spread over a
needed to fill in the life history table at the bottom 5-year period if wind disperses the seed. Directions
of the page and to complete this exercise. Bull thistle are on the worksheet. Use graph paper and place
(Cirsium vulgare) is a biennial, a plant that lives for a dot on the midpoint of your paper to represent
two years and does not produce seed until the your first plant. Assume there are no landscape
second year. For our calculations, the mature plant barriers to seed dispersal. How far could the thistle’s
dies the second year after producing seed. This offspring spread from the original parent plant? Use
information is key to your calculations. an appropriate scale for your graph paper and draw
2. Use the life history table to compute the formulas for a circle around your initial plant showing the distance
the worksheet. Double check your formulas before that the seeds will travel each year of the five years
continuing. of the model. Your map will show circles that enlarge
each year as the seeds travel outward. Use meters as
3. Year 0 on the worksheet represents the bull thistle the scale to compute this spread.
introduction (a seed arriving in hay) and is filled in for
you. Use your formulas to complete the remaining 6. Looking at your graph; compute the total square
years on the worksheet. meters that the bull thistle could cover at the end of
the 5-year model. How does this compare to the size
4. Graph your results by hand or use a computer. Make of a football field?
a line graph of the size of the adult plant population
over time as well as the accumulating seed bank. Add

Class Discussion
◆◆ What happened to the numbers of adult bull thistle plants over the 5 year period?
◆◆ What happened to the number of seeds in the seed bank? What kind of growth curve do the graphs show?
◆◆ Can you explain the dip in the numbers in the early years?
◆◆ Do you think you would you see a similar growth pattern in perennial or annual weeds?
◆◆ What advantages or disadvantages do you see for plants that are annuals, biennials, and perennials?
◆◆ What would happen if some students came in year three and helped out by pulling half of the adult plants?
◆◆ How would that slow the spread of the species?

Taking it Further
Visit the USDA Introduced, Invasive, and Noxious Plants webpage (http://plants.usda.gov/java/
noxiousDriver#federal) and compile a list of invasive plant species for your state. Pick one invasive weed
species that occurs in your area to research. See if you can find a place where this weed grows and
familiarize yourself with what it looks like. Educate others at your school or in the community by creating
a weed guide on a school bulletin board with photos and descriptions.

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In the Field!
Take part in an invasive weed removal project. Local parks or public lands are in need of
your services. Think how a class full of energetic weed pullers can make a difference. And,
you won’t have to take any tests or quizzes while you are out there! Consider making it a long
term project. Adopt an area and return for monthly weed patrols, and you will make a lasting
difference for your community!

Science Inquiry
Step I
1. Use the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) to should make their own prediction) and record your
compute germination rates on your own. Dandelions predictions.
have a spring blooming season and a secondary 4. Carefully remove the seed heads from the bag,
fall bloom period. Proper plant identification count and record the number of seeds, saving all
is important as other common yard weeds can the seeds. Counting hints: Work on a sheet of dark
have similar seed heads that can be mistaken for colored paper. Use forceps, toothpick, or a pencil
dandelions. Review your plant identification sources point to push seeds to the side as you count them
before collecting seed heads. (keep them on the paper). Make a tally mark for
2. Work with a partner, locate and carefully pick an each 10 seeds and then total your tallies at the end
entire mature seed head and place in a resealable (otherwise it is easy to lose count). Compare your
bag to prevent seed loss. Count and record the actual count to your prediction. How close was your
number of flower buds, open flowers, developing prediction?
seed heads, and mature seed heads on each plant 5. Share seed count numbers among the entire class;
you collect from. were the numbers similar or do they vary greatly?
3. Return to the classroom. Make a prediction of how What could be some of the reasons for this?
many seeds are on your seed head (each person
Step II
6. Plant all of the seeds from your seed head into final number of seedlings. Calculate the percentage
a shallow planting tray. Mark the tray with your of the seeds that germinated using the total number
name(s). Half fill a pan with moist sterile potting soil. of seeds planted. This is your germination rate.
Spread the seeds fairly evenly over the soil surface, 8. Use your germination rate to make additional
firmly patting the seeds into the soil. The seeds will predictions. Take the number of buds, flowers, and
need good contact with the soil to germinate but seed heads from your original plant to predict the
should not be covered. Mist with spray bottle to how many seeds one mature plant could produce.
make the soil damp but not soggy. Place plastic wrap Record the number. Why is this number a prediction
over the tray to retain moisture. Why might you want and not concrete data?
to use sterile potting soil instead of garden soil?
9. Extend the activity to monitoring one dandelion
7. Place trays in a sunny windowsill. Keep moist and plant for an entire season. Flag your plant and visit
check periodically for sprouting seeds. Keep a tally daily, pick all flower heads and buds, and keep a tally
of the seeds that germinate and remove them with of how many you collect. How many seedlings can
a tweezers. This will ensure that you do not count one mature dandelion plant produce? Figure this
the sprouts more than once. Record the number by multiplying the number of flower heads by the
each time you remove sprouts. Continue gathering number of seeds per flower head, then multiply this
sprout data for 2-3 weeks (dispose of the seedlings by your germination rate. Is this an accurate number,
responsibly – don’t spread invasive plants!)Tally the why or why not?

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Class Discussion
1. Compare data, how much variance was there? 4. How could you gather data on
2. What could be the reasons for differences? total yearly production?
3. How many seedlings do you think would 5. How could you test the seedlings for survival rates?
actually survive outside, and why? 6. What else do you wonder about?

Reflection Assessments
Ask yourself, why should you be concerned about invasive weeds?
What are some ways to prevent invasive weeds from spreading?
1 Use math skills to compute
weed germination rates, survival
What are some natural factors that might limit the growth of weeds? rates, and to make graphs.
How do humans inadvertently spread weed seeds? What could
you do to help prevent the spread of weeds? What are some of the 2 Name 5 characteristics
of invasive plants.
ecological consequences of the spread of invasive weeds? What are
some of the economic consequences? Name some factors that might
limit the viability of seeds in the seed bank? Can you think of any
reasons weeds are beneficial?
3 Discuss the difference between
eradication and control and
when each is appropriate.

4 Explain two ways that

invasive plants can
damage an ecosystem.

5 Indentify one way that people

spread invasive plants and one
or two strategies to prevent
that method of spreading.

Resources
◆◆ USDA PLANTS database for pictures http://plants.usda.gov/
◆◆ California Dept. of Food and Agriculture. Encyclopedia
Data Sheets, Thistles. https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/
IPC/encycloweedia/weedinfo/cirsium.htm

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Bull Thistle (Cirsium vulgare) Introduction Scenario

Description: 
Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) is native to Eurasia and is now in disturbed areas and will spread into farmland, pasture,
widely established across North America. It has spines on rangeland, and recently logged sites. Found in sunny
hairy leaves and large purple flower heads. Bull thistle can locations, it can displace native and cultivated grasses and
be found in almost all parts of the United States and is forbs. Bull thistle is a biennial and produces seed on mature
thought to have been accidently introduced multiple times second year plants. After seed production the plant dies.
through contaminated seed sources. It is commonly found

Introduction Scenario:
A bull thistle was introduced to a state park when a seed spines help to increase the chance of survival, and 97% of
head was accidentally caught on the frame of a visitor’s car. these rosette stage plants will now survive to maturity and
Bull thistle seed heads contain anywhere from 100-300 produce seed.
seeds each and plants can produce anywhere from 1-400 Bull thistle seeds have feathery appendages that allow for
seed heads. Both of these figures depend on many factors wind dispersal, but easily detach when the seed is mature.
such as nutrition, soil, competition, and water available to This means the vast majority of mature seeds fall near the
the plant throughout its life. parent plant, though some of the seeds are transported by
In our model, the bull thistle is introduced to a healthy wind and establish plants in new locations. Scientists who
grassland ecosystem. In this scenario, the thistle will have study invasive plants use advanced models to calculate
to compete for several resources and will produce only 20 distances that seeds can travel under optimal conditions.
seed heads per adult plant. Research shows that 95% of These studies suggest that up to 10% of bull thistle seeds
the seeds that bull thistle produces are viable and capable may travel more than 27 meters with relatively little wind.
of germinating. In our grassland, only 15% will germinate What happens to the remaining viable seeds that did not
the first season. This reduced germination rate could result germinate? Under the correct conditions, this seed can
from a healthy vegetation layer covering the ground that be stored in the upper layers of the soil or thatch, waiting
prevents many seeds from coming into contact with soil. to sprout when the conditions are right. This natural
In this environment, only 1% of seeds that germinate will storehouse of seeds is called the seed bank. Seeds may
survive the rigors of nature to become tiny seedlings. remain dormant in the seed bank for different durations,
Survival can be challenging even for an invasive plant depending on physical factors such as the seed coat and
species. All plants need sufficient water, sunlight, and exposure to the elements. Some invasive plants such as
nutrients to make it through the summer, and in our model, field bindweed have seeds that can survive in the seed
only half will live through that first summer. The seedlings bank for 60 years! Bull thistle seeds have a relatively short
that do survive will start to grow and make a rosette (whorl life in the seed bank, remaining viable for no more than five
of basal leaves), increasing their footprint and giving the years. In our model, 50% of the seeds in the seed bank will
plant more space to collect the necessary resources. Once germinate in the following year; the other 50% will remain
a bull thistle becomes a rosette, it develops sharp spines in the seed bank.
on the leaves that deter many animals from eating it. These

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Data taken from: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/cirvul/all.html
References:
• Zouhar, Kris. 2002. Cirsium vulgare. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/ [2008, November 5].
Life History Table Answer Key
1. Plant life cycle (annual, biennial, perennial) Biennial
2. Average number of seeds in a seed head 200
3. Number of seed heads per adult plant in this model 20
4. Percentage of new seeds that are viable 95%
5. Percentage of viable seeds that will germinate 15%
6. Percentage of germinated seed that will establish seedlings 1%
7. Percentage of seedlings to survive 1st year to become rosettes 50%
8. Percentage of rosettes that become 2nd year adult plants 97%
9. Distance that seeds can travel by wind on relatively calm day 27 meters
10. Percentage of seed bank seeds that will germinate each year 50%
10. Percentage of seed bank seeds that will germinate each year
9. Distance that seeds can travel by wind on relatively calm day
8. Percentage of rosettes that become 2nd year adult plants
7. Percentage of seedlings to survive 1st year to become rosettes
6. Percentage of germinated seed that will establish seedlings
5. Percentage of viable seeds that will germinate
4. Percentage of new seeds that are viable
3. Number of seed heads per adult plant in this model
2. Average number of seeds in a seed head
1. Plant life cycle (annual, biennial, perennial)
Answers Life History Table
Find the information in the text above to complete the life history table
Project S
Student
Weed Explosion
 Teacher Measuring and Monitoring
T Page Plant Populations
An experiment is a question which science poses to Nature, and a measurement is
Time Estimate: the recording of Nature’s answer. —Max Planck (1858–1947)
15-30 minute introduction,
60 minute field session Overview
When botanists and ecologists work in the field, it is ofen not practical or
Best Season:
possible for them to count and measure every plant. In these cases, how do
spring they collect accurate data on plant populations? Field biologists use different
summer methods of sampling portions of a larger population or plant community to
collect data that is representative of the whole. The data can then be used
to describe the overall population or habitat. This lesson will introduce you
to several methods of sampling plant populations and the different types of
data that can be collected.

Preparation
Assessments ◆◆ Students should complete the exercises in the Estimating Percent Cover
1 Students can explain what
sampling is and discuss the
worksheet before attempting the lesson.
◆◆ Students will conduct a plant population survey to sample one common
strengths and weaknesses of (abundant) and one uncommon (rare) plant within the survey area. Choose
using sampling as compared an area to support such a set up. A natural meadow would supply an area for
to a census to measure several student teams to work.
plant populations. ◆◆ Break the class into teams of two to four students. Each team will conduct
a survey in the same general area. Students can then compare and discuss
2 Students can describe two or results.
more methods of sampling
plant populations and
Teacher Hints
discuss their applications. ◆◆ Differential education—ways to adjust the level of this lesson:
◆◆ To introduce more difficulty, add additional sampling
3 Students can describe two or
more types of data to collect
methods for more advanced students to compare.
◆◆ To simplify the lesson, reduce the sample size
and their applications. or reduce the types of data collected.
◆◆ To help students visualize percent cover, cut out paper squares to show
1% of a square meter quadrat (10 cm x 10 cm), 5% (22 cm x 22 cm), and
10% (31 cm x 31 cm). Bring these into the field to use as examples.

Resources
◆◆ Elzinga, C. L., Salzer, D.W., & Willoughby, J.W. Measuring and
Monitoring Plant Populations. Bureau of Land Management. BLM
technical reference manual 1730-1, BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730:
http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf
(this document is large and takes time to download)
◆◆ Cornell University and Penn State University,
Environmental Inquiry for high school students, Invasive
Species: http://ei.cornell.edu/ecology/invspec/

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 Student Measuring and Monitoring
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An experiment is a question which science poses to Nature, and a measurement is
the recording of Nature’s answer. —Max Planck (1858–1947)
Materials Needed
◆◆ metric measuring tapes
◆◆ quadrat frames (directions Overview
to make square meter When botanists and ecologists work in the field, it is often not practical
quadrats in appendix) or possible for them to count and measure every plant. In these cases,
◆◆ clipboard/data sheet/pencil how do they collect accurate data on plant populations? Field biolo-
◆◆ wooden stakes gists use different methods of sampling portions of a larger population
or plant community to collect data that is representative of the whole.
◆◆ compass
The data can then be used to describe the overall population or habi-
◆◆ field guides tat. This lesson will introduce you to several methods of sampling plant
populations and the different types of data that can be collected.

Learning Objectives
◆◆ Become familiar with methods Background Information
of sampling plant populations Botanists and ecologists sample plant populations for many reasons,
and their applications including monitoring or “keeping tabs” on a population of rare plants,
◆◆ Explore different plant comparing the results of habitat treatments in an experiment, or de-
population attributes that can termining the impact of an activity (e.g., building a new road through a
be measured (e.g., percent sensitive habitat, wildfire, or grazing) on a plant population.
cover, presence/absence,
When you are out in the field there are many things you can measure and
counting individual plants)
monitor. For example, on an individual plant, you could measure its height,
and their applications
the number of leaves, flowers, or fruits it has. These are examples of mea-
◆◆ Use a sampling protocol surements that indicate the vigor of individual plants. For a population
to collect different types
of a certain species, you could record the total number of individuals, the
of data and compare
two plant populations
amount of land it covers, how many reproductive individuals versus those
not reproducing, and many other traits. For a community, you could mea-
◆◆ Analyze data and
sure the number of species, how many individuals of each species there are,
interpret results
how those species are distributed over the land, and/or many other traits.
So, given limited amounts of time, money, and with specific objectives, how
does an ecologist decide which types of data to collect and how and when
Vocabulary Words to collect them? It depends on the question of interest for the study or ex-
transect periment. Some common types of data collection to meet different objec-
tives are listed below.
plot
quadrat
percent cover
plant population
frequency
azimuth

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Background Information, continued
Presence/absence: Is the species of interest present or is counted and then this data is extrapolated to estimate
not? This is likely the fastest and easiest type of data to the size of the entire population. For this method to be
collect. However, it only lets the researcher know if the legitimate, the part of the population that is counted
species is present or absent. It does not provide infor- (the sample) must be selected carefully, in an unbiased
mation about its dominance, or distribution within the manner and must also be representative of the rest of
habitat. the population as a whole. Frequently, randomization
Frequency: This tells us the percentage of plots within a is used to choose the sample, so that every part of the
larger sample in which the species is present. For ex- population has an equal chance of being chosen for
ample, if ten plots are placed in a meadow, and species sampling.
A is present in one of the ten, it has 10% frequency. This Census (complete population counts): This is the
measure of the plant population does not indicate how preferred method when possible. No statistical analysis
abundant the plant is. In the example above, even if there is required and therefore any changes in counts from
are five individuals of species A in one out of ten plots, year to year are real. A drawback to this method is that
species A’s frequency within the sample is still only 10%. it can be extremely costly in person power, time, and
Similarly, if Species A is found in only one plot of ten, its money.
frequency will be the same regardless of if it takes up What determines which sampling method one should
100% of the area in that plot, or is just found taking up use and the type of data to collect? Factors including
less than 1% in a little corner. The main advantages of fre- population size and distribution, the area to survey,
quency data are that it is quick to collect and the accuracy the time available, and the ecosystem characteris-
is less prone to human error. tics (e.g., density of vegetation, slope, etc.) must be
Percent cover: This is a measure of the proportion of considered. The researcher may select one of many
the ground (often within a plot or transect) covered by possible sampling methods and layouts to use during
the body of a plant (from a bird’s eye view). This meth- the survey, including the following:
od is extremely useful for plants that spread clonally Photo points: A picture is worth a thousand words!
(e.g., grasses or aspen), or for plants that may produce With this method, the surveyor takes photos in the four
multiple stems that appear to be multiple plants or cardinal directions (north, east, south and west) from
where counting individuals is unreasonably time con- a set of permanently marked points within the area of
suming. This is a very useful measure for comparing the interest. The photo points should give a good visual
abundance of different species. A drawback of measur- assessment of the entire area. Photo points can then be
ing cover is that it can vary drastically for an individual revisited over time, the photos re-taken, and compared
plant over the course of the growing season and can to the initial (baseline) photos to evaluate change over
be more difficult for researchers to make an objective time.
and accurate measure. This measure is commonly used
Transects: These can be long, narrow strips or wide
in plant community research involving multiple spe-
belts that traverse the landscape. The area within the
cies. This method works best for species that are evenly
boundary of the transect is sampled and transects are
distributed through the area to be sampled and works
placed randomly or in intervals across the area to be
less well for species that are very patchy or found only
sampled. Target species within the transect can be
along the edges.
counted or percent cover of any or all species present
Population estimates: If a population is too large in can be assessed. Transects can also be a line (essentially,
extent or number to feasibly measure or count every a very narrow belt); in this case, often the presence of
individual, sampling is used to estimate the size of the all species that occur along the line or at specific inter-
population without actually counting every plant. Dur- vals along the line are recorded. Long transects may be
ing sampling, a representative portion of the population easier to establish in some habitats (e.g., prairie) than oth-
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 Student Measuring and Monitoring
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Background Information, continued
ers (e.g., dense forest). The longer a transect is, the more of plots can vary, though one meter square plots are
likely it is to capture variation within your population. common. As with a transect, if the purpose of the plots is
Transects are especially useful when the target species to describe a larger area, the plots need to be randomly
you are trying to monitor is patchy on your landscape. placed (e.g., using a set of random numbers as coordi-
Transects are usually placed parallel to one another on nates to position plots in a grid overlain on the site). The
the landscape and then run at the same azimuth (angle). number of plots needed to describe a larger area will
The number of transects needed to describe a larger depend on how variable the habitat is, the size of the
area will depend on how variable the habitat is, the size plot, and the size of the area to be sampled.
of the transect, and the size of the area to be sampled. Once you have collected your data, the next step is
data analysis. Until you do this you just have a bunch
of numbers on a piece of paper. Your analysis will be
guided by the objectives of your study. If the purpose
is to compare two (or more) parts of a plant population,
perhaps to test a hypothesis, the data collected needs
to be evaluated to determine if a statistical difference
exists, and how likely it is that any observed difference
has not just occurred by chance.

Plots: Plots are often square, although they can also be

round or rectangular, areas within which data are col-
lected. Square plots are often called quadrats. The size

Student Directions
1. Choose one common and one less common plant lining it up with the tape (if the bottom left corner
species that you will sample in your survey, or decide is atv 0 m, the bottom right corner should line up at
to sample all species. Make sure you can recognize 1 m, etc).
younger and older or flowering and non-flowering
individuals. Decide as a class whether the entire class 4. At each sample point (5 m, 10 m, etc.) collect three
will use the same two plants, or whether each group types of data (presence/absence, percent cover,
will do different ones. This monitoring exercise will and a complete census) for both the common and
answer the question of how common your chosen uncommon plant species. Collect your last data at 50
plant species are within the survey site. m, so you have a total of ten samples.

2. Set up a 50 meter long transect in your study area. 5. Compile your data in a spreadsheet. Calculate the
Make sure you are not biasing the placement of frequency (% of plots in which your species is found)
your transect. In your groups, develop a method to at which each species was present in your sample
randomize the direction (azimuth) of your transect. of ten plots. Calculate the average, maximum and
Use a compass to lay out your transect. minimum percent cover for each species. Average
your census data for each species. Do the same
3. Once your transect is established, collect data every techniques yield similar or different results?
5 meters starting at the 5 meter mark along the
transect line by placing the bottom left corner of a 1
meter square quadrat frame at the meter mark and

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Class Discussion
◆◆ Which type of data most accurately represents were best for the plants you studied?
the difference you think you observed between ◆◆ How could you change your methods
the common and uncommon plants? to collect more accurate data?
◆◆ Weigh the efficiency and speed of data ◆◆ How might you change the data you collect
collection against the usefulness of the if you had a different research question?
information you collected. Which methods

Self Assessments
Taking it Further
Create a visual display to illustrate the differences between
1 Explain what sampling is
and discuss the strengths
the three types of data. Create bar graphs comparing the data and weaknesses of using
from each of the three methods with a bar for the percentage sampling versus a census to
of that species estimated using each of the three techniques.
measure plant populations.
Do this for each species you studied. Are the results of the
three techniques similar or is there a big difference in the per-
centage each estimated? How do the three differ for rare ver- 2 Name two or more methods
of sampling plant populations
sus common species? Do you think your results would change if
and discuss their applications.
you sampled more plots?

3 Name two or more types of

data that can be collected
and their applications.

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In the Field!
Conduct a plant population survey on your school grounds. The object of your survey will be to compare
native plant populations to non-native plant populations. As a class, decide, to focus on percent cover,
frequency, number of species (species richness) or some other population measure. Consider your survey
objective and the topography of the area to be surveyed to choose the most appropriate sample method
to use and type of data to collect. Make sure you can differentiate between all the plants you will encounter
in your survey. You can learn to identify them or just give them your own names as long as you can tell them
apart consistently. Divide into teams with each team surveying a different area of the school ground. Collect
your data, and then come together as a class to do the analysis.

Science Inquiry
Put your new knowledge to work. Work in teams to design a science inquiry project
that uses a plant sampling technique to gather data. Observe the plants around your
school and find something that interests you to form your inquiry question. Perhaps
you are curious if more species of plants grow within 5 meters of the parking lot as
opposed to 5-10 meters from the parking lot, how many weeds are present on the
soccer field, what percent of the vegetative cover is made up of native trees, versus
shrubs, versus herbs, versus grasses, if the presence of trees (shade) influences the
number and type of plants found in an area, or in what area invasive species are
more prevalent on your school grounds. Decide on the sampling protocol you will use and the type of data
you will collect. Conduct your survey, gather data, and analyze your results. Did your results answer your
initial question? In what way do you think that your results would differ if you had used a different sampling
protocol? Share with your class and get to know your schoolyard.

Reflection
What did you learn about measuring plant populations? Why do you think
there are so many different methods used? Why would you want to change
the sampling protocol to best fit a situation? Should the sampling method
influence your interpretation of the data? Would you have greater confi-
dence in some methods of data collection than others?

Resources
• Elzinga, C. L., Salzer, D.W., & Willoughby, J.W. Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations. Bureau of Land
Management. BLM technical reference manual 1730-1, BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730: http://www.blm.gov/nstc/
library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf (this document is large and takes time to download)
• Cornell University and Penn State University, Environmental Inquiry for high school students, Invasive Species:
http://ei.cornell.edu/ecology/invspec/

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 Student Measuring and Monitoring
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Estimating Percent Cover Example: 1 meter x 1 meter quadrat
Percent cover is a measurement used by botanists
and ecologists to describe and quantify plant
communities and habitat. It refers to the proportion
of the ground that is covered by a specific habitat
component, which could be a certain plant species,
bare ground, or the canopy of a tree overhead.
Because percent cover is not tied to a specific
measurement unit (like inches or centimeters), it is
easy to compare across different sample unit sizes
and shapes.

A good starting point is to evaluate the percent

cover of plant species or types of plants within a 1
meter x 1 meter quadrat frame (see diagram). The
first step is to orient yourself to the proportion of
the area in the quadrat that equals 1%, 5%, or 10%. Each square is 10 cm x 10 cm, or equal to 1%
For a 1 meter x 1 meter (100 cm x 100 cm) frame, the cover.
total area is 10,000 square centimeters. Therefore:
Try measuring the dimensions of your hand, then
• 1% of 10,000 is 100 cm2, or the area of a square that
is 10 cm x 10 cm in size.
figure out the percent cover it would occupy in
your one meter square. What percentage would
• 5% of 10,000 is 500 cm2, or about the area of a
square that is 22 cm x 22 cm in size.
a typical 8.5” x 11” piece of paper such as your
datasheet, be?
• 10% of 10,000 is 1000 cm2, or the area of a square
that is 31.5 cm x 31.5 cm in size.` Now, apply what you’ve learned to estimate the
actual percent cover of plants on the ground. Using
the diagram below, estimate the cover of the three
plants, A, B, and C, within the quadrat. Again,
remember that this quadrat has guidelines that are
10 cm apart, or in a 10 cm grid. Plants are never
square, so you will have to visually move around
and mentally “squish” the plant area into the grid to
estimate its cover.

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Estimating Percent Cover

What percent cover do you estimate for Plant Species A? ________________________________

What % cover do you estimate for Plant Species B? ________________________________

What % cover do you estimate for Plant Species C? ________________________________

What is the total % vegetative cover for the plot? ________________________________

As you get more practice in estimating the percent cover of plants of different shapes and sizes, you will get
much faster at the process. In some cases you may have overlapping plant layers, and you may end up with a
total cover that exceeds 100%.

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 Teacher
T Page Who Walked Here Before You?
In the old days when we were a strong and happy people, all our power came to
Time Estimate: us from the sacred hoop of the nation, and so long as the hoop was unbroken the
1 session, with possible time people flourished. —Black Elk (1863-1950)
outsideof class for research
Best Season: Overview
Any Students will learn about a regional American Indian culture by
studying their connection with the natural world. Students will inves-
tigate how Native Peoples used native plant species for food, medi-
cine, shelter, tools, and other applications following the yearly natural
cycles of the ecosystem. Students will gain insight into the ingenuity
and resourcefulness required to live off the land.

Assessments Preparation
◆◆ Students will need access to computers and the internet.
1 Name one important food plant
from your area and describe
its historic and current use..

2 Name at least one American

Indian tribe that lives and/
or lived in your local area.

3 Describe the cycle of a harvest

year for an American Indian
tribe from your area.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ Help streamline research
by providing students with
information about about
local historic and current Additional Information
American Indian tribes.
◆◆ Ethnobotany documents: http://unesdoc.unesco.
◆◆ You can also streamline research org/images/0014/001458/145847e.pdf
by providing a list of possible
◆◆ National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian
edible, medicinal, or fiber
Institute. American Indian collections research: http://www.
plants for students to choose
americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/home.aspx
from. See the references
section or regional field guides ◆◆ American Indian Ethnobotany Database: http://naeb.brit.org/
for species in your region. ◆◆ Print compilation of plants used by American Indians
for food, medicine, shelter tools, and other applications:
Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany.

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In the old days when we were a strong and happy people, all our power came to
Materials Needed us from the sacred hoop of the nation, and so long as the hoop was unbroken the
◆◆ Computer with people flourished. —Black Elk (1863-1950)
internet access
◆◆ Comprehensive regional Overview
field guides with
Learn about a regional American Indian culture by studying their connection
ethnobotanical information
with the natural world. Investigate how Native Peoples used native plant
species for food, medicine, shelter, tools, and other applications following
the yearly natural cycles of the ecosystem. Gain insight into the ingenuity and
Learning Objectives resourcefulness required to live off the land.
◆◆ Define ethnobotany
and understand the
ethnobotanical resources Background Information
of local native plants
Cultures all around the world are shaped by plants. As a part of an ecosystem,
◆◆ Gain insight into the
we are dependent upon the living organisms around us in order to survive and
connection between people,
ecosystems, traditional thrive. Although the way we use plants may have changed over time, plants
knowledge, and resource provide the basic necessities of our lives—they provide food to nourish us, fi-
management where you live ber to cloth us, building material to shelter us, medicine to heal us, and beauty
to sustain us. The acts of gathering, preparing, and using these materials are
◆◆ Develop a greater
understanding of and cornerstones in the shaping of a culture. Ethnobotany is a word that you will
respect for other cultures commonly hear to describe people’s use of plants. The word can be broken
down into the root words, “ethno,” meaning culture, and “botany,” which is the
◆◆ Explore native plants
study of plants; thus, “ethnobotany” is the study of the relationship between
used for food, medicine,
fiber, and shelter people and plants. This word can encompass historical and present day uses of
plants.
◆◆ Introduce the concept of
a harvest year as it applies Before globalization and modern technology gave us access to goods from
to a tribe from your area around the world and to synthetic materials, human cultures were dependent
◆◆ Identify how native people upon the plants native to their respective homelands. Imagine that you live in a
manage landscapes time where there are no grocery stores, no clothing stores, no hardware stores,
to promote resource no furniture stores, no video games. What would you eat? What would you use
availability historically for shelter, warmth, and comfort? What would you do for entertainment? All of
and in the present day these necessities—and many more—once had to be produced from the natural
◆◆ Identify tribes in your local resources found nearby. Thus, each culture was a reflection of the ecosystem
area, their present day in which they lived. Regional cuisines were determined by the edible plants,
location, and historical ranges animals, and fungi that were available in the immediate area, or within trading
distance. If you lived in the eastern United States, you may have looked forward
to the ripening of the sweet pawpaw fruits in the early fall. If you were a mem-
ber of certain tribes in the Rocky Mountains, you may have timed your yearly
Vocabulary Words
migrations to coincide with the emergence of bitterroot plants, whose roots
ethnobotany edible you would harvest and store for use throughout the year. Likewise, the materials
seasonal round medicinal used for shelter, clothing, medicine, and tools varied depending on what plants
culture fiber plant and animals were available in the area.
harvest year

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Background Information, continued
These important plants have been woven into the folklore, traditional resource gathering sites. Before European
mythology, and religions of the cultures which depend immigration, tribes would often travel great distances
upon them. to gather the plant materials that they needed. Today
Historically, the life of the tribe was determined by private land ownership often limits the areas that can
seasonal changes of the landscape. Patterns of movement be used for gathering, but securing access to continue
and activity reflected the location and seasonal traditional gathering is a high priority for many tribes.
availability of particular foods and resources. This annual This may take the form of collaborating with public land
cycle of activities, movements, and harvests is called a agencies to secure gathering rights, as well as purchasing
seasonal round. Through these seasonal rounds, native lands to set aside for this purpose.
cultures were inextricably linked with seasonal changes. Limited access is only one impediment to gathering
As the ecosystem shaped the culture of the native plants. Others that you might not readily think of include
people, the people were also shaping the ecosystem. environmental hazards such as toxic chemicals and
Native peoples manipulated plant species by collecting herbicides. One surprising environmental hazard found
seeds and cuttings of plants with desirable or improved in wetlands is lead shot from hunting, which causes high
characteristics. Important species were managed with levels of lead to accumulate in the plant species growing
techniques that would ensure sustainable harvests of in the contaminated water and soil. By far, the most
plants that provided food, shelter, medicine, fiber, dye, common problem limiting ability of native peoples and
wax and other daily needs. Plant species that were others to gather plants is loss of suitable plant habitat
important enough to manipulate by native peoples in from draining of wetlands, land development, and the
the Americas were corn, tomatoes, squash, potatoes, introduction and spread of invasive weeds. Gathering
nut- and berry-producing shrubs and trees, and tobacco. and using plants remains an integral part of many native
Trading among tribes and European settlers spread these cultures today. Often, important harvest events are
improved plants far and wide to be incorporated into marked with celebration ceremonies. These ceremonies
many cultures and cuisines. connect culture, spirituality, and the land.
Native peoples manipulated ecosystems by using fire to While globalization and technology have allowed us
maintain grasslands and savannas to encourage grazing by to access plants from around the world, our cultures
big game and create habitat for important plant species. continue to be influenced by native plants. For example,
Native people around North America were wildland the native sugar maple (Acer saccharum) of the eastern
managers that used generations of acquired skills to United States continues to be culturally significant. Berry
manage and sustain what grew around them and to create picking from wild species of huckleberries, raspberries,
habitat for particular species that were essential to their blueberries, chokecherries, pawpaws, and many others
survival. In the West, fire was used to improve habitat for continues to be an important tradition throughout the
camas, the bulb of which was an important food source. In country. Native plants also are often important symbols
the East, much of the “wilderness” encountered by early of our regions, imparting a sense of pride in the places
European settlers was the result of native people using we call home. Examples include the saguaro cactus in
small scale fires to create a mosaic of forested and open the southwest, the maple in the northeast, redwoods in
meadows, which resulted in increased plant and animal northern California, and many others. People everywhere
diversity and productivity. note the changing seasons by what native plants are
blooming, what fruits are ripening, or what colors the
Some tribes still practice traditional management
leaves are turning. Regardless of where you live, native
techniques and cultural practices. Many also employ
plants determine the character of your ecosystem.
modern land management technologies such as using
a Global Positioning System (GPS) and a Geographic
Information System (GIS) to help map and monitor
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Student Directions
In this activity you will study the historic use of native plants in your ecosystem. Each group will study one native plant
used for food, medicine, or fiber. You will then work together as a class to compile your data and create a harvest
calendar which shows which plants were harvested and used at various times of the year.

1. Determine which tribes lived and live in your local be found in (i.e. May/June, camas, wet prairie;
area. American Indian tribes are incredibly diverse September, pawpaw fruits, riparian bottomlands). In
and each has its own unique culture and way of using this way you create a calendar showing the a general
native plants, animals, and other resources. Your class idea of the seasonal round for the tribe.
should choose one local tribe to study. 7. To be complete, add other food sources in addition
2. Break into teams. Each team will research one edible, to plants to your calendar (fishing, hunting, gathering
medicinal, or fiber plant from your local area. mushrooms). You can also add information about
3. You will research how one plant was used by a other items that may have been gathered, such
tribe in your area. Use books and online resources as materials for building shelter, making tools, or
to discover plants that were used by the American creating clothing.
Indian tribes in your area. 8. Use the information that you have gathered and think
4. Use the data collection sheet provided to research about where each food comes from around your
the answers to all the questions. Some of the local area. How far might the tribe have travelled
questions will be difficult and might even be beyond 9. from one harvesting location to the next? Can you
the resources that you have readily available. Work think of places nearby that may have been sites
with a research librarian for local sources, contact used for harvesting various foods and materials?
historical societies, local museums, and websites This basic information will give you a glimpse of the
associated with the American Indian tribes in your distances travelled by a local tribe throughout the
area. Don’t forget to look for some of this information seasonal round to fulfill its needs.
in comprehensive plant field guides for your region. 10. Use your creativity to put together a visual calendar
5. When you have completed your research, come of the harvest year from information on the white
together as a class to connect the story of these board. Document ecosystems of the different
plants in relationship with each other and the resources and when the tribe would have to move
cultures that use them. Each plant story will now to that area to harvest. A circular calendar, or
become part of a larger seasonal picture that seasonal round, which represents an unending cycle,
highlights how native plants can be an important part is often used to depict the harvest year. You can also
of a peoples’ diet and how this works into the greater choose another creative way to portray the cycle.
story of culture. Take a look at how an historic Indian
culture managed their food system.
6. Across the top of a white board make a column for
each month of the year. Under each month write
the name of the plants that would be harvested at
that time, and the ecosystem that the plant would

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Class Discussion
◆◆ Historically, how did tribes know when it was time to move to a new area for harvesting?

◆◆ What would happen if it was a bad growing year and the harvest of certain plants was scant or non-existent?

◆◆ Were some foods more valuable than others?

◆◆ How did tribes know which plants to eat and which to avoid?

◆◆ Do you think you could be resourceful enough to hunt and gather a nutritious diet to avoid illness?

◆◆ What would you need to learn in order to do this?

◆◆ Can you give at least two reasons why it is important to really know about the sources
of your food today even though you do not have to gather it yourself?

Self Assessments
1 Name one important food plant from your area and describe in
detail its role within the culture of people historically and today.

2 Name at least one American Indian tribe that

lives and/or lived in your local area.

3 Describe the cycle of a harvest year for an

American Indian tribe from your area.

Resources
◆◆ National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institute. American Indian collections
research: http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/home.aspx
◆◆ Native American Ethnobotany Database: http://naeb.brit.org/
◆◆ Print compilation of plants used by American Indians for food, medicine, shelter tools,
and other applications: Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany.

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In the Field!
Create an ethnobotanical herbarium of plants used by local tribes. Preserve specimens
for future classes to use. Collect one sample to put in a plant press (only collect if the plant
is common—follow the guidelines in the plant press activity). If plants are unavailable
or rare, assemble the herbarium with pictures or illustrations. Include the researched
ethnobotany information on the herbarium sheets.

Science Inquiry
Science inquiry is a term used in education and research today, but the concept has been practiced
by people for a very long time. The use of inquiry skills has allowed humans to survive and thrive in
the world. How did America’s indigenous people use inquiry skills historically? How was information
organized, stored, and shared? Write out your ideas for how native people may have gone about
researching and answering the following questions concerning resources found in their ecosystems.

◆◆ Is this particular plant safe to eat?

◆◆ Does this plant have any medicinal value?
◆◆ What is the best method for preparing this plant so that it can be eaten or used as medicine?
◆◆ What dosages are safe for this medicinal plant?
◆◆ How can this species be harvested sustainably to provide for future years and generations?

Reflection
One way that traditional knowledge about plants was passed from generation to generation was through
stories told by elders. These stories often included animal figures and a moral. Create a story for your plant
that will encourage respect for your species for generations to come. Convey the importance of your plant
(see worksheet questions) as you weave in a creative story with characters, a setting, and a moral. Your story
can be written or a more traditional oral story. If you choose an oral story, you may want to make a simple
storyboard to help you remember all the parts. Think about ways a storyteller can make a story more
interesting for the audience (using different voices for the characters, props, costumes, comedy, or a twist
ending).

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Weaving the Story of _________________________

(put your plant name here)

Look at native plants used for food and fiber in a historical and present day context and use the information to weave a story used in
the lesson.

Question Answer
Species name
Describe your species

Habitat and range

What tribe(s) used this species?
What was/is the plant used for?
(can be multiple uses)

What part(s) of the plant were used?

What time of year was the plant harvested

in your ecoregion? What signs did people
look for to indicate the timing and location
of harvest?

How was the plant gathered? What har-

vesting tools or methods were used?

How was the plant prepared? (cooking and

serving methods)

Where populations of the species actively

cultivated and/or managed? If so, how?

Are there any stories, folklore, myths, or

cultural ceremonies associated with the
plant? Describe.

How does this plant fit into the ecosystem?

(consider: wildlife, invertebrates, pollina-
tors, soil life, decomposition, nutrients,
sunlight, water, habitat) Ask the question,
“What does this plant depend on, and who
depends on this plant?
Do people still use this plant today for simi-
lar purposes? How have its uses changed
over time?

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Look at your own food practices or ceremonies in the context of your own life; Thanksgiving Day, saying grace, Passover
Seder meal, significance of Easter eggs, Japanese tea ceremony, traditional foods for your family, and others.

Question Answer
Name one food ceremony that you
take part in:

What is the significance of the

ceremony?

What special food(s) is/are associ-

ated with the ceremony?
What is the cultural origin of the
ceremony?
What foods are characteristic of
your local culture?

Are any local native species com-

monly used in your local cuisine?

Resources:
◆◆ Ethnobotany section of regional field guides
◆◆ University of Michigan—Dearborn, Native American Ethnobotany. A Database of Foods, Drugs,
Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants. http://naeb.brit.org/
◆◆ USDA NRCS Plants Database: http://plants.usda.gov/ and associated links

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 T Teacher My Burden Basket:
Page How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber
He breathed on her and gave her something that she could not see or hear or
Time Estimate: smell or touch, and it was preserved in a little basket, and by it all the arts of design
1-2 sessions and skilled handwork were imparted to her descendants.
—Kotai’aqan (Columbia River Basketry, 1994)
Best Season:
spring, Overview
fall
This lesson introduces native plant fibers and their uses, with a focus on cordage,
baskets, and decorative techniques. Students will gain an appreciation for basket
function and design by studying traditional weaving materials and techniques.
Students will then collect, prepare, and construct cordage or a simple burden
basket practicing techniques and using various plant materials.

Assessments
1 Describe what makes
some plant materials more Preparation
useful as fiber plants. ◆◆ Scope out locations to take the students on a gathering trip. Materials can be found
in many locations: long grasses can be collected from vacant lots or roadsides; cattails,
2 List two native plant materials rushes, and sedges can be found in most wet areas. Challenge the students to make
use of what they can find growing locally. City gathering requires creative thinking.
that are valued for their fiber.
English ivy may be readily available in urban areas. Ask permission before collecting
3 Define cordage, explain any plants. Or, ask students to collect plant material from home to bring into class.
how it is constructed, and ◆◆ WARNING: Make sure everyone can identify harmful plants (e.g. poison ivy), if
list some of its uses. they grow in your collecting area.
◆◆ Work with students to create ethical collecting guidelines for the class to
4 Name several traditional
uses for basketry.
use. Be sure that the students discuss such things as: responsible harvesting,
cutting rather than pulling plant materials (unless it is invasive), avoiding over-
collecting, and asking permission from landowners.

Additional Information
◆◆ The Language of Native American Baskets from the weavers view. http://www.
nmai.si.edu/exhibitions/baskets/subpage.cfm?subpage=intro
◆◆ Ethnobotany documents: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001458/145847e.pdf
◆◆ National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institute. American Indian collections
research: http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/home.aspx
◆◆ Native American Ethnobotany Database: http://naeb.brit.org/
◆◆ Print compilation of plants used by American Indians for food, medicine, shelter tools,
and other applications: Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany.
◆◆ Otis Tufton Mason: American Indian Basketry
◆◆ Entwined with Life, Native American Basketry. Exhibit and website for the Burke Museum of Washington:
http://www.burkemuseum.org/static/baskets/ Search by culture to view basketry exhibits

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 Student My Burden Basket:
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He breathed on her and gave her something that she could not see or hear or
Materials Needed smell or touch, and it was preserved in a little basket, and by it all the arts of design
and skilled handwork were imparted to her descendants.
pruners/clippers —Kotai’aqan (Columbia River Basketry, 1994)
◆◆ plastic bags
◆◆ gloves
◆◆ dish pan Overview
◆◆ spray bottle This lesson introduces native plant fibers and their uses, with a focus on
◆◆ old towels cordage, baskets, and decorative tech You will gain an appreciation for
basket function and design by studying traditional weaving materials and
◆◆ colored raffia or yarns for
techniques. Go on a collecting walk to gather materials and then construct
decorative design (optional)
a simple burden basket, practicing the techniques and using various plant
◆◆ project direction sheet(s) materials. Now jump in and try it yourself!

Learning Objectives Background Information

◆◆ Learn what makes some plants For millennia, people have used plant fibers to meet the needs of daily life,
useful for baskets and cordage from making simple twine to bind things to building entire houses. Traditionally,
◆◆ Gain an appreciation of the plant fiber has played a large role in many cultures, but with the proliferation
history of baskets and cordage of manmade materials like plastics, this need has diminished, as have the skills
used by American Indians that go with it. At one time plants provided the materials for food storage
◆◆ Understand the role containers, clothing, utensils, tools, and adornments. A woman who needed
of management in water from a stream would use a basket made from tree bark and waterproofed
utilizing fiber plants with plant waxes. Today, we just reach for the nearest bucket. Although modern
◆◆ Sample hands-on techniques society still depends on plants to supply fiber for paper, cloth, and lumber for
using plant materials to make building materials, much has changed in just the last couple centuries making our
cordage and basketry relationship with the plants around us very different than it once was.
◆◆ Gain appreciation for the What makes some plants useful as fiber plants? First, the plant must include
decorative designs used to fiber cells. These cells tend to be long, thin, and tapered on the ends. All plant
personalize baskets (dyes, cells have cell walls, making them tougher than animal cells, but fiber cells have
colored plant materials, extra thick cell walls that are reinforced with a substance called lignin. Lignin
motifs) as well as the
is a compound that makes fiber cell walls stronger, more waterproof, and
techniques that create them
more resistant to attack by fungi, bacteria and animals. Fiber cells are one of
◆◆ Understand that ecosystems many plant structures that help support plants, letting them grow to reach
influence available sunlight, supporting their vascular tissue (water and sugar transporting cells),
plant fiber materials
and providing them with protection from other organisms. Fiber cells are often
present in the wood or bark of hardwoods, including oak (Quercus spp.), ash
(Fraxinus spp.), and maple (Acer spp.). The stems of some plants such as flax
(Linum spp.) and jute (Chorcorus spp.) also have fiber cells, which make these
plants useful for fabrics like linen and weaving items like floor mats and bags,
respectively. Fiber cells are also present in the leaves of many grass or grass-like
plants, such as sisal (Agave spp.), which is used for twine and rope.
Traditionally, many American Indian tribes used fiber from native plants, as
well as other natural materials, to meet their needs for baskets, rope, fishing
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Background Information, continued

traps and nets, cooking containers, comfort. The baskets were often
Vocabulary Words water jugs, garments, and houses! made of an open weave to hold bulky
fiber cell Nature supplied everything items while contributing a
lignin they needed. Although many minimum of weight in basket
of these traditional plant uses material to carry. At times,
cordage
have declined, people, Indian baskets were quickly woven on
coiling
and otherwise, still find time to site to transport materials back
twining gather materials and produce to camp. Coastal tribes would
weft objects made from plants. In our use the open weave burden
warp busy modern times, creating a baskets for collecting clams to
burden basket useful beautiful object with allow the user to rinse and drain
your own hands from materials the clams in one container.
tumpline
collected yourself can be very Tightly woven burden baskets
open weave fulfilling. What are some of the were used to harvest small
overlay things you would need to know seeds and berries. The burden
about fiber plants, design, and Cordage basket is just one of many
construction techniques to be designs perfectly suited for
able to make your own containers? its jobs. Studying other basket types,
To begin, you might analyze you will find they too were designed
the form and function of each to perform the function needed in an
container’s design. One common equally efficient manner.
container design is called a burden There are many techniques for
basket. Sturdy burden baskets making baskets, with two common
were frequently worn on the back methods being twining and coiling.
much like today’s backpacks. Burden The twining method uses two pliable
baskets were made for carrying “weft” strands that are twisted around
heavy items such as firewood or for a more rigid “warp” or foundation
when the wearer needed their hands structure. This method was used to
free, such as while harvesting. Such make some of the specialized baskets
baskets were often cone shaped and like water jugs, cooking containers,
outfitted with a tumpline, a strap and soft hats. In the second technique,
over the forehead or shoulders, and coiling, the base foundation is a spiral
used for hands free transporting. of materials that are sewn together
The cone shape fits comfortably, with a pliable fiber thread.
while distributing the weight on the Cordage is another essential tool of
wearer’s back. The large opening at native people that uses plant fiber.
the top allowed for easy filling by Cordage is made by twisting multiple
tossing items over the shoulder, and fiber strands together into strong
the cone shape discouraged thrown cords that can in turn be used in
items from bouncing out. Tumplines ropes, nets, and baskets. Many native
were a tightly woven strap made of plants are prized for making strong
soft pliable materials for the wearer’s
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Background Information, continued

cordage and these vary by region. Different plant species have different collections. Using thoughtful practices
Plant fibers can be used as cordage, optimum times for harvest. Trees can allow you to harvest plants fibers
bundled, or in their natural form as and shrubs are often harvested early without hurting plant populations.
weaving material. in the year when new growth is lush Think also about actions you can
and supple. Reeds and grasses are take to protect or enhance native
Baskets can be constructed of many
typically harvested later in the season plant populations for the future.
different native plant materials, but
when their growth becomes more Imagine the connection you would
some species stand out for their
fibrous. Preparation for use can have to your environment if you used
superior fiber or weaving attributes.
include softening fibers, stripping plants to supply all your needs, from
Shoots of hazel and willow, spruce
bark, or splitting larger canes. containers to clothes!
roots, the inner bark of cedar, yucca
root, and the stems and leaves of Traditionally, fire was used by many
rushes and grasses are all prized Oregon tribes as a management
materials. Historically, cattails and technique to promote long, straight
rushes were be woven into mats with plant re-growth for harvest. This
many uses (e.g.. clothing, sleeping, traditional management method has
house siding, and even canoes!). become more difficult to use with
Traditionally, baskets were used in changing times although it is still
all aspects of life; some were plain employed in natural areas around the
and quickly made for immediate state.
use. Other baskets show painstaking Gathering native plant materials
attention to detail and were intricately requires ethical collecting practices to
decorated. Some baskets show ensure access for future generations coiling
geometric patterns that are woven in as well as to protect significant natural
or overlaid in contrasting colors. Plant ecosystems and species. Ethical
materials supply the colors for these collecting includes preventing over-
designs. For example, black often collection to minimize population
came from maidenhair fern stems, damage. When gathering plant
white came from bear grass, and material, one should minimize
Self Assessments
reds were made with a dye from the damage to the parent plant by cutting 1 Describe what makes
inner bark of alder. Highly decorated and removing only a small section of some plant materials more
baskets are cherished, culturally plant, not disturbing the roots, and useful as fiber plants.
important, used in ceremonies, and never taking whole plants. Collect
passed down from generation to
generation.
only from large plant populations and
allow plants to reproduce between
2 List two native plant materials
that are valued for their fiber.

3 Define cordage, explain

how it is constructed, and
list some of its uses.

4 Name several traditional

uses for basketry.
twining

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Student Directions
1. Think of all the containers that you come into how to identify plants to be avoided (i.e. stinging
contact with daily; food storage, cooking, eating, nettle, poison ivy, and poison oak). Collect in an
backpacks, purses, boxes, water bottles, and egg area where you have permission (your teacher will
cartons. We are surrounded by containers of all guide you), and take precautions to avoid damaging
uses, shapes, and sizes. Make a list of 10 containers the plants; cut rather than pull out or tear your
that you commonly use daily. Take 5 from your list materials, don’t over collect or gather more than
and brainstorm ways that you could construct an you need. Use gloves to protect your hands while
adequate replacement container using materials collecting.
found in nature. Share your best ideas with the class. 7. Traditionally, most fiber materials are collected
2. Class discussion: How often did baskets come up when they are green and are dried before use. This
as a container in the brainstorming session? What helps to keep the basket weaving tight, because
are the pros and cons of using traditional vs. present green materials will shrink as they dry and may
day container materials? Be sure to address such disrupt the weave. This might not be an important
things as: individual vs. mass production, knowledge factor in a large gathering basket, but it is critical in
of materials, cost, time, and skills. Don’t forget baskets used to hold water. We will be using green,
to include issues concerning sustainability and un-dried materials for this project because of time
environmental integrity. limitations, and because green materials are easier
3. Challenge yourself to learn some of the traditional to work with.
art of using native plants to make utilitarian and 8. Once you return to the classroom, organize your
decorative objects. Choose one of the project collected materials. Separate similar materials into
sheets from this lesson and learn a new skill. piles so that all of the grasses are in one pile, the
4. Go on a gathering walk to collect materials needed willow in another, and so on. Prepare your materials
for your project (cordage and/or baskets). Work by removing leaves, cutting off seed heads, etc.
with a partner or in a small team. Each team will Store your materials in a folded damp towel to keep
need pruners/clippers, a plastic bag, and gloves. them moist and pliable until you are ready to use
them.
5. Spring is a good time to collect flexible young twigs
from willows. Grasses are best collected in summer 9. If you are working with dried materials, soak them in
once they have gone to seed and just as they begin water for several hours to make them more flexible
to lose their green color. Cattail is best collected in before working with them.
fall, when the leaves have dried and are less fleshy. 10. Consult the project sheets for directions to make
6. Review responsible gathering guidelines and your specific project.

Taking it Further
◆◆ Add to the “Who Walked Here Before You?” activity by adding
fiber plants to the seasonal round calendar created in that lesson.
Include where they were collected, at what time of year, special
handling or preparations, and what they were used for.
◆◆ Research other historical and modern uses of plant fibers. What
other cultures of the past depended on plant fibers for everyday
items? What items do you use regularly that include plant fibers?

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S Project How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber

In the Field!
◆◆ Take a field trip to a museum with basket collections, or contact the cultural resources department of one of the
tribes in your area to inquire about viewing their collections. Take your field journal and sketch your favorite
piece, including information on the materials used. Cross-reference the plant
materials in a local field guide, and include other plant history and ethnobotany
in your journal entry.
◆◆ Examine baskets that you have at home or in stores. Look closely at the weaving.
Mass produced baskets tend to be woven using a different technique than the
traditional methods you learned in this lesson. Can you identify how they are
different?

Science Inquiry
Fiber plant materials are valued for many attributes, including strength, durability, availability, and beauty. Fiber was
used for cordage to make rope, snares, fishing line, and nets, where strength was critical. Design a way to test the
strength of cordage materials. Make cordage from several different fiber sources and compare
their strength. Write up a simple analysis of your trials. Explain how you controlled for
different variables in your testing. Consider testing for other qualities such as strength when
wet, durability, and ease of use.

Reflection
Cultures throughout time have used their skills to decorate their homes and belongings.
How would you decorate a basket to express what is important to you? Design a
basket that you would call beautiful. Share it either through making it, drawing it, or
writing a detailed description. If you feel artistically challenged it this activity, try using
small-square graph paper and color in the squares to make your display your pattern.
Geometric patterns lend themselves well to this technique.

Resources
◆◆ Entwined with Life, Native American Basketry. Exhibit and website for the Burke Museum of Washington:
http://www.burkemuseum.org/static/baskets/. Search by culture to view basketry exhibits
◆◆ The Language of Native American Baskets from the weavers view. http://www.
nmai.si.edu/exhibitions/baskets/subpage.cfm?subpage=intro
◆◆ Ethnobotany documents: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001458/145847e.pdf
◆◆ National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institute. American Indian collections
research: http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/home.aspx
◆◆ Native American Ethnobotany Database: http://naeb.brit.org/
◆◆ Print compilation of plants used by American Indians for food, medicine, shelter tools,
and other applications: Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany.
◆◆ Otis Tufton Mason: American Indian Basketry

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 Student My Burden Basket:
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Make a Simple Burden Basket

Gather, prepare plant materials, and make a simple cone-shaped burden basket using the twining technique.

Directions
technique, you will use two
strands of the material, each
Materials Needed one passing on either side
◆◆ plant fibers for weaving (see Appendix of the twig form and then
III for traditional fiber plants, or twisting between the sticks,
improvise, experiment, and try found alternating as you work around the basket.
plant materials that may have historically 5. Start by taking an 18-24 inch strand of fiber and
been available in your area) folding it loosely about one
◆◆ thin, flexible, straight twigs (5 third from one end. This will
or more per student) stagger the ends, making it
◆◆ rubber bands easier to add new weaving
◆◆ pruners material smoothly. Place the
◆◆ optional: colored raffia or yarns for design work fold around one of the twigs
at the bottom of the basket
form (near the rubber band)
and start. Don’t forget to
1. Make a rigid form for your basket make the twining weave, the double strands need to
out of straight, supple twigs of cross between each twig.
uniform size. Use a minimum of 5
twigs, approximately the diameter of 6. Continue weaving your strands
a pencil and 10-12 inches in length. around the twig form, twisting
Using additional sticks or longer sticks your fiber to alternate back to
will make a larger basket. Bundle the front at each twig.
twigs together with a rubber band 7. When you start to run out
approximately 1 ½ inches up from the of weaving material, add a new strand by laying the
bottom. new strand overlapping the old one 3-4 inches. This
2. Fan out the longer end of the technique is called splicing. Then continue weaving as
twigs to make a cone-shaped before.
form for your weaving. 8. After each course around your twig form, be sure
3. Prepare your plant weaving to push the weaving materials down to fill in empty
materials. If you are using spaces.
green, supple materials, little 9. Hints: To keep your cone shape basket form, start
preparation is necessary. The weaving with thinner materials (e.g. grasses). As you
drawback is these materials work up the cone, use weaving material of thicker
will shrink as they dry and diameter or double-up the fiber strands. Additionally,
can leave your weaving loose. If you have collected dry if you are right-handed, hold your left hand (switch
materials, presoak them before using to make them if you are left-handed) in a fist in the center of your
flexible and less prone to breaking. Wrap the fibers basket to maintain the spread shape as you weave.
in a warm wet towel, and leave for 30 – 60 minutes This will keep your basket spread and keep you from
before using. Raffia must also be presoaked. pulling in the twigs in by weaving too tightly.
4. Prepare your weaving strands. In the twining 10. To finish the edge of your basket, make a loop

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 Student My Burden Basket:
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Make a Simple Burden Basket, continued

knot around the last twig and tuck the ends into the or seed heads on your plant fibers or using different
weaving below. An experienced weaver can finish their diameter strands for twining.
basket so you cannot even find the ends of the strand. 12. Design by color: Traditionally designs were created
Don’t expect this for your first attempts. You have just from naturally colored fiber (e.g. black from
finished a very simple twining weave basket. Don’t maidenhair fern, white from bear grass) or dyed
expect your first weaving attempts to be uniform or materials (e.g. red from the inner bark of alder, yellow
tight. If you find this interesting, try a more detailed from the inner bark of Oregon grape). You can add
how-to book or take a basketry class. color with yarn or raffia fiber worked into your design.

Add a Design (for ambitious basket weavers)

11. Design by texture: Use different textured fibers or
weaving materials. Experiment with leaving the leaves

References
• Jensen, Elizabeth. Baskets from Nature’s Bounty. Interweave Press, Loveland, Colorado USA
1991. ISBN 0-9340226-69-9

Making Fiber Cordage

Directions:
attempts will not be as uniform, but with practice
Materials Needed your skills will improve.
◆◆ one-foot section of two-ply twisted 2. Prepare your plant fibers. Remove
natural twine (jute, sisal, or hemp) extra leaves, seed heads, or outer bark.
Plant fibers will need to be free from
◆◆ plant fibers—cattail is one of the easiest to chafe and pithy interior materials. Roll
identify and find, other traditional plant or rub the fiber by hand, or lightly
fiber can be found in Appendix III. pound it with a rock to divide the
fibers. Divide larger leaves such as
cattails by standing on the leaf tip and
pulling the ends apart, making several
smaller strands out of one leaf. Prepare
1. Get a feel for cordage by investigating a piece of fibers of uniform size to produce a
readymade twine. Observe the twisting pattern. higher quality product. Green fibers
Unravel it slowly and note how the cord twists as can be used soon after collecting but may shrink
you pull it apart. Look for the direction of the twist. when dried. If working with dry fibers, wrap them in
If you stop pulling the twine and give it slack, it will a damp towel to make them pliable. For dry cattails,
most likely re-twist slightly. The twisting motion is soak them about 15 minutes before working; other
what holds the twine together and makes it strong. types of fibers may need longer soaking times.
Most twine is made by machines. Your early cordage

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 Student My Burden Basket:
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Making Fiber Cordage, continued
3. Take 2 strands of different lengths and switch bundles. Continue in this pattern to make
and tie them together with a knot in your cord as long as needed. Make sure you are
one end. This makes it easier to add always twisting and crossing your hands in the same
new materials as you add to your direction.
cord. 7. When you come to the last 3-4 inches of your fiber
4. Have a partner hold the knot or strand, you will need to splice in a new fiber piece to
clip it to a stationary object to hold continue. Overlap the thinnest end of the new fiber
while you are twisting. Take a fiber with the old, and just twist the two together as you
strand in each hand about 6” from work.
the knot. Twist both strands tightly 8. You may end up with some fiber “hairs” sticking
to the right. out but these can be trimmed off when you are
5. Once you have the two strands completed. If you staggered the ends of your initial
twisted, pass your right hand over your fiber these spliced joints will come at different spots
left and switch the bundles in your on your cord.
hands. This will produce the double 9. When your cord reaches your desired length, end
twist. by tying an overhand knot including both ends.
6. Continue twisting the individual 10. Use your cordage to tie things together, make a
strands to the right for another 6” and handle for a basket, or add beads and turn it into a
cross your hands again, right over left friendship bracelet.

Resources:
◆◆ US Bureau of Land Management, Salem Oregon. Exploring Oregon’s Past:
A Teacher’s Activity Guide. Salem office 503-375-5646
◆◆ Native American Cordage: http://www.nativetech.org/cordage/ by Tara Prindle,
1994. The website of Native American Technology & Art.
◆◆ Jensen, Elizabeth. Baskets from Nature’s Bounty. Interweave Press,
Loveland, Colorado USA 1991. ISBN 0-9340226-69-9
◆◆ Cordage and other basketry directions: http://basketmakers.com/topics/tutorials/cordagea.htm

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T Teacher Plants as Medicine:
Page Make Your Own Herbal Salve
In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous.
Time Estimate: –Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC)
1 field session, 2 classroom
sessions Overview
Students learn about common medicinal products that are derived from
Best Season:
plants found in the United States and research medicinal properties of
late winter,
plants in a historical context. Students will study the medicinal properties
spring
of species in the genus Populus, which includes poplars, cottonwoods, and
aspen. These native trees are found throughout much of the US and are
generally associated with wetlands and riparian areas. Students put their
knowledge to work by making their own healing salve from poplar buds.

Assessments
Preparation
1 Define phytochemical
and explain one or two
For an alternative format: combine class discussions and collecting buds into
one session, assign the remainder of the lesson as homework, and use a second
environmental processes that session for students to make their salve. Infuse the herbal oil one day ahead
prompt plants to produce (this should only take a few minutes to start). Oil can be re-warmed in a double
secondary chemicals. boiler before adding the beeswax.

2 Explain the importance of

biodiversity to the medical
Teacher Hints
◆◆ Populus species vary around the country. Consult a local
and pharmaceutical fields.
botanist or regional field guides for information on species
near you. Note: introduced poplars used for wood and pulp
3 Give two examples of plants
used in modern medicine.
production are less valuable medicinally because they contain
less resin. Try to use native species for this project.
◆◆ Northeast: Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), eastern cottonwood
(Populus deltoides)
Additional ◆◆ Southeast: Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides)
Information ◆◆ Midwest: Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), eastern cottonwood
◆◆ See Appendix II for (Populus deltoides)
ethnobotanical resources ◆◆ West: Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa),
for your region narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia), eastern cottonwood
◆◆ Black Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
(Populus balsamifera L. ssp. ◆◆ Southwest: Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii ssp. Fremontii),
trichocarpa)Plant Guide. eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), quaking aspen (Populus
USDA-NRCS http://plants. tremuloides)
usda.gov/plantguide/ ◆◆ To collect Populus buds, look in early spring and collect before the buds
pdf/cs_pobat.pdf open but are resinous to the touch. Populus species commonly grow in
wet areas: along waterways, streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Finding
fallen branches from storms is a good way to access the buds.
◆◆ Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) can also be used as an alternative if poplar or
cottonwood are not available.
◆◆ Your study of medicinal ethnobotany could be expanded by having each
student group research a different native plant with medicinal uses.

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 Student Plants as Medicine:
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In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous.
Materials Needed –Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC)
◆◆ Classroom session
◆◆ online computer access
Overview
for ethnobotany and In this lesson you will learn about common medicinal products that are derived
phytochemical research from plants found in the United States and research medicinal properties
of plants in a historical context. You will study the medicinal properties
◆◆ plant field guides with
of species in the genus Populus, which includes poplars, cottonwoods,
ethnobotany information
and aspen. These native trees are found throughout much of the US and
◆◆ Salve making supplies are generally associated with wetlands and riparian areas. Then, put your
◆◆ glass jar with lid knowledge to work by making your own healing salve from poplar buds.
◆◆ olive oil
◆◆ crockpot (for quick method)
◆◆ old pan and spoon
Learning Objectives
to mix salve ◆◆ Gain a basic understanding ◆◆ Examine the connections
◆◆ latex gloves of plants used as between plant biodiversity,
medicine, highlighting potential future of discoveries
◆◆ candy thermometer American Indian uses in plant medicine, and
◆◆ glass measuring cup ◆◆ Define phytochemical and untested plant compounds
◆◆ strainer understand the purpose of ◆◆ Study the historic uses of
◆◆ beeswax (2-3 oz. for each secondary biochemicals in a native plant, including its
pint of infused oil) response to the environment, biochemical properties
and learn how humans ◆◆ Participate in collecting and
◆◆ cheese grater
harness phytochemicals for producing a plant medicine
◆◆ small salve containers (i.e. their medicinal properties (Populus bud healing salve)
lip gloss containers, very
small jars, baby food jars)
enough for all the students Background Information
◆◆ labels for salve
The history of humans using plants as medicine begins long ago before writing
◆◆ vitamin E capsules and language even existed to record it. Much of what we know about the
or oil (optional)
early history of ethnobotany (the human use of plants) is patched together
from early rock pictographs. The first known depictions of plants used for
medicinal purposes are from the cave paintings of Lascaux in France, which are
Vocabulary Words radiocarbon dated to be from 13,000-25,000 BCE. Early written records of
the use of herbs for medicine come from Sumerian tablets (3500 BCE), ancient
phytochemical
Egyptian writings (1000 BCE), and the Old Testament of the Bible. Herb use
biochemical has also been documented in the early cultures of India (1900 BCE) and China
analgesic (2700 BCE). Many enthnoecologists suspect that the use of plants as medicine
herbalist extends much farther back in human history, but there are no records to prove
pheromones this. Plants have been such an important part of medicine that botany was
considered a branch of medicine until about 150 years ago, at which time the
antibacterial
use of chemical treatments and synthetic medicines began to gain popularity.
ubiquitous However, many of the medicines that are used in conventional medicine are
medicine still derived from phytochemicals that originated in plants and now can be
synthesized in today’s laboratories. Phytochemicals, which are various chemical

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 Student Plants as Medicine:
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Background Information, continued

compounds produced naturally in medicinal plants, estimates are that only All plants produce chemical compounds
plants, continue to be studied by 10% of plants have been investigated for to help them absorb nutrients,
pharmaceutical companies in the possible medicinal use. Modern science photosynthesize, and produce
search for new, effective medicines. has yet to explore the phytochemical color pigments. Plants also produce
Recently there has been a growing properties of countless plant species, secondary chemicals in response to their
resurgence of interest in the use of and many of those species that have environment. They can act as defense
herbs to prevent and treat illness. not been studied are being lost to against herbivores, disease, fungi or
This has led to a renewed interest extinction. The loss of any species competition with other plants. They can
in looking at the world’s plants as a may be a lost opportunity for a future be used to attract specific pollinators.
storehouse of medical wealth. medical breakthrough that could cure They can be produced during times of
The indigenous people of our country or alleviate the symptoms of diseases. stress to change the physical chemistry
have a long history of using plants, The significance of this becomes of the plant until conditions improve.
fungi, and other natural resources for apparent when you consider that Because of the great variety of
healing. In earlier times, people had twenty-five percent of all prescription environmental conditions and
a general knowledge of which plants drugs in this country contain at least organisms to which plants must
were used for treating common one ingredient that was extracted or respond, there are a wealth of
illnesses as well as rare or serious derived from plants. secondary chemicals found in nature.
conditions. This wisdom was passed Many common medicines used today These diverse secondary chemicals
down to the next generation through are linked to native plants that are found often can be harnessed to serve
stories from tribal elders. Many in the United States. One example is our medicinal needs. Many of these
cultures also had (and many still have) aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). People have secondary chemicals have supplied
designated healers with specialized used the bark of willows (Salix spp.) the human pharmacy for millennia.
training in plant medicine who can to alleviate pain and fevers. Salix spp. Even today, that pharmacy continues
invoke ceremonies or intervene contain salicin, a naturally occurring to grow as our knowledge of botany
with the spirits to help with healing. anti-inflammatory compound. Studies and chemistry expands. However, as
Generations of observations, trial and of the chemical activity of salicin led to we lose biodiversity through extinction,
error testing, and plant knowledge the discovery and invention of aspirin, many undiscovered medicines are lost
has been passed on in this way for which is now among the more common forever.
millennia. The wealth of indigenous pain relievers on the market. Another
people’s plant knowledge locally medicinal compound with which you
and worldwide is immense, but with may be familiar is menthol, the aromatic
changing societies and cultures much compound derived from plants in the
of the information is being lost. Still, mint family, used for its decongestant
worldwide it is estimated that 80% of and topical pain-killing properties.
indigenous people continue to use Another very notable example is the
plant remedies. Worldwide, there Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), which has
are many efforts to record these produced the potent anticancer drug
indigenous healers’ knowledge of Taxol. Taxol is derived from the bark
medicinal plants so that it is not lost. of this native tree, and has become one
Despite the extensive history of of the most widely used drugs used in
treatments for several cancers.

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Student Directions
Part 1: Research medicinal plant uses

1. As a brainstorm or discussion session explore Ethnobotanical Databases website at http://www.ars-

the following concepts as a class. What makes a grin.gov/duke/. Look under Plant Searches and click
substance “medicine”? How do you make personal on “chemicals and activities in a particular plant.” On
judgments on what medicines you use? If a particular this screen click “scientific name,” then type in the
medication is available without a prescription, , who Latin name of your plant and select “submit query”.
should be responsible for ensuring correct usage This gives you a filtered list. Click on a specific name
and dosage? When you buy unregulated herbal and it comes up with the details.
medicines, how do you know you are getting the real 4. The resulting search will list the phytochemicals
thing? Much of our medicinal plant knowledge comes found in your plant followed by their location in the
from indigenous people. Who owns the rights to the plant (e.g., leaf, bark, essential oil). Scan the list to
knowledge of and the use of these plant medicines? look for the plant parts you listed on your handout.
If more people use plant medicines by collecting Enter up to 3 phytochemicals along with where they
plant materials in the wild, how will we protect the are located and their biological actions (example:
populations of those species from overharvesting? 2,6-dimethoxy-p-benzoquinone; bark; antibacterial,
2. Work in small groups to investigate a local native fungicide, pesticide). Match your results to the
species for its medicinal properties and historical ethnobotanical uses you listed on your handout
uses. Find and record on your data sheet four sheet.
historical medicinal uses for your plant, what part 5. Define the biological activity you have recorded in
of the plant is used (example: resin, bark, leaves), simple terms. For example, antibacterial: destroys or
and the type of preparation (example: tea, salve, suppresses bacterial growth.
poultice). This information can be found in field
guides that contain ethnobotany information, or use 6. When your team has completed the data sheet,
online sources (see resource section). discuss your findings within your group. Write a
conclusion to your research. Can you support the
3. Research the phytochemicals found in your plant. historical medicinal uses with the phytochemical
You can try using Dr. Dukes Phytochemical and analysis? Why or why not?

Part 2: Make a healing salve from resinous cottonwood buds for minor skin irritations

1. See the “In the Field” section for directions to collect 5. Make an herb-infused oil by one of the two following
Populus buds, or use buds that your teacher has methods:
already collected. ◆◆ Traditional method: Fill a sterile pint jar with the
2. Smell the buds. Does the scent remind you of cottonwood buds. Fill the remainder of the jar with
anything? olive oil, leaving no head room or air space, and
3. Lay the cottonwood buds out to dry for a day before cap. Place the jar in a bowl or container to collect
proceeding. Water on the buds does not mix well any overflow. Leave in a warm place for 4-6 weeks.
with the oil and can lead to mold in your finished Periodically check to add more oil as needed. Heat
product. can cause overflow.
4. Use clean sterilized containers for all the steps of the Continued on next page.
process. Wear latex gloves to maintain the purity of
your finished product.

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Directions, continued
◆◆ Quick method: Spread the cottonwood buds in the to cause the wax to melt. Use 1 ½ ounce of beeswax
bottom of a slow cooker and just cover with olive oil to a pint of infused oil. To test consistency, remove a
(this will likely require at least a pint of oil). Heat the spoonful of the mixture and put in the refrigerator to
mixture, trying to maintain temperatures near 100 °F cool to room temperature. If it is too soft, add small
for 4-5 hours. Let the mixture reach 120 °F, then turn amounts of beeswax to thicken. If it is too hard, add a
off the pot and let it cool to 100 °F before turning small amount of infused oil.
on the pot again. Repeat this process for another 4-5 8. Vitamin E can be added to the salve at this point to
hours. act as a natural preservative. Empty 2-6 capsules into
6. When the infused oil mixture is finished (from either the salve and stir.
method), strain the oil into a clean double boiler pan. 9. When the salve is finished, pour into sterile small
7. Take the warm infused oil and gradually stir in containers and leave to cool. Cap the containers
shredded beeswax (rertaining a small amount). Use when the mixture has cooled to room temperature.
the large holes of a cheese grater to shred the wax. Label with the name of the salve, the ingredients, and
Warm the oil slightly in a double boiler just enough the date.

Taking it Further
1. Class critical thinking activity--How can modern society benefit from
exploring new uses of medicinal plants? Explore the subject from each
of the following perspectives: American Indians with historical plant
medicinal knowledge, drug company executive, the consumer (or
patient), conventional doctor, pharmacist, alternative medicine doctor,
public lands manager, and a farmer growing medicinal herbs. There
are no right or wrong answers and all points of view should be heard
with respect.
2. Investigate a global perspective on the issues of regulating herbal
medicines. Look into the following report: Regulatory Situation
of Herbal Medicines – A Worldwide Review. 1998, World Health
Organization Report. February 12, 2009. http://www.who.int/
medicinedocs/en/d/Jwhozip57e/4.2.8.html . This document is easily
accessed and includes quick links to herbal regulations in many
countries of the world.
3. Use Google Scholar to find an article on the medicinal use of Populus
balsamifera. Write a summary of the article and include proper
citations and the website link to the article.

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In the Field!
Collect your own Populus buds to make salve. Populus species generally grow in areas
with plenty of moisture in the soil, often near rivers and streams, wetlands, lake edges, and
wet ditches. A regional field guide or local botanist can help you decide what species of
Populus you will find in your area. The timing of collection will also depend on where you live,
with buds maturing from late winter through spring. You can ask a local botanist or naturalist for guidance o n
both location and timing for collection. Collect buds when they are large or swollen in appearance. Some of the
buds may be dripping resin. At this point they will be easy to break from branches. Trees will often lose branches in
windy conditions, so try collecting soon after blustery weather. Take a field guide on your trip to help you with tree
identification. For winter tree identification concentrate on looking for the shape of the tree (tall somewhat columnar),
the bark of mature trees (dark gray, and deeply furrowed), the location of the leaf buds on the branches (alternate), a
distinctive sweet and spicy odor, and sticky resinous buds. Also check underneath the tree for old fallen leaves to help
confirm your identification. Always remember to check with land owners before harvesting, and tread lightly. You will
need to collect enough buds to fill a pint size jar (one jar for the entire class).

Science Inquiry
Exploring the medicinal properties of plants is a fascinating subject with many avenues for science inquiry projects.
The following are two suggestions that will require additional class sessions to study background information, learn
procedures, carry out the experiment, and writing up the findings.
◆◆ Leaf Chromatography Lab: Separate chemical compounds from leaves to compare between different plants.
Compare and contrast by testing plants with known topical medicinal properties against others. The following
lab will give you procedures for setting up the experiment https://jrsowash.wikispaces.com/file/view/leaf.
chromatography.instructor.pdf
◆◆ Testing for Antibacterial Properties of Plants: Research the ethnobotanical uses of local native plants with
antibacterial properties or plants that were historically used on wounds. Test plants with known antibacterial
properties, as well as a few others. The following lab will give you procedures for setting up an experiment http://
www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/lessons/plotkinlessons.pdf. Lichens can also be used or substituted for
plants in this experiment. Research using several lichen species can be referenced below:
◆◆ http://lichens.science.oregonstate.edu/antibiotics/lichen_antibiotics.
htm - paper on the antibacterial properties of lichens
◆◆ http://ispub.com/IJAM/5/2/4012 - journal article in the Internet Journal of Alternative
Medicine. Citation: S. Malhotra, R. Subban, A.P. Singh. Lichens- Role in Traditional
Medicine and Drug Discovery. The Internet Journal of Alternative Medicine. 2008.
Volume 5 Number 2.

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Reflection
Write about the ethnobotanical knowledge in your family. Include what you use and how you use it. Search your
memory or, better yet, interview your parents or grandparents to record your family’s ethnobotanical history. Think
of foods you might eat to stay healthy, such as eating your carrots for good eyesight (why?). What does your family
do for a sore throat, cough, or stomachache? The plants you list could be ones you eat, drink as teas, or use in other
ways. Don’t forget to check your medicine cabinet for such things as aspirin, menthol, or herbal throat lozenges. Think
of the plants that you use daily.

Self Assessments
1 Define phytochemical and explain one or two environmental
processes that prompt plants to produce secondary chemicals.

2 Explain the importance of biodiversity to the

medical and pharmaceutical fields.

3 Give two examples of plants used in modern medicine.

Resources
◆◆ Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ - click on Plant Searches,
Chemicals and activities in a particular plant. Then search by plant scientific name (be sure it is spelled correctly).
◆◆ Moerman, Daniel E. 2000. Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland. ISBN 0-88192-
453-9. A comprehensive collection of many plants with descriptions of their uses.
◆◆ Foster, S. and C. Hobbs. 2002. The Peterson Field Guide Series A Field Guide to Western
Medicinal Plants and Herbs. Houghton Mifflin Co, New York. ISBN 0-395-83807-X. A
field guide with photographs of each plant and descriptions of their uses.
◆◆ Green Pharmacy, Dr. Jim Duke’s Botanical Desk Reference. http://www.greenpharmacy.com/.
◆◆ http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_pobat.pdf. USDA-NRCS Plant Guide.
Black Cottonwood Populus balsamifera L. ssp. trichocarpa.

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 Student Plants as Medicine:
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Name(s)

Plant name (common and scientific)

Ethnobotany Information Source Used (column A & B)

A B C D

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Use the following web link for column C & D: https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/search

Pick one of the ethnobotanical uses from your chart, use phytochemistry research to support or deny the plant’s medicinal use.

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T Teacher Phenology: Tracking the
Page Seasons in Your World
If you want an adventure, take the same walk that you took yesterday, and do
Time Estimate:
so again tomorrow. —John Burroughs (1837-1921)
Regular short observation
periods; or can be a single one-
time observation
Overview
Best Season:
fall equinox, spring equinox Introduce the science of phenology, which is the study of biological changes
or when plants are especially as the seasons unfold. Students will use observation skills to track seasonal
active (leafing, flowering, changes, collect data, and learn real world applications. They will relate
fruiting) in your area nature observations to climate and examine how global change is affecting
species, habitats, and ecosystems. Students will learn about the connections
between phenology observations and the study of climate change and have
the opportunity to participate in a citizen science program to contribute to
a national database of climate change information.

Preparation
◆◆ Introduce the activity by leading a discussion to enable students to explore
and review what they know about the seasons: what causes them, how plants
(and other organisms) react to seasonal changes, what triggers those changes
in living organisms to happen (daylight hours, temperatures, calendar dates,
weather), and what do those seasonal changes tell us. Use this discussion for
the students to throw out ideas or make statements of what they already
know or believe. Facilitate the students’ exploration of the answers to these
questions and more throughout the activity.
◆◆ Go through the Observing Plants tutorial on the Project BudBurst website
(budburst.org) to become familiar with the project and how it works.
◆◆ Read the Registration Guide for Middle/High School Teachers found under
the Educator tab on the Project BudBurst website and create Teacher and
Student reporting accounts. If you want your students to make Regular
Reports of plants, follow the instructions in the Registration Guide for adding
sites and plants to your students’ accounts.
◆◆ Download and print Regular Report or Single Report forms for your students
from the Project BudBurst website or have the students do this as part of the
activity once they have decided on a plant to monitor.

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 Teacher Phenology: Tracking the
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This lesson was produced in partnership with Project BudburstSM, a national
field campaign designed to engage the public in the collection of ecological
data based on the timing of plant phenology.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ This activity is most meaningful as a long term project, tracking the events
of the seasons for an entire year or multiple years in their field journal.
We suggest having students make Regular Reports both for their own
understanding of natural cycles and to provide the most beneficial data
for climate change scientists.
◆◆ Streamline the plant selection process by creating a list of Project BudBurst
plants that occur near your school grounds, then let students choose from
your list.

Assessments
1 Describe how plants and animals respond to seasonal
changes based on first hand observations.

2 Show basic understanding of natural cycles and how

they are affected by temperature and day length.

3 Explain how phenology studies can be used for climate change research.

Additional Information
◆◆ Project BudBurst http://budburst.org/ - a National Ecological Observatory Network citizen science project that
engages individuals in making observations of the timing of leafing, flowering, and fruiting of plants. Observations from
participants contribute to a better understanding of how plants respond to climate change at local, regional, and continental
scales.Resources: Educator Implementation Guides for Grades 5-8 and K-12 http://budburst.org/educators
◆◆ National Phenology Network USA http://www.usanpn.org/. Citizen science projects and additional
resources: Haggerty, Brian P. and Susan J. Mazer. The Phenology Handbook: A Guide to Phenological
Monitoring by Students, Teachers, Families and Nature Enthusiasts. 2008 University of California,
Santa Barbara for the UCSB Phenology Stewardship Program. https://ndep.nv.gov/tribe/docs/
env_mgr_ref_docs/Climate%20Change/Phenology_Handbook_2nd_ed_Abridged.pdf

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 Student Phenology: Tracking the
S Project Seasons in Your World
If you want an adventure, take the same walk that you took yesterday, and do
Materials Needed so again tomorrow. —John Burroughs (1837-1921)
◆◆ Phenology journal
(including Project
BudBurst Report Forms) Overview
◆◆ Drawing materials such Everyone takes notice of the seasons around them to some degree, even if
as markers, colored only to soak in the first warm sunny days of spring. Now you can discover
pencils, and pens) more about nature and the place you live by exploring phenology, the
science that measures the timing of life cycle events throughout the seasons
◆◆ Plant field guides
for all organisms. Use your observation skills and your senses to track the
for your area
seasonal changes of species and habitats and create a phenology journal.
◆◆ Optional: camera, Participate in a citizen science program to contribute to a national database
binoculars, hand lens of phenology information for researchers studying climate change.
◆◆ Optional: Project
BudBurst Identification
Guide for your plant Background Information
Phenology is the study of natural events that reoccur periodically in relation to
climate and seasonal change. Examples include bird migration and changing of
Learning Objectives leaf color in autumn. The word phenology comes from the Greek words “phaino”
(to show or appear) and “logos” (to study). Life on Earth has long been intimately
◆◆ Be able to make observations
tied to observations of (or instinctual or innate reactions to) phenological cycles.
and record data on the
timing of leafing, flowering Before weather stations and written calendars, humans needed to keep track
and fruiting of plants of natural cycles to predict when to hunt, gather edible fruits and nuts, and
being studied plant their crops. Many native peoples linked natural events with cycles of the
◆◆ Understand nature’s moon, the re-appearance of a migrating bird species, or the timing of many
seasonal cycles and what other natural events. Today, people observe and record natural events to stay
influences those changes in tune with the seasons, keep time with the natural order, and to gain a better
understanding of the life histories of different species. Other animals are cued
◆◆ Explain how knowledge of
phenology has been used in to phenological cycles as well.
by humans in the past The annual discovery of the first bloom of a plant was an event treasured and
◆◆ Understand how phenology recorded by conservationist and naturalist Aldo Leopold. In A Sand County
observations can be used Almanac, he wrote, “Every week from April to September there are on
in scientific research average ten wild plants coming into first bloom. In June, as many as a dozen
◆◆ Participate in a plant plants may burst their buds on a single
phenology based citizen day.” Leopold kept daily journals of
science program` observations whenever he happened to
be in the natural world. These journals
held the keys to understanding patterns
Vocabulary Words among plants, animals, weather, water, soil,
and land. By regularly recording natural
phenology events, particularly those events occurring
phenophase on family walks, Leopold and his children
equinox would compare changes from year to year,
solstice as they learned about the natural world.
day length

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 Student Phenology: Tracking the
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Background Information, continued
Author and naturalist Henry David Thoreau was one of to maintain the link with their food source. The trouble is
the first to record extensive phenology data in the United that organisms rely on a variety of cues to tell them when
States. He kept detailed journals that recorded bloom it is time to act and not all organisms rely on the same
time data for over 500 wildflowers that grew in the area cues. Birds, for example, use day length as a cue for some
he lived near Concord, Massachusetts between 1852 and of their phenophases, a cue that doesn’t change as the
1858. His work was continued by botanist Alfred Hosmer climate warms. Some plants, however, use a combination
in 1878 and 1888-1902. Recently, scientists have collected of temperature, precipitation, and day length for their
data on the same wildflowers in the same location to make cues. Temperature and precipitation are influenced by
comparisons that might be related to climate change. Their climate change. The environmental cues used by migratory
comparative studies show that plants are blooming an birds wintering in South America, for example, do not
average of one week earlier than in Thoreau’s time. provide information on the conditions occurring in their
The timing of life history events, or phenophases, is crucial northern breeding grounds. For these and other reasons,
to the interactions between different organisms. The ebb organisms at different levels of the food chain are exhibiting
and flow of resources that results from seasonal changes something called “phenological mismatch,” where shifts in
affects the entire food web. For example, as spring arrives the life cycles for predator and prey don’t correspond with
in a deciduous forest, an event called “bud burst” marks the one another. The full impacts of this trend are not fully
beginning of the growing season. The emergence of these understood, and are the subject of much research.
first new leaves represents the end of a famine season for What do the seasons look like where you live? Select a
herbivores like caterpillars. The little grazers have evolved place around your home, schoolyard, or a favorite place
to hatch to correspond to bud burst and the availability you like to visit. Walk the same route in spring, summer,
of high-quality food. In turn, many insectivorous birds fall, and winter and tune your senses into what is occurring
carefully time their reproduction so their young fledge around you. You do not need to travel a great distance
just in time to take advantage of the influx of nutrient-rich to study phenology, it is happening all around you. This
young caterpillars. Can you think of ways that organisms activity focuses on the phenology of plants, but others are
higher up in the food chain may in turn time their life events tracking phenology as it applies to wildlife, insects, fungi
to correspond with those of the songbirds? and nearly every type of life on Earth.
In this way, seemingly small or insignificant seasonal
changes or events can ripple through a food web and have
profound effects. Spend some time thinking about the
changes that occur during spring where you live. Perhaps
the water level in rivers rise as a result of snowmelt or rain,
or May brings a flush of new green grass. How might some
of these events affect different levels of the food chain?
The study of phenology is particularly pertinent in the
context of climate change. Changes in weather with the
seasons, such as temperature and precipitation, signal
many organisms to enter new phases of their lives. For
example, warmer, earlier springs have led to earlier
bud burst for many tree species. Other organisms must
therefore change the timing of their reproductive events

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 Student Phenology: Tracking the
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Student Directions
In this activity you will take part in a citizen science project. Project BudBurst is a nationwide program that engages
the public in gathering important phenological data about plants. This data is used by scientists to understand the
impacts of climate change on plants locally, regionally, and nationally. Thousands of participants submitting individual
observations around the country in a consistent manner provide a uniquely valuable set of data for climate scientists.
In this activity, you will learn about two different ways to observe plants with Project BudBurst, through Regular
Reports and Single Reports. You will then contribute to the Project BudBurst data set by making either a Single Report
or repeated Regular Reports on a plant you observe. During the growing season, plants often move through their
phases quickly, sometimes going from one phase to another in just a day, so you will need to watch your plant carefully
and be on the look out for changes!
Option 1: Regular Reports
Observing a plant regularly throughout the growing season and over many growing seasons provides detailed
information about its phenology. With Regular Reports, you will observe your plant regularly and record the date at
which it reaches certain events in its life cycle (i.e. bud burst, first flower, full fruit, and more). This is also called event-
based monitoring. You will record the date of occurrence for as many of your plant’s phenophases as possible. Your
data collection will be part of a phenology journal. A phenology journal is a place to record the changes that you
observe in the natural world.
1. Ask your teacher to provide you with login and 4. Visit your plant regularly—a few times a week
password information for your Project BudBurst during its active growing season. You will be
account. Your teacher should have added a plant watching for certain events that are listed on your
for you to monitor to your account. Project BudBurst Regular Report form—bud burst,
2. Your teacher will provide you with a Regular emergence of the first leaf, first fruit, and others.
Report form for your plant. Include the Regular When one of these events occurs, be sure to note
Report form with your field journal. Be sure to the date in your field journal, as well as the weather,
record all of the information requested on the and other observations about your plant and its
form, paying close attention to detail. You will habitat. Note changes that occur around your plant
keep this Regular Report form in your journal as as time passes.
you continue to make observations about your 5. After you observe an event, such as first leaf, submit
plant over the coming weeks. The specific data you your observation data to the Project Budburst
collect depends on whether you are monitoring a website. Once you are logged in to your account,
deciduous tree or shrub, a wildflower, an evergreen be sure to select “Submit a Regular Report” from
tree or shrub, or a grass, so be sure you have the the list of options. Be sure to remember this step!
correct report form for your chosen plant. This will provide important information for climate
3. For your first journal entry, write a thorough scientists to use.
description of your plant’s location and habitat. 6. Make additional observations about your plant. How
Next, draw a map of your location and describe does the overall appearance of your plant change
what plants you find there. Describe the plant you with time? Does it get taller or bushier? Do the leaves
are going to observe in detail. What do the leaves change color or appearance? What color are the
look like (size, amount, color)? Does your plant flowers? Who pollinates the flowers? Look for when
have buds, flowers, or seeds? How does your plant ripe fruits appear on the plants. What happens to
interact with its environment? Do you observe any the fruits? What happens to the seeds? Do they fall
activity around your plant (insect, bird, squirrel, or on the ground, are they eaten by birds, or do they
other)? Look closely! catch on your socks? What other changes do you
notice about your plant as the days pass?

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 Student Phenology: Tracking the
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Student Directions, continued
7. Note what is happening around your plant. Is the numbers with your classmates studying a different
ground wet or dry? What is the weather like? What species. Is your plant a fast grower or does it grow
other plants are near your plant? What animal signs more slowly?
are at your location? Spend at least 10 minutes 9. Always note the date and time of each journal
closely observing your plant (time yourself!), and entry and add weather information including wind
then spend an additional 5-10 minutes recording direction, cloud cover, and temperature. Visit the
your observations in your journal. Add to your websites in the resource section to add day length
journal entries with sketches and photographs. and climate data for your observation days.
8. Track the growth of a new leaf. Flag a new leaf with 10. Things to think about: If you kept a phenology
a piece of yarn and take regular measurements journal from year to year, how accurate do you think
(use metric scale) of length and width. Each time your predictions could become? What do you think
you make an entry in your journal, update the it would show? In what ways could the information
measurements of your leaf. How long did it take for be useful to others?
the leaf to reach its maximum size? Compare these
Option 2: Single Report
1. Ask your teacher to provide you with your login 4. Out in the field, observe your plant. Fill out your
information for your Project BudBurst account. Single Report form thoroughly and carefully, paying
2. With a group of three or four other students, close attention to your plant. If you do not know
decide which plant you will monitor. Explore the your latitude and longitude, you can find it using
plants in the Project BudBurst database from the Project BudBurst’s map feature when you enter your
“Plants to Observe” page. You can choose one of data on the website later.
Project BudBurst’s 10 most wanted plants, or check 5. In the comments section of your Single Report form,
to see if your favorite local plant is included in their make notes about the habitat, the weather, and
database. other observations about your site.
3. Once you have chosen a plant, it’s time to go 6. Now submit your data online at the Project
observe it! Your teacher will provide you with Budburst website so scientists can use your data
a Single Report form for your plant. You will be in their research. Once you are logged in to your
collecting specific data depending on whether you account, be sure to select “Submit a Single Report”
have chosen to monitor a deciduous tree or shrub, a from the list of options. You are now part of a
wildflower, an evergreen tree, etc. nationwide effort to better understand the effects
of climate change on plants in your area!

Resources
◆◆ http://budburst.org/ Project Budburst - an organization collecting citizen science data about plants and climate change
◆◆ https://ndep.nv.gov/tribe/docs/env_mgr_ref_docs/Climate%20Change/Phenology_Handbook_2nd_
ed_Abridged.pdf - The Phenology Handbook A Guide to Phenological Monitoring by Students,
Teachers, Families and Nature Enthusiasts. Brian P Haggerty and Susan J. Mazer. 2008:
University of California, Santa Barbara for the UCSB Phenology Stewardship Program
◆◆ http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/RS_OneDay.php Sunset and Sunrise times for your town
◆◆ http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ncdc.html National Climate Data Center
◆◆ Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. 1949. Oxford University Press, New York.

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In the Field!
Team up with an elementary school to mentor younger students and teach them about
phenology. Together, choose a special, prominent tree in their school yard to monitor
and report your findings to Project BudBurst. Read about the BudBurst Buddies program
(budburstbuddies.org) for elementary students and use resources from the website with
the students. Have the students share their observations about the tree and record them
in one place. Take a photo of the class gathered around the tree. Return regularly with the
class to make new observations and take a photo. At the end of the school year you can
look back at how the tree and the students have changed. Take a copy of Aldo Leopold’s
A Sand County Almanac, and pick out some fun passages to read aloud to the students
outside beneath the tree or read to the students from the BudBurst Buddies story.

Science Inquiry
What do you think causes the seasonal changes that you observe in plants? Could it be the hours or angle of the
sunlight, temperature, amount of rainfall, or something entirely different? Narrow your predictions to one hypothesis
to test. Do an initial search to find information that might support your hypothesis. Design an experiment that would
test your hypothesis. Your experiment could be in the classroom, in a greenhouse, or out in the field.
Think about how you would control for other factors that may influence your results. Write a
proposal describing your hypothesis, the testing protocol, and how your experiment will
control for outside factors. If you have the time and resources, carry out your experiment.

Reflection
What seasonal changes do you go through? Think about how you react to
temperature, light and dark. What signs in your body and outside tell you that
fall is approaching? How do your senses help you detect these changes? What
new sounds, smells, and colors occur? What signs tell you that winter, spring and
summer are approaching? What is your favorite season and why?

Taking it Further
Make a permanent phenology log for the classroom by setting up a notebook with index dividers for each month
and a sheet of notebook paper for each day of the month. Record the date but not the year itself (i.e. January 1, not
January 1, 2014) at the top of each page, add the year to the left margin, and then make notes about what occurs
each day. Everyone in the class can share their observations in the same book. The log can be added to each year;
just add the current year in the left margin and place the new observations underneath. Add pages when needed.
Look for the same events to occur (for example, first flower on a certain species in your native garden) year after
year. Note whether those same events occurred on the same calendar day, earlier, or later in the year and think
about why those changes may have occurred. This document will become more valuable with added years and may
indicate possible relationships between climate change and biological cycles in your schoolyard and town.

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 T Teacher
Page
Plant Migration:
A Race Between Plants and Climate Change
Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get.
Time Estimate: —Mark Twain (1835 – 1910)
45 minutes

Best Season:
Overview
winter Students are bombarded daily with news of climate change and the impacts
of their “global footprint” on the environment, but little information is out
there about how climate change is projected to affect plants, especially
native plants. In this lesson, students will play a game to explore some of
the potential impacts and challenges of climate change on plant life in North
America.
Teacher Hints
◆◆ Students should have a Preparation
general background in
climate change science to fully ◆◆ The game will be played in groups of 4-5 students. Photocopy and enlarge
appreciate this lesson and enough game boards and gather additional materials for the entire class in
explore the potential impacts advance. Bowls of dry beans or other small objects can act as the seed bank
on plants. See “Additional or currency. Two handfuls of seeds per group should be sufficient.
Information” for resources. ◆◆ Photocopy and cut out Plant Cards. Plant Cards are drawn at the end of the
game to assess the final fate of your plant.
◆◆ Gather or make pieces to move around the board (one for each player). Pieces
can be objects (paper clips, rocks) or as simple as colored paper squares.
Assessments
◆◆ Consider having students color and laminate the boards for long term use.
1 Discuss the impacts that
affected the species’ success
or decline during the game.

2 Name three potential

negative impacts of a
changing climate on plants.

3 Identify one or more

positive impacts of a
warmer climate on plants.

4 Describe why certain types

of plants may be more
adaptable than others to Additional Information
changing climatic conditions. ◆◆ Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences:
http://www.globalchange.gov/browse/educators

◆◆ NOAA Office of Education - climate change

information and curricula for educators: http://
www.education.noaa.gov/tclimate.html

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 Student Plant Migration:
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Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get.
—Mark Twain (1835 – 1910)
Materials Needed
◆◆ Game of a Plant’s Life Overview
board
Almost daily we hear about climate change and its likely impacts on humans,
◆◆ one die but how will climate change affect plants, especially native plants? Changes
◆◆ dry beans or other in our native flora as a result of climate change will have lasting impacts on
“currency” wildlife, water nutrient cycling, and on humans. In this lesson you will play
◆◆ container for “currency” a board game to explore some of the potential impacts and challenges of
climate change on plant life in North America.
◆◆ player pieces
◆◆ plant cards
Background Information
Shifts in climate have altered the Earth’s ecosystems throughout geologic time.
Now, evidence is rampant that the Earth’s climate is changing at an accelerated
Learning Objectives rate due to the human-caused accumulation of greenhouse gases in our
◆◆ Explore potential impacts atmosphere. Scientists can sample air bubbles in ancient polar ice to investigate
of climate change on plants the characteristics of the atmosphere from thousands of years ago, which reveal
◆◆ Gain insight into predicted that while there have been periodic climate shifts throughout the history of the
climate shifts Earth, in recent years there has been a distinct warming trend that is strongly
◆◆ Speculate how different correlated with human activities. When our society industrialized, we began to
species will adapt to climate combust large amounts of fossil fuels and wood for energy, releasing carbon
change based on their life dioxide (CO2) into the Earth’s atmosphere. CO2 is considered a greenhouse
history strategies gas because it traps solar radiation in the lower atmosphere, effectively heating
the Earth. While this greenhouse effect is critical to maintain warmth to support
◆◆ Learn how climate change life on Earth, the massive amounts of greenhouse gasses generated by humans
can affect plant conservation enhance the effect.
and invasive species issues
Scientists have developed very complex models to predict how the Earth’s
systems may react to further increases in CO2 concentrations. Modeling is useful
on a global scale and to some extent on a regional scale, but local microclimates
Vocabulary Words are so varied that it is impossible to predict accurately the effects of climate
change on a precise local level. The effects of climate change will not be consistent
climate
across the globe. The effects of climbing temperatures will be complicated by
weather many interacting processes. Models indicate that the United States as a whole
greenhouse gas will face increased average annual temperatures, but the resulting changes in
microclimate factors such as the extent of temperature change, precipitation, the timing of
precipitation, climate variability, and extreme weather events will vary widely
seed dispersal from place to place. Due to the great variability across the landscape, conditions
assisted migration
carbon sink

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 Student Plant Migration:
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Background Information, continued

may improve for certain plants in matter? Such alterations in timing may for them and other new locations
some areas and decline in others. cause disruptions in a plant’s intricate become suitable. For example, in the
Climate change will have a relationships with co-evolved northeastern United States, the range
pronounced effect on native plants. insect pollinators. If the pollinators of the sugar maple (Acer sachaarum),
While animals and humans have the emerge at the normal time, they may a native plant highly valued for
option of relocating in response miss the earlier flowering of their the production of maple syrup, is
to climatic shifts, individual plants target species. In another example, expected to retreat northward as the
cannot move to find more suitable many species of insect pests are climate warms. As conditions change,
conditions. When we think about the currently controlled by cold winter the tree will lose its competitive
effect of climate change on plants, we temperatures that kill most of their edge and disappear from much of
must realize that factors such as rising larvae. As winters become warmer, the southern portion of its current
temperatures are acting on individual more of the pest larvae survive to habitat. Who will this affect? Many
plants, and the collective responses adulthood, and some pest species people who rely on maple syrup
of those individuals result in changes production for their livelihood will, of
in the entire population. course, see major impacts from this
range shift. The forests where maples
We can begin by looking at how
now exist will also be much changed
individual plants may react to the
in ways that are harder to predict,
stresses inflicted by a changing
as maples play an important role
climate. Shifts in temperature and
in nitrogen and water cycling. The
precipitation patterns will be the
alteration of even one species’ range
main drivers of potential impacts
can have a ripple effect.
on vegetation. Plants exist in a
continual state of competition with What should be taken into account
neighboring plants. Subtle changes when predicting a species’ success in
in environmental conditions or the the face of climate change? Species
availability of resources affect their that are generalists and can thrive in a
ability to compete effectively and wide variety of conditions will be the
therefore to survive and reproduce most successful in a rapidly changing
successfully. Just as they do for animals environment. Species that are rare,
like yourself, adverse conditions and especially those that specialize
cause physiological stress to plants. in a unique environment, are less
may even complete two life cycles likely to adapt well to climate change.
As plants respond to stress, they
in one season, causing twice the These species already have very low
may shift their energy allocation to
damage. population numbers, low diversity,
focus on growth or reproduction.
While under stress, plant metabolic The effects of climate change on the often use less prolific seed dispersal
processes are overtaxed, which fitness of individual plants will vary strategies, and as a result will be less
reduces their ability to resist diseases over their range, and this affects the competitive. Seed dispersal is key for
or insect infestations. The stresses state of the population as a whole. survival in an unstable climate. Species
each individual faces will affect its Though the effects on individual that disperse large quantities of seed
ability to survive and reproduce. plants may seem small, the collective over great distances have a higher
responses of these individuals potential of reaching sites with more
Increased temperatures can cause
result in profound changes at the favorable conditions. These will likely
phenological changes, such as spring
population level. Many species are be more successful than long-lived
bud burst, to happen earlier in
expected to experience range shifts as perennial plants that only produce
the year than usual. Why does this
certain areas become uninhabitable a few seeds. Because invasive plants
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 Student Plant Migration:
S Project A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

Background Information, continued

are often generalists and have strong potential refuges in a changing more plants than would be necessary
seed dispersal ability that allows them climate. Restoration ecologists are also without climate change and make our
to rapidly colonize new areas, they considering the impacts of climate efforts to reduce greenhouse gases
may be better suited than many native change on their projects. As they and slow climate change that much
plants to shift or expand their range to try to restore degraded habitats to more important.
cope with climate change. their natural state, ecologists should Forest conservation plays an important
Climate shifts will likely have an consider how future climate shifts may role in climate change discussions.
impact on lands already set aside affect the habitat. Trees assimilate atmospheric CO2
for conservation. Current habitat Assisted migration is a new and during photosynthesis, and as trees
preserves may see new species move in, controversial topic of conversation grow, they act as carbon sinks. Planting
while the original target conservation among restoration ecologists-- trees and protecting existing stands
species may migrate to new regions. should restoration ecologists relocate may help sequester excess carbon that
Land managers and preserve species to new habitats that will be has already entered the atmosphere.
designers are beginning to consider suitable in the face of climate change, While climate change presents many
these potential shifts in habitat and assisting them in survival? These and challenges for plant life, there are still
species compositions as they manage other questions make native plant steps we can take to slow the rate of
existing preserves and plan new ones. conservation in the face of a changing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate
It is important to predict where species climate more challenging and will the effects of climate change on native
of concern may be able to find suitable require conservation biologists to work species.
habitat to identify and conserve creatively, hedge bets by conserving

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 Student Plant Migration:
S Project A Race Between Plants and Climate Change
Student Directions
Read over the background information to get a working understanding
of climate change and its potential impacts on plant life.

1. Set up your Game of a Plant’s Life board. Shuffle the conditions change at STOP spaces
the Plant Cards, place them face down in the center, ◆◆ As you move around the board, you
and select your game piece. will pick up or return seeds to the
2. Rules for the game: bowl as your space instructs
◆◆ Each player starts with 3 seeds ◆◆ The object of the game is to accumulate
from the Seed Bank as many seeds as possible
◆◆ Roll a single die on your turn to move forward ◆◆ If you run out of seeds during the game, your
species has gone extinct and you are out
◆◆ At the start of the game, you may select
one of the two paths for germination ◆◆ Once you reach the end of the
board, draw a Plant Card
◆◆ Once the two paths merge, you have
germinated and become a representative ◆◆ Your Plant Card explains how many seeds
of the entire population of your species you need to survive – if you do not have
enough seeds, your plant doesn’t survive
◆◆ You must stop at the STOP spaces, even
if you still have more spaces to move, and ◆◆ To win, a player must have enough seeds
wait for your next turn to proceed to fulfill their Plant Card requirement
AND have the most seeds overall
◆◆ When you reach a STOP space, you
get one seed for successfully navigating
another year – pay close attention to how

Class Discussion
It is hard to predict how individual plant species will be affected by climate
change. Plant life cycle strategies can help you start to speculate.

◆◆ Do you think all plants will be affected by changing climate equally? Why or why not?

◆◆ Do you think humans should move plants to expand their range, or into new types of habitats, in an
attempt to help plants cope with climate shifts? If so, how far would you be comfortable with moving
them? Or is there a measure other than distance you would use to determine where to move plants?

◆◆ What about moving endangered plants? How might moving plants affect ecosystems? Do you have
any new ideas on how restoration ecologists might help native plants survive climate change?

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 Student Plant Migration:
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In the Field!
Look for a native plant population that appears to be limited to growing within specific micro-
abiotic factors on the landscape (read about micro-abiotic factors in the background information
in An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye lesson). How might this plant population be enhanced
or inhibited by climate change? Is it possible that this plant could expand/contract its population
at this site because of changing climate? Support your ideas.

Science Inquiry
Climate change data is being recorded daily by citizen scientists throughout the world in one of several phenology
observation programs (see “Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World” lesson). The records kept by Henry
David Thoreau at Walden Pond in the mid-1800s have proven invaluable for climate change scientists who have used
them to discover that not all species in a given area respond the same way to climate change. Research the results that
have been found from Thoreau’s observations and use them to inspire you to collect your own data that
may become very relevant to scientists and decision makers someday. Consider adopting
your favorite native plant or natural area and observing and recording its phenology
data over a long time. Keep your data in a special field journal devoted to this plant.
Try to observe the start and end date of bud burst, bloom, seed set, and leaf fall or
dormancy. It will be extremely important to record the location where you collected
your data, and to continue to collect data every year for as long as possible. Though
your sample size will be very small (only one plant!), in future years your data could
help track how the range of that species changes, as well as climate-related phenology
changes. If you are able to collect data over a years or decades, watch for trends in your
data and share them with others. Submit your data to Project BudBurst to help add to
our knowledge about climate change.

Reflection
Choose a native species from your area. It can be your favorite, or just one you
would like to learn more about. Write a paragraph that describes how you think
it might respond to climate change. Through observation or research,
find out how your plant is pollinated, how it disperses seeds, and
what conditions it lives in. All of these factors can be used to support
your idea. Write how you feel about climate change and the fact
that nature as we know it is changing during your lifetime because of
human impacts. How does this make you feel? Does it motivate you to
live in a certain way?

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 Student Plant Migration:
S Project A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

Taking it Further
Research and report back to the class about the plant group on your
Plant Card. New scientific research is giving us updated information
all the time. What news can you find out about how climate change is
affecting this specific plant species or general plant type (e.g., wetland
plants)?

Self Assessments
1 Discuss the impacts that affected the success of your species during the game.
2 Name three potential impacts of a warmer climate on plants.
3 Identify one or more positive impacts of a warmer climate on plants.
4 Describe why certain types of plants may adapt more rapidly than others to changing conditions.

Resources
◆◆ U. S. Global Change Research Program, Climate Literacy:
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences. http://
www.globalchange.gov/browse/educators
◆◆ U.S. Global Change Research Program, general and regional
climate information: http://globalchange.gov

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 Pitcherplant Bull thistle Longleaf pine Big Bluestem
Darlingtonia californica Cirsium vulgare Pinus palustris Andropogon gerardii
Status: rare Status: invasive Status: uncommon Status: uncommon
Habitat: bog Habitat: open areas Habitat: dry forest Habitat: prairie
Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and
reproduce - 13 reproduce - 1 reproduce - 11 reproduce - 8
Partridgefoot Red oak Alpine blueberry Trillium
Luetkea pectinata Quercus rubra Vaccinium boreale Trillium ovatum
Status: common Status: common Status: rare Status: common
Habitat: alpine meadow Habitat: dry upland Habitat: alpine Habitat: moist woods
Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and
reproduce - 7 reproduce - 10 reproduce - 12 reproduce - 5
Game of a Plant’s Life :
A Survival Quest Game
 T Teacher Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
Page Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Begin challenging your own assumptions. Your assumptions are your windows on
Time Estimate:
the world. Scrub them off every once in awhile, or the light won’t come in.
1 hour, plus time outside of
—Alan Alda, Scientific American Frontiers (1936–present)
class for research

Best Season:
Any Overview
In this lesson, students will play a role-playing game based on issues in
local ecosystem management and conservation. We have included three
fully developed example scenarios to explore different issues that pertain
to various ecoregions, as well as three additional ideas for scenarios that
may be more applicable to your area. We suggest that locally applicable
scenarios be used if possible. Students will develop roles, form an opinion
that reflects their position, and defend their position during the game.
Assessments This lesson exposes students to understanding and cultivating empathy for
differing viewpoints on controversial issues, and helps prepare students for
1 Students participate in the
discussion in a positive way.
future stewardship decisions.

2 Students state their opinion on Preparation

a controversial environmental Make it Place-based: You don’t have to limit your choice of discussion to the
subject and give one or three scenarios included in this lesson. There are endless possibilities for dis-
cussion of controversial ecosystem issues. It is likely that you and your students
more reasons based in fact
are aware of local issues that can be addressed. Try looking to the local news-
to back up their opinion. paper for ideas, or look at some additional ideas listed below. Pick an issue
that is applicable and timely in your local area.
3 Students demonstrate
empathy by listening to
Once you have selected an issue for your students to address, use the three
scenarios that are included in this lesson as templates for guidance in designing
differing viewpoints and voice your own discussion.
respectful disagreement. ◆◆ Decide on a scenario for your class to play out. Create a sheet that explains
the background story and the various roles that students will play. You will
need to provide enough detail for a constructive and informed conversation.
Teacher Hints ◆◆ Determine a specific decision that needs to be made. This gives the
◆◆ Try not to frame this as conversation a clear goal.
a debate, which focuses ◆◆ Identify specific roles for each student or group of students. Give them time
students on winning, but to think about and research the viewpoints and concerns of the demographic
rather a discussion, so that that they are representing.
the emphasis will be on ◆◆ Provide background information or time for research so that students can
listening. To make role-playing back up their ideas and arguments.
productive: keep discussion
focused and make objectives
clear to the students. Students
need productive feedback
from the teacher and/or peers,
and the freedom to explore
alternate roles. Students need
to listen to other viewpoints,

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 Teacher Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
T Page
Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Teacher Hints, Possible Discussion Scenarios
continued Land Use Planning and Endangered Species:
weigh all sides of the issue, See description for Scenario 1.
and form an opinion. The goal Grazing in Riparian Areas: See description for Scenario 2.
is that students will come to
have empathy for stakeholders Forest Management: See description for Scenario 3.
on all sides of each issue,
regardless of their position. Agricultural Runoff: Agricultural runoff has led to massive algal blooms
in water bodies around the world, threatening the native plants and
◆◆ Establish clear guidelines of
wildlife that depend on these habitats. The food and jobs produced by
acceptable behavior in role-
the agricultural industry are essential to the economy of the United States.
playing games. Controversial
However, healthy lakes, estuaries, and oceans are economically important,
issues can and often do lead to
and are of great intrinsic value to people and living systems. Should your
strong feelings and arguments;
state government place stricter regulations on agricultural runoff?
it is important that no one
feels intimidated. As part of Hydraulic Fracturing: Hydraulic fracturing, often called fracking, is a
the debriefing at the end of process used to extract natural gas from deposits in shale rock. The process
the game, consider adding requires drilling and injecting fluid at extremely high pressures into the
discussion about handling such ground. The impacts of this process are many: millions of gallons of water
issues in real-life situations. are required, often in locations where water is scarce; large volumes of
◆◆ These scenarios are intended toxic chemicals are mixed with water in the fracturing fluid, which can
to be applicable to the contaminate both groundwater and surface water; and natural gas is a
area where you live. The fossil fuel which contributes to the carbon dioxide load in our atmosphere.
scenarios that we have However, natural gas is a more efficient and cleaner fuel than petroleum
included can be used for and coal. Natural gas extraction is also an important economic industry,
the following locations: and is a source of energy that doesn’t need to be imported from outside
Urban and developed areas: the United States. Should your city council grant permission to companies
Land Use Planning and to utilize hydraulic fracturing around your town?
Endangered Species. Non-
Dam Removal: Dams provide many benefits to society: they provide flood
forest rangeland: Grazing
control; they can offer a source of clean, renewable energy in the form of
in Riparian Areas. Forested
hydroelectric power; and the reservoirs they create are often economically
regions: Forest Management.
important recreation areas. They also have highly significant impacts on
We include additional ideas
the streams and rivers that they blockade: dams prevent or inhibit the
for scenarios in your area.
movement of fish and other
See the “Preparation” section
animals throughout the waterway;
for hints on designing more
they eliminate flood events, which
locally applicable scenarios.
are of critical importance to the
◆◆ For larger groups, assign structure of the waterway itself
multiple copies of roles or and the surrounding riparian areas;
create additional roles of your they change water temperatures
own. For smaller groups leave and sediment loads, which can
out some roles, but be sure make rivers uninhabitable to some
to balance both sides of the native species. Should the dam on
issue. Students reluctant to a nearby river be removed?
participate in oral projects
could pair up as teams.

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 S Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
Project Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Begin challenging your own assumptions. Your assumptions are your windows on
Materials Needed the world. Scrub them off every once in awhile, or the light won’t come in.
◆◆ Scenario descriptions —Alan Alda, Scientific American Frontiers (1936–present)

Overview
Learning Objectives In this lesson you will explore a local issue surrounding ecosystem management
◆◆ Examine values and and conservation topics through a non-judgmental role-playing game.
beliefs in controversial Develop and play your role at a mock planning meeting and in the end weigh
environmental issues all sides and form your own opinion.
◆◆ Explore diverse opinions
in a safe environment
through role-playing Background Information
◆◆ Gain insight into problem- If you read, listen to or watch the news you can’t help but hear stories of conflict
solving skills, using defined over environmental issues (e.g., the Endangered Species Act, water quality
steps to analyze the process issues, or climate change) which are frequently out in front of the public. In your
◆◆ Exercise the process of community, there may be conflict over the management of native ecosystems
being an informed citizen that have people with very strong opinions pitted against one another in what
and making personal seems like a feud of monumental proportions. How do these issues become
stewardship decisions such conflicts? Conflict can arise when people feel that their livelihood or safety
◆◆ Learn ways to become are threatened by the conservation of natural resources.
involved in local policy issues There are no right or wrong answers to the issues in this activity. The main purpose
of this role-playing game is to provide an opportunity to explore viewpoints on
controversial environmental issues in a non-judgmental atmosphere. Begin by
Vocabulary Words considering what environmental stewardship means. It is generally defined as
stewardship the concept of responsible caretaking, or management of the environment for
future generations. Under this definition of stewardship, we are all responsible
for natural resource management and each decision we make can influence all
kinds of future impacts, including economic, social, cultural, and environmental.
It is said that many native peoples took into consideration the impact of all
decisions on the next seven generations. How do we form our opinions when
making stewardship decisions? Often we fall back on our values—an individual’s
standard of right and wrong. Factors such as economics, education, politics,
spiritual beliefs, and culture all go into forming our values. As you can imagine,
this complex stew of values can make reaching an agreement on environmental
issues difficult, and often requires diplomacy and compromise among all the
parties involved. Practice listening to the viewpoints of others; understand that
they bring different values to the table, and that most people generally want to
do what they feel is the “right” thing.
How does role-playing help you to work through controversial subjects? This
role-playing exercise will give you time to organize your thoughts, listen to
different sides of the issue, and weigh all the information before forming your
own opinion on a controversial environmental subject.

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 Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
S Project
Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Student Directions
1. This activity has no right or wrong answers. It is should reflect your character and not your personal
designed to help you evaluate your own feelings, and viewpoint. Play your role as accurately as possible;
form your own personal viewpoint while listening to realize that it may not mirror your own viewpoint, but
and weighing the differing viewpoints of others. You do your best to empathize (walk in your character’s
will gain the most by participating fully, but relax and shoes).
view the role-playing as a learning experience. Ask 4. Start the game: the setting is a planning board or
questions as needed to clarify your understanding, task force meeting (the board will sit together as a
but respect the opinions of others. The purpose of panel). Audience participants sit facing the panel. The
this activity is to get everyone involved and thinking chairperson will call the meeting to order, read the
about the friction that can arise over environmental scenario, and explain rules of the meeting. Audience
concerns among different segments of our society members will give a brief (3-4 minutes) presentation
and how you will address these issues in your future. representing their character’s opinion on the issue and
2. Student roles: how they feel it should be resolved. Board members
◆◆ 3-5 students will act as the planning board can ask questions and take notes to help them make a
(decision makers), with one appointed or elected final decision at the end of the meeting.
chairperson for the group 5. At the conclusion of the meeting, call a brief recess. At
◆◆ remaining students will be the audience this time, the board will meet privately to reach their
participants decision. During the board recess, conduct two polls
of audience members. First, vote as your character
3. Read over the scenario and clarify any questions
would vote in this scenario. Then vote as you would
within your class before starting. You will be assigned
personally vote, (not your character), after weighing all
a role to play. Take time to develop your character’s
the presentations you heard during the meeting.
background and values, using both your imagination
and research about the topic that you are assigned. 6. Have the board announce their final decision and
You can work individually or discuss this with others, reasons. Tally the audience vote; does it agree or
but the viewpoints and concerns you will discuss disagree with the board decision?

Class Discussion
◆◆ Is there any part of this conflict that both sides of the issue can agree on?
◆◆ What values do both sides share?
◆◆ How might a person’s values influence their viewpoint?
◆◆ How do you recognize bias?
◆◆ How would you weigh information to determine bias?
◆◆ Do you recognize how your values have influenced your decisions?
◆◆ What have you learned through participating in this meeting?
◆◆ Do you think it has improved your listening skills, why or why not?
◆◆ Values and prior knowledge will shape your first impressions; did any of the presentations cause you to change
your first impression?
◆◆ How successful do you think a solution will be if it requires people to change or compromise their values?
◆◆ Look at the issue; what do you think would happen if no decision is made?
◆◆ Do you see any parallels between this local issue and larger global issues?

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 S Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
Project Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
In the Field!
Get involved with planning in your area. Attend a meeting or hearing regarding local issues concerning natural areas
and resources. This could include proposed changes to current zoning, a timber sale, a housing development, oil or
gas expansion, the designation of a new wilderness or natural area, or new rules or regulations regarding how people
can use public lands. Look to local papers, contact the local Bureau of Land Management or Forest Service office,
or ask other involved citizens about upcoming meetings. If possible, visit the area that would be affected by the
proposed changes. You don’t have to make up your mind or have a strong opinion about the outcome of the meeting;
it is a great idea to simply be involved and know what is happening in your community so that you can be
part of the process.

Science Inquiry
Read and analyze a scientific paper based on an endangered species monitoring study. Ask
your librarian to help locate a paper, or search websites such as Google Scholar using the
genus and species names of your species of interest. Read the paper with an analytical eye;
identify the question or hypothesis of the research, how the hypothesis was tested, and what
procedures they followed. Read the results and conclusion. Write a short summary of the
research and your analysis. Was the research well done or not? Explain your reasoning. Was
the conclusion supported by the data?

Reflection
Reflect on the definition of stewardship: what does it mean to you personally? Do you feel that you have a
responsibility as a citizen to help make decisions on land management issues? How can an individual’s actions make
a difference to their community, to the world? Identify a stewardship decision you make that could affect someone
in another part of the world. Do you think the role-playing activity will change the way that you make decisions in
the future? Explain your reasoning.

Taking it Further Self Assessments

◆◆ Read a current article about a controversial 1 Participate in the role-playing activity in a positive
and productive way; researching, presenting, and
environmental issue taking place in
your community. Analyze the article discussing material within your character’s role.
for bias; is it a balanced portrayal
of the issue or is it written from one
perspective? Identify other positions
2 Listen and weigh others’ opinions and
demonstrate respectful disagreement.
that might not have been addressed.
◆◆ Become involved with a local issue. 3 State your opinion on the subject and give at
Participate in public hearings or planning least one reason to back up the opinion.
commission meetings, or write a letter to
your government representative or the
local paper. Express your opinion, back your
opinion with examples, propose a solution(s) Resources
to the problem—don’t just complain. See individual scenarios for recommended resources.

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 Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
S Project
Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Scenario 1: Land Use Planning and Endangered Species
Setting: Differing Viewpoints:
A city planning commission meeting The city would like to approve the rezoning plan and
continue with their expansion plans. They have already
Background: spent thousands of dollars to work on feasibility studies
Oak Valley is a town with a population of 100,000 and feel they have put together the best plan for the
in a densely populated area. The city has been city. To modify or change their plans at this point would
growing steadily and at the last review of the City’s require spending additional tax money which could be
comprehensive plan, it was decided that they needed better used to supply much needed social services (e.g.,
to expand residential and commercial areas through schools, police).
rezoning previously undeveloped land adjacent to
the city. Zoning laws require cities to designate the On the flip side, environmental groups are frustrated
boundaries of areas intended for residential, industrial, that the city would make plans that risk damaging
commercial, and agricultural use. The town has financed critical butterfly habitat. They feel the city should cut
an extensive study to identify appropriate lands to their losses and start over in their planning. They feel
include in the expansion. It has considered the cost and that the expenses are minimal to protect endangered
feasibility of extending city services, included enough species and are prepared to fight this issue.
buildable land (both residential and commercial), and The Community:
incorporated the city transportation plans to handle
twenty years of projected growth. Everyone in this community is connected in one way or
another to this issue, and decisions will have a ripple
Problem: effect throughout Oak Valley. Limiting future growth
The new land planned for rezoning as residential and could discourage new employers, limit tax revenue, and
commercial areas includes a rather large population impact social services. Taking away potential butterfly
of a threatened plant species that is the host plant habitat could irreparably damage the species’ chances
for an endangered butterfly found only in this region. for recovery, permanently removing a key species from
Surveys have not found any butterflies associated with the local ecosystem, and permanently degrading the
the host plants on this particular property, but a known environment, as well as create sprawl, reducing the
population does exist within a two-mile radius of the rural character of the outskirts of the city. If the issue is
site, within the flight range of the endangered butterfly. not resolved, it may require court action that could be
This means that the threatened plant population could very costly for all parties and persist for years. Time is
be key to the endangered butterfly’s recovery. It also of the essence for both parties.
could mean that future discovery of the butterfly The Decision:
on lands within the rezoned areas would require
development to comply with the federal Endangered Should the rezoning plan be approved or not?
Species Act (ESA). This could result in restrictions on
development, or complications, and added cost to
development.

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 S Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
Project Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Scenario 1: Land Use Planning and Endangered Species, continued
Stakeholders
Science and Government: proposed for rezoning
◆◆ Oak Valley city planning commission member ◆◆ tribal land manager from adjacent lands
◆◆ US Fish and Wildlife biologist Recreational Interests:
◆◆ Oak Valley Mayor ◆◆ naturalist, local birder, and hiker
Business and Labor: ◆◆ community parks advocate
◆◆ solar panel manufacturer with a new business ◆◆ skate park skateboarder
hoping to locate in the rezoned area
Conservation Groups:
◆◆ restaurant owner
◆◆ national wildlife organization representative
◆◆ small business owner that needs to
expand but cannot find a location ◆◆ land conservancy non-profit representative
◆◆ housing developer Other Interests:
Landowners/managers: ◆◆ high school student
◆◆ land owner within the area proposed for rezoning ◆◆ attorney that defends one of the parties’ interest
◆◆ land owner outside of area ◆◆ land zoning advocate
◆◆ wild card – make your own role

Resources
◆◆ US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species
page: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/
◆◆ Research your own local and state zoning laws
by accessing local government websites.
◆◆ Do an internet search to find current
information on your chosen topic.

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 Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
S Project
Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Scenario 2: Grazing and Riparian Areas
Setting: is to restore riparian areas and improve water quality
A government task force to discuss regulating livestock in the streams that run through the properties. The
access to streams restoration will provide habitat for fish, wildlife and
songbirds, with the long-term goal to improve stream
Background: water quality and fish populations.
Sage City is a small town (population 2,000) in a rural, The ranching community is in favor of improved
agricultural area that is home to a mix of people inside stream quality, but has concerns with the methods the
city limits and in the surrounding rural areas. Citizens organization is proposing. By implicating their livestock
include workers from a wood products manufacturing as the cause of damage, they feel they are being unfairly
business that has attracted new families to the area, the blamed for the problem. In addition, ranchers fear that
ranching community, and needed service and support the restoration efforts will encourage predatory wildlife
people. The city is served by a school district that draws such as wolves and coyotes that will harass and kill their
from the town and rural constituents. In recent years, livestock. Management efforts to keep livestock out of
Sage City has attracted a growing retired population, riparian areas could require fencing off riparian areas,
which has relocated to enjoy the outdoor recreation and potentially developing new water sources for
opportunities. their livestock. This is a financial burden that many of
the ranchers feel they cannot afford with present meat
Problem: prices and could force them to stop ranching. This is
Riparian areas throughout much of the open rangeland a problem not only with livestock on ranches but also
in the area lack suitable vegetation critical for stream livestock on federal land under grazing leases. In fact,
bank stabilization and to provide shade, which strongly public lands may be more affected because there is less
influences water quality and therefore fish and wildlife incentive to upkeep the land.
habitat. Vegetation filters chemical pollutants, prevents
The Community:
erosion and excess sediment, and reduces stream
temperatures, all of which are important for clean At present there are no state or federal laws regulating
water and suitable fish habitat. Past water quality livestock damage to streams. Both the manufacturing
improvement efforts have focused on controlling large- and timber industries are required to comply with
source pollutants such as factory discharge, erosion from water quality regulations, so Sage City’s wood products
logging and agriculture, and sewage. This has improved manufacturing industry is regulated, as is the timber
overall water quality, but further improvements have industry that supplies them. Other connections can
stalled. More recent efforts have focused on non-point be through properties that generate taxes for services,
source pollution (runoff from urban, suburban, and supply businesses, and recreational income that comes
rural locations). Livestock grazing has been identified as into the area. Everyone in the community is connected
a major non-point source pollutant for many rural areas. in one way or another and decisions will have a ripple
Livestock tend to congregate around water sources, effect throughout.
grazing and trampling stream bank vegetation. This can
The Decision:
cause gullies at stream crossings, promotes erosion, and
increases water temperatures by reducing shade. Should livestock access to riparian areas be regulated?
If so, what should the regulations be?
Differing Viewpoints:
In recent years, a conservation organization has
purchased a couple of old ranches in the Sage City area
with plans to restore the native ecosystems. Its priority

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 S Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
Project Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Scenario 2: Grazing and Riparian Areas, continued
Stakeholders
Science and Government: in restoring fish populations
◆◆ Bureau of Land Management ◆◆ cattle rancher/landowner
(BLM) rangeland manager ◆◆ wheat farmer
◆◆ State department of fish and wildlife biologist ◆◆ homeowner (in town) employed in manufacturing
◆◆ teacher with a spouse/partner who is a rancher Recreational Interests:
◆◆ invasive species specialist ◆◆ outdoor recreationist (canoeing and camping)
Business and Labor: ◆◆ hunter
◆◆ local livestock feed store owner Conservation Groups:
◆◆ sheep rancher with federal grazing lease ◆◆ restoration ecologist from
◆◆ fly fishing and rafting guide conservation organization
◆◆ small business grocery store owner ◆◆ member of conservation organization
◆◆ owner of wood products manufacturing business – retired school principal
◆◆ large animal veterinarian ◆◆ member of a group protesting
land use limitations
◆◆ local organic farmer
Other Interests:
Landowners/managers:
◆◆ high school student (graduating senior)
◆◆ retired small acreage homesteader
◆◆ wild card – make your own role
◆◆ tribal land manager – with interest

Resources
◆◆ Negative Effects of Livestock Grazing Riparian
Areas: http://protectmustangs.org/?p=3275
◆◆ Public Rangelands: Some Riparian Areas Restored
But Widespread Improvement Will Be Slow:
http://archive.gao.gov/d16t6/136218.pdf
◆◆ Local water quality regulations website: search
websites for your local and state governments.
◆◆ Do an internet search to find current
information on your chosen topic.

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 Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
S Project
Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Scenario 3: Forest Management
Choose a topic that best fits a current forest issue in question with new scientific discoveries. Is clear cutting
your ecoregion. a good idea? Is reforesting by planting a single tree
Topic Ideas: species sustainable? Wood products are essential to
our everyday lives, and forests supply jobs, but how do
◆◆ Is Thinning Essential to Forest Health? we manage them to maintain health and resources for
◆◆ Forest Wildfires: Suppression or Let it Burn? future generations?
◆◆ After a Fire: Replanting or Natural Revegetation? recently, the public is becoming more aware of the
◆◆ Clearcutting: Healthy or Unhealthy? vast array of ecosystem services that forests provide,
including water filtration, air purification, carbon
◆◆ Sustainable Forest Harvest: Short-
sequestration, climate moderation, and erosion control,
term vs. Long-term Gains
among others. Forests are also valued for recreation,
◆◆ Other current topics could include: cultural, and aesthetic values. This adds up to a lot of
protection of old growth forests, protecting potentially conflicting uses for a finite resource.
watersheds, managing ecosystems, forest
fragmentation, road building, and carbon The Community:
sequestering to buffer climate change. Decisions regarding forest management have far-
Setting: reaching implications. These decisions affect jobs,
the economy, forest health, air and water quality, and
A town hall-style debate human enjoyment.
Background: The Decision:
Forests in the United States are made up of a mosaic What is the best way to manage our forests
of federal, state, private and tribal ownerships. They for current and future generations?
are made up of natural areas, as well as forests that
are actively managed for economic gains from wood
products, non-timber forest products, recreation,
and ecosystem services, among others. With all these
different factors of ownership and management,
forests in recent years have often been at the center of
controversy.

Problem:
Resolve conflicting ideas in managing forests for
multiple uses.
Differing Viewpoints:
For years there have been bitter arguments over forest
management, pitting industry against conservation. Hot
button topics have involved economic uses of the forest,
fire, erosion control, riparian protection, and imperiled
or endangered species.
Historic forest management practices have come into

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 S Student Nobody’s Right, Nobody’s
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Scenario 3: Forest Management, continued
Stakeholders
Science and Government: Landowner/manager:
◆◆ U.S. Forest Service employee ◆◆ homeowner on the forest/town interface
◆◆ State department of forestry ◆◆ tribal land manager of adjacent tribe-owned land
fire suppression manager ◆◆ small woodland owner
◆◆ restoration ecologist
Recreational Interests:
◆◆ local town planning commission member
◆◆ wilderness hiker and camper
◆◆ Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
logging contract advisor ◆◆ avid fly fisher
◆◆ US Fish and Wildlife biologist ◆◆ outdoor photographer
◆◆ University forestry researcher ◆◆ deer/elk hunter

Business and Labor: Conservation Groups:

◆◆ logging company owner ◆◆ moderate conservation club member (e.g.
Sierra Club, Nature Conservancy)
◆◆ paper mill manager
◆◆ radical conservationist/tree sitter (e.g. Earth First!)
◆◆ outdoor store employee
◆◆ international wood products Other Interests:
company board member ◆◆ wild cards - make up your own role
that represents your community

Resources
◆◆ Use the internet to find current information
on your chosen topic. Focus on government
websites such as those for national forests in
your area and state forestry webpages

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Wrong: A Role-Playing Game
Role Development Sheet
Your Name Scenario Title

Name of your character: Age: Gender:

Briefly describe your fictional self (work, hobbies, home, family, How does the issue affect your fictional life (economics, politics,
values). ethics, etc.)? Does it conflict with any of your values?

Do you support or oppose the issue (in character)? Give reasons to support your position (in character).

Role Development Sheet

Your Name Scenario Title

Name of your character: Age: Gender:

Briefly describe your fictional self (work, hobbies, home, family, How does the issue affect your fictional life (economics, politics,
values). ethics, etc.)? Does it conflict with any of your values?

Do you support or oppose the issue (in character)? Give reasons to support your position (in character).

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 Teacher Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services:
T Page Can’t Live Without ‘Em
Uniformity is not nature’s way; diversity is nature’s way.
Time Estimate: —Vandana Shiva (1952-present))
one or two sessions
(45-90 minutes)

Best Season: Overview

spring, In this lesson students will explore biodiversity, global endemic hotspots and
fall ecosystem services. Students will conduct a schoolyard plant diversity survey.
Extend or build on the activity to learn about ecosystem service concepts
and to explore a science inquiry question about biodiversity.

Preparation
Assessments ◆◆ Use a map to help the students visualize the entire schoolyard.
1 Define biodiversity and
describe why it is important.
◆◆ Decide on areas of the school grounds to use for the plant diversity survey.
Mark particular sites or areas to use for the plant diversity survey. Spread the
surveys over an assortment of vegetation types (landscaped, lawn, weedy, or
2 Define ecosystem
services and name 5 you
others if you have them). Pre-mark these sites on a map or help the students
locate their site on the map when they finish.
benefited from today. ◆◆ Review with your students the “Estimating Percent Cover” worksheet from
the Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations lesson. If they have not
3 Demonstrate or describe a
method of measuring and
done this lesson, have all students practice on one test plot and compare
the results.
calculating plant diversity.

4 Compare and analyze the

results of two or more
plant diversity surveys.

Teacher Hints
◆◆ Have students work in teams
of two, with one spotter and
one recorder, to conduct
a plant diversity survey on
the school grounds. Assign
student teams to work in
different areas to get a good
representation of plant life
on the school grounds.
Additional Information
◆◆ For step #5 of the student
directions: follow the protocols ◆◆ Ecosystem Services: A Primer. Links to ecosystem services
in the Plant Press activity background articles and lessons appropriate for high school
or use green leaves and students: http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html
adhere them to the butcher ◆◆ Nature’s Services, article about the value of
paper with contact paper. ecosystem services: http://www.rand.org/

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 Student Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services:
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Uniformity is not nature’s way; diversity is nature’s way.
—Vandana Shiva (1952-present)
Materials Needed
◆◆ schoolyard map
Overview
◆◆ 4-meter string loops (one
for each survey team) In this activity, you will explore biodiversity, global endemic hotspots and
ecosystem services. You will conduct a schoolyard plant diversity survey and
◆◆ clipboard and paper learn about the concept of ecosystems services while exploring a science
◆◆ butcher paper inquiry question about biodiversity.
◆◆ optional: toothpicks,
field guides, plant press,
adhesive contact paper Background Information
Have you ever considered that the food you eat for breakfast is brought to you
each morning by the wind that pollinated the grasses that produced the grains
Learning Objectives that make up your cereal, or that the clear, cold, clean water you drink every day
was likely purified for you by a wetland or perhaps the root system of an entire
◆◆ Define the terms forest? Trees in your schoolyard capture dust, dirt, and harmful gases from the
biodiversity and hotspot air you breathe. The bright fire of oak or pine logs you light to keep warm on
◆◆ Conduct a simple plant cold nights and the medicine you take to quell the pain of a headache come
diversity inventory to you from nature’s warehouse of services. Through the intricate processes in
◆◆ Gather, analyze, and ecosystems, biodiversity provides clean air, water, food, medicine, shelter and a
present data wealth of interactions between species that keep an ecosystem functioning and
healthy. In addition, biodiversity provides us with recreational opportunities,
◆◆ Understand the concept
aesthetic beauty, and cultural and spiritual connections for the human soul.
of ecosystem services,
Natural ecosystems perform fundamental life-support services upon which
name several, and
human civilization depends. Unless human activities are carefully planned and
discuss their biological
managed, valuable ecosystems will continue to be impaired or destroyed.
and economic values
The term “biodiversity” encompasses the variety of all living things and
includes the diversity of species, the genetic diversity within species, and the
diversity of ecosystems that these species call home. Scientists estimate that the
Vocabulary Words Earth is home to 10-30 million species, but have named and cataloged only a
biodiversity fraction of that number so far. Advances in DNA sequencing and knowledge of
the genetic code continue to open up new worlds of organisms that have yet to
endemic be identified.
hotspot How do scientists measure
ecosystem services biodiversity? To do this, they
percent cover evaluate the two primary
components of diversity in the
field, which are species richness
and species evenness. Species
richness refers to the total
number of different species an
area supports, but does not
take into account the number
of individuals of each species. In
this measure, a single individual
carries as much weight as a
species with many individuals.
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Background Information, continued
Species evenness refers to the relative Plants also filter our water by taking up
abundance of each species present. pollutants and trapping them in their
Consider a meadow with 30 species biomass. Some essential ecosystem
present. It has a species richness of services are listed below.
30. Its species evenness would be Assigning monetary values
assessed by how many individuals of to ecosystem services can be
each of the 30 species were present. challenging. For example, what if acid
If there were 1,000 of one species, rain or another disaster sterilized
and only one of each of the other the soil over a large area of farmland
29 species, the meadow would have or forestland, eliminating soil fungi
low species evenness. A community complexity of life forms that are
and microorganisms essential for behind the scenes, playing critical
with one or two species dominating decomposition and nutrient cycling?
is considered less diverse than a and essential roles in supporting our
Soil fertility would no longer be own lives and activities.
community in which all 30 species naturally renewed. If farming or
have a similar abundance. As species timber production in the area were Studying the fossil record,
richness and evenness both increase, necessary, what would it cost to paleontologists have noted continual
so does species diversity. remove materials that would not be extinctions of species over the
How do biodiversity and healthy broken down and to continuously history of the Earth, but recently the
ecosystems provide ecosystem apply fertilizer? Alternatively, if extinction rate appears to be rapidly
services? Let’s use the example of pollinators declined dramatically, increasing. In fact, the evidence shows
plants. They provide the oxygen that what would it cost cherry farmers that that we are currently in the midst of
we need to breathe and store carbon are dependent on having their trees a mass extinction event. This loss of
from the atmosphere. We depend pollinated to produce a crop? You biodiversity could have huge impacts
on plants to provide our food both could think of ecosystem services as on the ecosystem services on which
directly (such as fruits, vegetables, being like the infrastructure of a city: humans rely. What factors lead to
and grains) and indirectly, as food you may not think about or notice biodiversity loss? Habitat loss, in which
for animals that provide meat and the water supply, sewer lines, electric humans change natural ecosystems
dairy products. Plants mitigate the grid, road systems and emergency through development, farming, filling
impacts of drought by helping to response teams that keep your wetlands, changing water courses,
hold moisture within the soil, and town functioning daily, but they are and generally expanding the human
moderate floods through stabilizing always there. The study of ecosystem footprint, is a primary cause. Habitat
soil to prevent erosion and landslides. services reminds us of the enormous loss can also occur naturally through

Essential Ecosystem Services

◆◆ soil fertility and native species ◆◆ decomposition of waste

◆◆ water filtration ◆◆ recreation ◆◆ protection from harmful
◆◆ carbon sequestration ◆◆ moderation of weather extremes ultraviolet rays
◆◆ flood control ◆◆ moderation of climate ◆◆ control of agricultural pests
◆◆ drought mitigation ◆◆ medicine sources ◆◆ regulation of disease
carrying organisms
◆◆ air purification ◆◆ genetic diversity
◆◆ capturing energy through
◆◆ nutrient cycling ◆◆ seed dispersal
photosynthesis
◆◆ pollination of crops ◆◆ erosion control

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Background Information, continued
volcanic activity, wildfire, and is a biodiversity hotspot in North You can contribute to preserving
individual species loss to disease or America. This hotspot extends from biodiversity by choosing to live a
competition. Additional factors that Baja California into southern Oregon, more sustainable lifestyle, decreasing
diminish biodiversity include climate in the Klamath Mountain ecoregion, use of fossil fuels, conserving water,
change, the proliferation of invasive also called the Siskiyou Mountains. recycling, and gardening. Become
species, the overuse of resources, and In addition, the World Wildlife Fund an informed citizen and use your
pollution. (WWF) named the Siskiyou Bioregion voice and vote to educate and
In the discussion of worldwide as one of 200 WWF- selected global lead. On a community-wide level,
biodiversity loss, you may come across hotspots on Earth. The Klamath- protect wild areas, work to restore
the term “biodiversity hotspot.” To Siskiyou area alone is home to 131 degraded habitats, and support
be designated a biodiversity hotspot, native plants found nowhere else. ecological education and sustainable
an area must be home to a high The region is so diverse because it is development.
level of biodiversity, including more a mixing pot between 5 major biotic
than 1500 endemic plant species, regions: the Great Basin, Coast Range,
and it must be under significant Cascades, Sierra Nevada and Central
threat from human activities. The Valley of California.
global non-profit organization Although the concept of a biodiversity
Conservation International lists 34 hotspot may sound grim, there is
hotspots worldwide. For example, much that can be done to protect
the California Floristic Province biodiversity, beginning at home.

Student Directions
1. For this activity, focus on measuring plant diversity in your schoolyard. Work in teams of two to measure the
diversity of plants using a meter square (or a 4-meter string tied into a loop and staked into a square). Each
team will measure a different area of the schoolyard.
2. Set the plot frame on the ground. Count the number of different plant species and other plant-like organisms
(algae, lichens, etc.) present in the plot. This is your plot’s species richness.
3. Estimate the percent cover of different species of plants or plant-like organisms that are living within the
square. It is not essential to know the name of the plants (although this is helpful). Note: The total percent cover
can be more than 100% if some of the plants are overlapping others.
4. Calculate the Simpson’s diversity index (D) for your plot. Use the following equation for Simpson’s diversity
index:
Diversity (D) = 1 – {sum (p(i)2)}
where p(i) = the proportional abundance of species i

You can use either decimal or percentage values; both will come out the same. If species i has cover of 78% and
the total cover is 140%, then p(i) is 78/140 = 0.55 or 0.78/1.40 = 0.55
To calculate D, square each p(i) value, add all values, and subtract the total from 1.
In this index of species diversity, D ranges from 1 to 0, with 1 representing infinite diversity and 0 representing no
diversity. In the example in the table below, you may have the following species composition in your plot, where
you found one grass, two things that looked like daisies but were clearly two different species, and one shrub:

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Student Directions, continued

Species Percent cover p(i ) p(i )2

grass #1 40 % (40/130)=0.307 (0.307)2=0.094
daisy #1 15 % (15/130)=0.115 (0.115)2=0.013
daisy #2 40 % (40/130)=0.307 (0.307)2=0.094
shrub #1 35 % (35/130)=0.269 (0.269)2=0.072
Sum 130% 0.273
1 - 0.273 = 0.727
Diversity (D) = 0.727
The final number may seem abstract but remember this is a relative measure. It lets you know how diverse your
plot is between no diversity (0) and infinite diversity (1). In our example, our diversity index is 0.727. This may
seem high since we only had four species, but remember that species evenness plays a role as well. Note that our
species composition was relatively even, with no one species dominating completely. For comparison, use the
same four species but change it so one species is at 91% and the other three are at 3% and see how your diversity
index changes.
5. You may also collect plant specimen samples in a plant press. Use butcher paper to make a large chart of your
findings. A simple way to classify your findings is to divide the plants by category and press a leaf specimen
from each. Record the results by grouping types of plants together: tree, shrub, grasses, broadleaf herbaceous,
mosses, and so on, with the sample of the leaves. Hang all the plot sample charts for the class to compare
results.
6. Extra Credit: Identify the plants at your site. Label with scientific and common name. Are they native or non-
native?
7. Return to the classroom and add your site location to the schoolyard map. Record the species richness and
species diversity of your plot on the map. When all the teams have added their data to the map, discuss the
results. Do the most diverse plots also have the greatest species richness? Discuss the difference between
diversity and richness.
8. Make a graph of the class results (plot number, species diversity, and species richness). Which areas have the
highest diversity? Which the lowest? Do the numbers correlate to any patterns that you observed on the
school grounds (landscaped areas vs. native areas)? Do humans influence the abundance or diversity of plant
life? Explain your reasoning. Do you think native plant diversity and non-native plant diversity show the same
patterns? Explain why or why not.

Class Discussion
◆◆ What does “biodiversity” mean? (Hint: Break the ◆◆ How does the reduction of biodiversity harm
word into parts to help formulate a definition). the environment? How is it bad for humans?
◆◆ Why do you think biodiversity is Can you think of any positive things that
important in an ecosystem? come from the reduction of biodiversity?
◆◆ How is biodiversity an indicator of the health ◆◆ Think about your own habitat. Would you
of the environment? Explain your reasoning. consider it biodiverse; why or why not?

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In the Field!
Conduct an additional plant inventory to compare with your schoolyard inventory. Choose
an invasive weedy site, a park, a natural area, an agricultural field, your backyard, or another
area. Hang a large map of the local area and mark spots that have been surveyed. Compared
to these additional sites, how diverse do you think your schoolyard is?

Science Inquiry
Ask a question about a nearby landscape that can be investigated using the plant diversity survey
protocol. Questions can be related to the plant forms that are associated with certain locations,
the number of invasive plants found in cultivated and uncultivated locations, or the plant leaf
forms found in sunny vs. shady locations. These are just examples of some of the questions that
could be generated by the schoolyard studies. See if you can come up with your own. Now
write your question in a form that can be tested. Provide detail about the testing process
(depending on your question) and if possible follow through with the testing.

Taking it Further
The ecosystem services concept puts an economic value on the services that
nature provides us (such as clean air, clean water, nutrient cycling, and so on) and
from which we benefit. If people see the economic value of ecosystems, they will
be more inclined to conserve and preserve them.
◆◆ Research one of the ecosystem services listed in the background material
for this lesson. Make a flashcard for your service using a 4x6 card. Write the
name of the service on the front of the card. Answer the following questions
on the back: 1) How does the service work in the natural world? 2) How does
the service benefit humans? 3) What part do plants play in the service? 4)
How much do you think this service is worth? Pool all the flashcards and
create a game.
◆◆ Advanced discussion: Conservation policies often seem to be at odds
with economic growth. How could environmental policy and economic
growth work together to sustain biodiversity? How would this help focus
conservation efforts on biodiversity hotspots? What could be done to
preserve biodiversity in your ecoregion? What kind of ecosystem services
does your schoolyard provide? Can you calculate what these services may
be worth? What do you think the benefits and drawbacks are to assigning
monetary values to nature?

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Reflection
Should we be concerned about species extinctions? Why or why not? What is the
status of biodiversity in your region, and are you concerned about it? Why? Do you
think you should be concerned with the loss of species in remote biodiversity hotspots
that most people will never see or visit? Explain your reasoning in an essay or poem or
illustrate the result in a drawing or painting.

Self Assessments
1 Define biodiversity and
describe why it is important.
What is a biodiversity hotspot?

2 Define ecosystem
services and name 5 you
benefited from today.

3 Demonstrate or describe a
method of measuring and
calculating plant diversity.

4 Compare and analyze the

results of two or more
plant diversity surveys.

Resources
◆◆ “Estimating Percent Cover” worksheet from the Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations lesson
in this guide.
◆◆ Information about worldwide biodiversity hotspots:
http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/Pages/default.aspx
◆◆ E.O. Wilson is a well-known ecologist and author who has long advocated for the preservation of worldwide
biodiversity. Learn more by reading his articles, essays, and books. Visit: http://eowilsonfoundation.org

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 T Teacher
Page
Threatened and
Endangered Plants
The loss of a keystone species is like a drill accidentally striking a power line. It
Time Estimate:
causes lights to go out all over. —E.O. Wilson (1929 - present)
2 sessions

Best Season: Overview

any
Do any threatened or endangered (T & E) species live in your backyard?
Or perhaps, we should say, do you live in the habitat of any threatened or
endangered species? This lesson introduces the Endangered Species Act
(ESA). Students learn how to influence government decisions and voice
opinions on local rare species issues.

Preparation
Teacher Hints ◆◆ Jigsaw activity set up: assign students to core groups of four. Groups need
◆◆ See http://www.jigsaw.org/ to include a mix of abilities, gender, and backgrounds. Have the members of
for tips on implementing the group count off by fours and these will become the secondary expert
the jigsaw model. It is working groups.
designed to reduce conflict, ◆◆ Each expert working group will be a research team. Give them class time to
improve motivation, and work together, making sure all members of the group participate.
increase enjoyment of the ◆◆ Conduct a pre-activity class discussion to assess prior knowledge and
learning experience. opinions of endangered species conservation.
◆◆ In Part 2, use the field ◆◆ Discussion ideas: Explore personal opinions on the conservation of rare
guide template sheet from species. Ask if students can name any rare species that occur in your state.
the Create-a-Plant lesson, Do they know of any species that have gone extinct in the last 100-200 years?
which can also be adapted What, if anything, happens in an ecosystem when an animal or plant species
to include threatened and becomes extinct? Should we do anything to protect and recover endangered
endangered wildlife species. species? How much effort and money should we spend to keep species
from going extinct? Explore possible reasons to protect rare species (e.g.,
aesthetics, moral reasons, ecosystem services, future medical discoveries).
Assessments
Demonstrate a basic knowledge
1 of the Endangered Species
Act (ESA) and understand Additional Information
how citizens can be involved
◆◆ United States Fish & Wildlife
in shaping endangered
Service. Endangered species
species regulations. home page. http://www.fws.
gov/endangered/index.html
2 Identify at least one threatened
and endangered plant or
◆◆ The Citizen’s Guide to the
Endangered Species Act:
animal that lives in your state. https://www.givengain.
com/unique/esc/upload/
3 Write an opinion of the ESA,
supported with evidence.
citizens_guide_esa.pdf

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Threatened and
Endangered Plants
The loss of a keystone species is like a drill accidentally striking a power line. It
Materials Needed causes lights to go out all over. —E.O. Wilson (1929 - present)
◆◆ computer with internet
access for research Overview
◆◆ copies of the ESA readings Do any threatened or endangered (T & E) species live in your backyard?
for jigsaw group activity How would you feel if they did? This lesson introduces you to endangered,
◆◆ jigsaw question sheets threatened and rare plants of your state. You will collaborate with your
classmates to become familiar with the basics of the Endangered Species Act
(ESA). You will learn how you can influence government decisions, and voice
your opinions on local rare species issues.
Learning Objectives
◆◆ Explore the Endangered Background Information
Species Act (ESA)
We often hear in the news of high profile near-extinction wildlife species: the
◆◆ Learn how the public polar bear, California condor, and gray wolf, to name a few. Did you know that
input process works in there are threatened, endangered and at-risk species in your area, too? People
government actions (ESA living near rare species are frequently unaware that these species exist, and are
process of listing a species) often uninformed as to what has put the species in jeopardy. Species rarity is
◆◆ Find out about state often linked to habitat loss, among other issues, and shares the same causes that
laws and conservation fuel the biodiversity decline.
organizations that work to Federal and state laws protect species that are listed as endangered or
preserve rare species threatened. The primary protection comes under the federal Endangered
◆◆ Learn about rare plant Species Act (ESA), which is administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife
species in your state Service (USFWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). The USFWS
◆◆ Improve your research skills has the primary responsibility for terrestrial and freshwater organisms, while the
NMFS takes the lead on critical marine species such as whales and anadromous
fish, such as salmon. As with most laws, the ESA can be challenging to parties
on all sides of the issue. For example, private landowners with rare species on
Vocabulary Words their property are often concerned about losing the right to use their land as
they like. Conservation organizations are working to save rare species and their
extinct
habitats and private lands provide critical habitat for many species. Is there a
endangered species middle ground where private landowners can feel safe from regulations and
threatened species species can still be saved?
candidate species Investigating how the ESA works, how public input can affect species listings,
rare and your role in shaping public policy is a way to learn about where policy
and science meet to work to recover endangered species. During the first part
extirpated of this activity you will gain a basic understanding of the history of the ESA,
species of concern its components, and how it works to protect species. You will also have an
endemic opportunity to design a better law that may be more effective at saving species
than the ESA.
delisting
downlisting

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Endangered Plants
Student Directions
Part I: Jigsaw Activity
1. You will be divided into groups of 4 students- your you return to your core group.
core group for the jigsaw activity. Each person in 4. Return to your core group and take turns teaching
the core group will be responsible for learning one each other the key points you learned in your expert
section of the information needed for the group as group. Encourage your core group to ask questions
a whole. The success of the group depends on each during the presentations so everyone benefits from
person doing their part. your research!
2. In your core group count off 1, 2, 3, and 4. All the 5. Be prepared to have your teacher test your
number 1s in the class will form an expert group on knowledge on the basics of the ESA.
the ESA Basics and History, 2s will be the ESA Species
Listing Process, 3s will be ESA Critical Habitats and 6. Discussion Extension – discuss the merits and pitfalls
Habitat Conservation Plans, and 4s will be ESA of the ESA and any changes you think would improve
Recovery and Delisting. it. Common arguments about the ESA include: the
law values endangered species over humans; the
3. Each expert group will work together in class to law does not do enough to protect endangered
research its topic and answer a set of questions. species; the ESA listing process is too slow, allowing
Use the USFWS endangered species page http:// species to lose critical numbers during the wait;
www.fws.gov/endangered/index.html as a starting and the program is too costly. What do you think
point. Each expert group may work on the questions and why? Should money be spent saving individual
together or divide them up. Keep your answers brief endangered species or should it be spent to
and concise. Come up with a way to share what you preserve and enhance entire ecosystems in peril?
learned (draw a diagram, create a game, etc.) when

Part II: Apply your ESA knowledge to your state

1. There are rare plants all around the United States. Write the citation information directly on your
Some are listed under the federal ESA, and others field guide page. Keep track of the sources of your
are listed under state ESA laws, which have different information as you conduct your research.
implications and meanings. ◆◆ Search by scientific name on the internet. Many
2. Create a list of rare plants in your state. Include the rare plants have extensive records associated with
name of the plant (scientific and common) and its them, such as research, public hearings, etc. Use
status under the federal and/or state ESAs. A good this information to fill in the missing parts of your
resource for creating this list is the USFWS website, field guide. Include the reasons why the plant is
where you can find endangered species listed by rare and a summary of the steps to downlisting or
state: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/. You can use delisting if a recovery plan has been completed.
the map to see which threatened and endangered 5. Use easy to understand language and define
plants occur near your area. unfamiliar terms in your field guide so it will be useful
3. Create a field guide page for one rare plant from for the general public.
your state (use the template from Create-a-Plant). 6. Complete your field guide page with a high-quality
Have everyone in the class cover at least one species picture (with proper copyright credits) or a color
so the class will end up with a field guide to all the drawing and references.
rare plants of your state.
7. Assemble everyone’s pages to create a rare plant
4. As with any research project, be sure that you cite field guide for your ecoregion.
your sources both for written content and photos.

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Taking it Further
Use the maps on the USFWS website to plot where all of the federally threatened and endangered species in your
state occur. Use color-coding to draw ranges on a map of your state. Do the ranges follow general patterns? For
example, do most of the rare species occur in mountainous areas of your state, or in arid basins, or along a coastline?
Take what you know about land uses in these areas and form a hypothesis about why endangered species occur
where they do in your state.

Assessments Resources
1 Demonstrate a basic working knowledge
of the ESA. How can the public get
◆◆ US Fish & Wildlife Service. Find species
listed under Federal ESA as well as species of
concern. http://www.fws.gov/endangered/
involved in species listings?

2 Write a paragraph expressing your

opinion on an aspect of the Endangered
Species Act. Support your opinion
with evidence or examples.

3 Name one (or more) threatened

or endangered plant species
from your ecoregion.

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In the Field!
Invite a restoration ecologist to give your class a tour of a local restoration project.
Ask them to tell you about the biodiversity of the area with special attention to rare or
endangered species. What is the history of the area? How has it changed? Does the area
support any endangered plants? What are some of the primary threats to ecosystems?
How are local restoration projects working to support biodiversity?

Science Inquiry
Read a scientific paper about the Endangered Species Act or endangered species monitoring as it pertains to a species
from your state (flora or fauna). Read the paper critically. Does it cite other references? What is the quality of the
referenced material? Has the paper been peer reviewed? Generate some research questions that could improve the
successes of endangered species conservation efforts.

Reflection
Should we protect endangered species? What can you do to influence the protection
of endangered species? What are some of the most common reasons that species
become endangered? What role does human activity play? What kinds of people,
groups, or institutions do you know of that are helping to protect endangered species
today? How do you think these efforts are funded? Do you think that protecting
endangered species is worthwhile? Why or why not, and to what extent? What have
you done or are you doing to help protect your local ecosystems? Can you do one
additional thing to help? What have you learned about critical habitat, the importance
of biodiversity, and ecosystem conservation? How has this activity changed your
views on endangered species protections? Why?

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Expert Group 1
Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Basics and History

Questions:
1. What is the purpose of the ESA? 6. Describe how the federal government works with state
governments in regard to the ESA.
2. Who administers the ESA?
7. In what year did Congress pass the Endangered Species
3. What species are eligible for protection under the ESA? Act into law as we know it?
4. The ESA protects species by prohibiting take. Define 8. Has the ESA been changed since it first became law?
take as it applies to wildlife in the ESA.
9. From its start, Congress authorized funding the ESA
5. Do the same take prohibitions apply to plants, and if through 1992. How has the ESA been funded since
not, how are they different? 1992?

Cut here

Expert Group 2
Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Species Listing Process

Questions:
1. What are candidate species? 5. The ESA requires a final determination on the listing of a
species to be completed within what time period?
2. What are the two ways that species can become listed
under the ESA? Give a short explanation of both. 6. Outline the process for public input into an ESA listing
proposal.
3. What are the five basic factors that influence whether a
species is listed? 7. ESA listing decisions are required to be based on best
scientific principles. In this process they solicit peer
4. When enough scientific information has been submitted review. Explain this process.
to consider a species for listing under the ESA,
biologists at the USFWS draft a proposed listing rule; 8. If all the steps are completed and the species listing is
what is included in the listing proposal? approved, what happens next?

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Expert Group 3
Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Critical Habi-
tat and Habitat Conservation Plans

Questions:
1. What is critical habitat? 6. Many HCP require mitigation to offset take of
endangered species authorized by incidental take
2. What is the purpose of designating critical habitat? permits. Mitigation is completed through specific
3. How is critical habitat determined? conservation strategies that are manageable and
enforceable. List several examples of mitigation
4. What are Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP)? practices.

5. What do HCP do?

Cut here

Expert Group 4
Endangered Species Act (ESA)— Species Recovery and Delisting

Questions:
1. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 4. Define the terms delisting and downlisting, as used in
uses many techniques to recover endangered species. the ESA.
List 3-5 such techniques.
5. What happens after a species has been delisted?
2. What does recovery mean?

3. Give an example of a partnership that the USFWS has

made to help recover endangered plant species.

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Answer Key
Expert Group 1: ESA — Basics and History
1. What is the purpose of the ESA? The ESA protects and recovers imperiled species and their habitats.

2. Who administers the ESA? It is administered by the Interior Department’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
and the Commerce Department’s National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).

3. What species are eligible for protection under the ESA? All species of plants and animals, except pest insects, are
eligible for listing as endangered or threatened.

4. The ESA protects species by prohibiting take. Define take as it applies to wildlife in the ESA. Take is “to harass,
harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct.” Take
may include significant habitat modification or degradation where it actually kills or injures wildlife by significantly
impairing essential behavioral patterns, including breeding, feeding, or sheltering.

5. Do the same take prohibitions apply to plants, and if not, how are they different? Listed plants are not protected
from take under the federal ESA, although it is illegal to collect or maliciously harm them on federal land. Protection
from commercial trade and the effects of federal actions do apply for plants. State Endangered Species Acts may
provide additional protection for plants on some land ownerships.

6. Describe how the federal government works with state governments in regards to the ESA? The federal
government encourages states to develop and maintain conservation programs for threatened and endangered
species. Federal funding is available to promote state participation. Some state laws and regulations are even more
restrictive than the federal ESA in granting exceptions or permits.

7. In what year did Congress pass the Endangered Species Act into law as we know it? 1973.

8. Has the ESA been changed since it first became law? Significant changes to the law have been added in the form of
amendments but the basic structure of the 1973 Act has been preserved.

9. From its start, Congress authorized funding the ESA through 1992. How has the ESA been funded since 1992?
Congress has annually appropriated funds.

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Answer Key
Expert Group 2: ESA — Species Listing Process
1. What are candidate species? Species for which the USFWS has sufficient information on their biological status
and threats to propose them as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), but for which
development of a proposed listing regulation is precluded by higher priority activities.

2. What are the two ways that species can become listed under the ESA? Give a short explanation. 1) Petition process:
any person may petition the Secretary of the Interior to add a species, or 2) Candidate assessment process: USFWS
biologists identify species as candidates for listing.

3. What are the five basic factors that influence whether a species is listed? 1) The present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of the species’ habitat or range. 2) Overutilization for commercial, recreational,
scientific, or educational purposes. 3) Disease or predation. 4) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms.
and 5) Other natural or manmade factors affecting the species’ continued existence.

4. When enough scientific information has been submitted to consider a species for listing under the ESA, biologists
at the USFWS draft a proposed listing rule; what is included in the listing proposal? Background information on the
species (taxonomy, historic and current range, population information, habitat requirements, etc.), a summary of
the threats faced by the species, a determination and/or designation of critical habitat if appropriate, examples of
available conservation measures, and a preview of actions that would be prohibited (as well as actions that would
not be prohibited) if the species were to be listed.

5. The ESA requires a final determination on the listing of a species to be completed within what time period? A
decision on whether to make the proposed listing final must be completed within 12 months from when the
proposal is published.

6. Outline the process for public input into an ESA listing proposal. 1) Press release announcing the proposal is
published in area newspapers, and personal contacts are made by Field Office, Regional Office, and Washington,
D.C. Office personnel. 2) Direct notification of cities and counties, state agencies, federal agencies, Congressional
offices, local organizations, and others. 3) A 60-day public comment period begins once a listing proposal is
published in the Federal Register. 4) A public hearing must be held if one is requested within 45 days of publication
of the proposed rule. 5) Public meetings also may be held in areas where the species occurs to provide the public
with information about the species and the proposed listing. 6.) The public comment period may be extended or
reopened at any time; however, extensions must be within reason.

7. ESA listing decisions are required to be based on best scientific principles. In this process they solicit peer review,
explain this process. The USFWS contacts several peer reviewers during the open comment period, provides them
with the listing proposal, and asks them to review the document for scientific accuracy. Current USFWS policy
requires at least three independent reviewers to be contacted. The reviewers are free to comment on any aspect
of the proposal, but they may also be asked to consider specific questions regarding the species’ taxonomy or
biology.

8. If all the steps are completed and the species listing is approved, what happens next? The rule becomes effective
30 days after publication (to allow Congress to review the listing) and the species is officially added to the Federal
Endangered and Threatened Species List.
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Answer Key
Expert Group 3: ESA—Critical Habitat
and Habitat Conservation Plans
1. What is critical habitat? Specific geographic area(s) that contain(s) features essential for the conservation of a
threatened or endangered species and that may require special management and protection. Critical habitat may
include an area that is not currently occupied by the species but that will be needed for its recovery.

2. What is the purpose of designating critical habitat? Federal agencies are required to consult with the USFWS on
actions they carry out, fund, or authorize to ensure that their actions will not destroy or adversely modify critical
habitat. In this way, a critical habitat designation protects areas that are necessary for the conservation of the
species.

3. How is critical habitat determined? Biologists consider physical and biological features needed for life processes
and successful reproduction of the species, including: 1) Space for individual and population growth and for
normal behavior; 2) Cover or shelter; 3) Food, water, air, light, minerals, or other nutritional or physiological
requirements; 4) Sites for breeding and rearing offspring; and 5) Habitats that are protected from disturbances or
are representative of the historic geographical and ecological distributions of a species.

4. What are Habitat Conservation Plans? HCP are planning documents required as part of an application for an
incidental take permit. They describe the anticipated effects of the proposed take; how those impacts will be
minimized, or mitigated; and how the HCP is to be funded.

5. What do HCP do? In developing habitat conservation plans, people applying for incidental take permits describe
measures designed to minimize and mitigate the effects of their actions to ensure that listed species will not be
jeopardized.

6. Many HCP require mitigation to offset take of endangered species authorized by incidental take permits.
Mitigation is completed through specific conservation strategies that are manageable and enforceable. List
several examples of mitigation practices. Mitigation practices include, but are not limited to, payment into an
established conservation fund or bank; preservation (via acquisition or conservation easement) of existing habitat;
enhancement or restoration of degraded or former habitat; establishment of buffer areas around existing habitats;
modifications of land use practices; and restrictions on access.

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Jigsaw Groups Answer Key
Expert Group 4: ESA—Species Recovery and Delisting
1. The USFWS uses many techniques to recover endangered species; list 3-5 such techniques. Techniques include
restoring and acquiring habitat, removing introduced animal predators or invasive plant species, conducting
surveys, monitoring individual populations, and breeding species in captivity and releasing them into their
historic range.

2. What does recovery mean? Recovery is the process by which the decline of an endangered or threatened species
is arrested and threats are removed or reduced, ensuring the long-term survival of the species in the wild. At that
point the species is recovered, and protection from the ESA is no longer necessary.

3. Give an example of a partnership that the USFWS has made to help recover endangered plant species. A national
partnership with the Center for Plant Conservation, which has expertise in conserving plants. Founded in 1984, the
Center is supported by a nationwide consortium of 29 botanical gardens and arboreta. With about one of every 10
plant species in the United States facing potential extinction, the Center is the only national organization dedicated
exclusively to conserving rare native plants.

4. Define the terms delisting and downlisting as used in the ESA. Delisting: To delist species, the USFWS is required
to determine that threats have been eliminated or controlled, based on several factors, including population sizes
and trends and the stability of habitat quality and quantity. Downlisting: When the USFWS reclassifies species
from endangered to threatened, a less dire status, they downlist them. If some of the threats have been controlled
and the population has met recovery objectives for downlisting, the USFWS may consider changing the status of an
endangered species to threatened.

5. What happens after a species has been delisted? The Endangered Species Act requires the USFWS, in cooperation
with the states, to monitor species for at least five years after delisting to assess their ability to sustain themselves
without the protective measures of the Act. If, within the designated monitoring period, threats to the species
change or unforeseen events change the stability of the population, the USFWS may extend the monitoring period
or relist the species.

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Restoration Plan
Time Estimate: Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the
2 class sessions world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.
—Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
Best Season:
any
Overview
This lesson introduces the basics of habitat restoration through exploring
restoration concepts, terminology, and methods. Learn about common
restoration tools and weigh the trade-offs land managers juggle when
planning a restoration project. Students will work as part of a team to plan,
budget, and market a restoration plan to a land manager.

Assessments Preparation
1 List the component parts
of a successful habitat
◆◆ Class discussion: brainstorm what it means to “restore a native ecosystem”.
Have the class formulate a definition. Discussion questions: What part do
humans play in restoration? Can restoration happen naturally? How and
restoration plan. when? When is a restoration complete? Explore other associated words:
reclamation, mitigation, reintroduction, conservation, degrade, disturbance,
2 List and explain two tools
used in each: planning, site
native, non-native, and invasive species.
◆◆ Create a class word bank list to collect terms and definitions associated with
prep, restoring vegetation, habitat restoration.
and monitoring in habitat
restoration projects.
Teacher Hints
3 Work as part of a team to ◆◆ This lesson includes many Departments), other teachers,
complete a habitat restoration aspects of the engineering or an ecologist, botanist, or
project proposal. design standards: defining a forester to act as judges.
problem and stating a goal; ◆◆ Use this lesson to introduce a
brainstorming solutions; service-learning project. Partner
comparing solutions using with your local watershed
Additional Information the concept of trade-offs; council or other natural resource
then creating, analyzing, and agencies on a nearby habitat
◆◆ The SER International Primer
refining a plan within set criteria; restoration project. Ask to
on Ecological Restoration:
identifying strengths and view their restoration plan, or
http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/
weaknesses; and describing to be involved in creating it.
www.ser.org/resource/resmgr/
how it is more effective
custompages/publications/ ◆◆ For advanced students, add
than alternative plans.
SER_Primer/ser_primer.pdf an additional layer to the
◆◆ Team projects can be run as a restoration plan. Have them
◆◆ Native Seed Network: http:// class competition. Invite local research appropriate plant
www.nativeseednetwork.org/ land management agency species for a local habitat
personnel (e.g., U.S. Forest restoration site. Find and price
Service, Bureau of Land seed, plug, or plant material
Management, City, County, cost to include in their plan.
or State Parks/Natural Areas

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Materials Needed Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the
world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.
◆◆ Budget worksheet —Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
◆◆ site map
◆◆ tracing paper for overlays Overview
◆◆ colored pencils This lesson introduces the basics of habitat restoration through exploring
restoration concepts, terminology, and methods. Learn about common
restoration tools and weigh the trade-offs land managers juggle when
planning a restoration project. You will work as part of a team using design
Learning Objectives principles to plan, budget, and market a restoration plan to a land manager.
◆◆ Increase understanding
of habitat restoration
terminology. Background Information
◆◆ List several restoration tools. Habitat restoration goes beyond protecting or preserving land and natural
◆◆ Use engineering design resources. Through the use of a wide variety of techniques and tools, restoration
process skills to create a ecologists are learning to return degraded land to a condition that resembles its
habitat restoration plan. pre-disturbance state in both community structure and function.
◆◆ Practice persuasive writing The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) International defines habitat
skills to market a habitat restoration as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has
restoration proposal. been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.” Many aspects of restoration are
still being debated amongst scientists and on-the-ground practitioners in the
habitat restoration community. A prime pending question is how to define the
end result of a restoration project. In North America, should we be restoring
Vocabulary Words
conditions thought to have occurred before Euro-American settlement?
habitat restoration What about ecosystems that had been influenced by human cultures prior to
disturbance European contact? The indigenous people of our country manipulated
reference site ecosystems with fire for thousands of years; how should that be taken into
reintroduction account? Can we really re-create an ecosystem that existed hundreds of years
ago and do we even have the necessary data to do so? Since ecosystems are
rehabilitate
constantly changing through the process of succession, what stage of succession
reclamation should a restoration project strive to reach? These are all questions that land
mitigation managers and restoration practitioners must address while planning a project.
re-establish Humans are altering natural ecosystems at an accelerating rate,
frequently through resource extraction or urbanization. In an attempt
to counteract some of this habitat destruction, the process of
mitigation has been introduced by government regulatory agencies.
How does the mitigation system work? If a wetland, for example, is destroyed
to build a new shopping mall, the mall builders must create (or pay to create) a
new wetland in another location to compensate for the loss of the wetland now
under the shopping mall. The theory behind mitigation is that there is no net loss
of habitat. Do you think creating or enhancing an existing wetland in a different
location can fully compensate for the loss of a naturally existing wetland?

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Background Information, continued
In some cases, clean-up and restoration of an extremely including: defining current and desired future conditions;
polluted or degraded site is considered mitigation. At many setting goals and objectives; planning; seeking public
mining sites the topography, hydrology, and soils of a site involvement and input; establishing work timelines; long
have been so altered that it is impossible to restore them term monitoring; and continued management. Good
to their original condition. In that case, the goal is often recordkeeping is essential and helps guide the project over
merely to reduce pollution from the site and rehabilitate the long term. Restoration projects are not completed in a
it to a usable state. This process is termed “reclamation”. season or even a year, but require many years. The end goal
In some forests that have been intensively harvested is a self-sustaining ecosystem which resembles a model or
in the past and have had natural fire suppressed, we reference ecosystem from a similar site.
debate whether or not to thin or remove crowded trees The chart beginning on the next page includes some
and underbrush to mimic the ecosystem that might have restoration tools land managers use to accomplish
existed with natural fire return intervals and less human restoration objectives. This is not an all-inclusive list, but
intervention. Does this qualify as restoration? Can you think it covers many commonly used restoration tools. Use
of other ways humans have altered natural ecosystems and the information in the chart to help you guide your own
are now trying to restore them? decisions as you work through your restoration plan.
Could restoration have a role in trying to react to climate
change? Future restoration debates may center on how
climate change may affect plant communities and species
ranges. Should we attempt to restore new habitats for
species outside their current ranges to plan for the future?
Should humans protect some species but not others?
Challenge yourself to define additional terms related
to habitat restoration. Some words that you might see
used in restoration project discussions are: re-establish,
rehabilitate, and reintroduce. Can you think of or find
others?
Habitat restoration is a complex process with many steps.
All restoration projects include some similar components,

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Restoration Tool Explanation Benefit Challenges
Part 1: Planning—Long term success of restoration
Conduct baseline Describe current conditions, Needed for long term com- Can be costly when inventorying a
inventory create list of plant and wildlife parison large site
species present, note dominant
species & rare species

Pick a model or ref- Study a nearby habitat to act as a Planning tool for species Possibly no similar sites nearby to use
erence ecosystem model of what the composition as reference
(What is the desired restoration is attempting to
future condition?) achieve
Use historical data Search original land surveyor Information can give an Records may be difficult to locate, hard
records or explorer’s journals to overview of the major species to read, incomplete
learn about the site’s historical present prior to development
conditions changes
Create master plan Write a plan to guide each step A document that all parties Plan needs to be kept current with
of the restoration can use to guide activities modifications, timetable and monitoring
data
Part 2: Restore historical topography and hydrology
Earthmoving Large machinery to restore his- Restore natural hydrology Disturbs soils, may interfere with native
toric topography plants and wildlife

Drain tile removal Remove drain tile, ditches, and Restore natural hydrology; May affect neighboring property &
culverts most common at wet sites local flooding
Dam or water Take out earthen dams and swales Restore natural hydrology May affect neighboring property &
diversion removal that restrain or channel water local flooding

Part 3: Site Prep—Control unwanted vegetation (encroaching trees/shrubs, invasive species, other unwanted plants), open
areas for planting, reduce competition for seedlings and transplants
Hand pulling, Manually pull, dig, or cut out Good control for small infesta- Labor intensive, may disturb the soil
digging, or cutting individual plants. tions, generally low impact

Herbicide Chemical control through spot Good for large areas, fast, Leaves chemical residues in soil and water,
spraying (individual plants) or relatively inexpensive timing is crucial for application, need
broadcast spraying (large chemical applicators license, spray can
infestations) drift off property, not suitable near water,
can have negative effect on pollinators
and wildlife
Mowing Cutting vegetation close to Prevents plants from Weather or terrain may not be suitable,
ground level producing seed, good correct timing essential, repeat mowing
control of annuals will be necessary
Prescribed burning Low intensity, controlled burn of Mimics historic disturbance High cost, permits required, special-
ground level vegetation regime, encourages growth of ized equipment and trained staff
grasses and flowering plants, needed, weather can be an issue
discourages shrubs and trees

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Restoration Tool Explanation Benefit Challenges
Part 4: Restore Natural Vegetation—Seeding
Local seed Hand collect seed from plants at Seed source is well adapted Labor intensive; plant identification &
collection your site or nearby areas for your site seed collecting knowledge needed,
seed cleaning and storage may be
required
Regional seed Purchase seed grown for regional Genetics similar to the plants Locating the needed seed may be dif-
collected restoration projects native to the region ficult or impossible
Direct seeding Directly spread seed onto Inexpensive, less Some species don’t establish well from
ground at the site, using broad- labor-intensive, ideal for large seed, less able to compete with inva-
cast areas sive plants than transplants
seeding or a seed drill
Plant propagation Start and grow plants from seed, Gives more control over seed May require greenhouse, specialized
then transplant to restoration site source and quality of material, seed starting knowledge, time to care
plants available when needed for plants
Plant relocations Move plants from local areas Saves plants that might oth- May be labor intensive, and can only
slated for development erwise be destroyed; ensures occur at certain times of year
local plants are used
Transplant plugs Purchase small plants in small Relatively inexpensive, good More expensive than seeding, plants
rocket-shaped pots availability, efficient to plant are small
Transplant bareroot Purchase started plants for plant- Relatively inexpensive, easy Need to be planted when dormant,
plants ing when dormant to plant weather & accessibility issues
Transplant potted Purchase well-rooted plants in Established plants Relatively expensive, will probably
plant materials pots of larger sizes need watering for first year
Natural Allow native plants and animals to Inexpensive, uses local seed Slow, leaves areas open for establish-
re-establishment of recolonize on their own. Often source, Useful at sites with a ment of invasive plants
native plants and native animals return after native minimum of destruction to be
wildlife plants and food sources have been repaired.
reestablished.

Part 5: Monitoring—Evaluation
Mapping Create a data library. Maintain Guides restoration, essential in Need to keep updated with changes
map of site plantings, locate inva- communicating with partners over timetime
sive problems, can use GPS

Photo points Photos taken from permanently Time saving, general view of Gives only a general overview, no spe-
marked fixed points (e.g., a fence restoration, easy to duplicate, cific numerical data, limited use when
post) regularly for long term inexpensive, gives good over- following specific plant populations
monitoring view of changes to site

On the ground data Counting (sampling, percent Can give more detailed Labor intensive, costly
collection cover, complete counts) information, good for tracking
specific plant populations

Part 6: Long Term Maintenance—Simulating natural disturbance cycle and controlling problem species
Prescribed burning Low intensity, controlled burn of Mimics historical disturbance Expensive, permits required, special-
ground level vegetation, used in regime, encourages growth of ized equipment and trained staff
grassland and prairie restoration grasses and flowering plants, needed, can only occur under correct
discourages shrubs and trees weather conditions

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Restoration Tool Explanation Benefit Challenges
Part 6: Long Term Maintenance, continued
Mowing Uses large machinery to limit Replace disturbance regimen Equipment can spread weed seeds
height of vegetation or prevent to control unwanted vegeta- from other sites, cut material (thatch)
invasive plants from setting seed, tion may accumulate over time and require
used in grassland and prairie removal
restoration
Livestock grazing Run cattle, sheep, goats, or other Can control height of vegeta- Animals may feed indiscriminately on
livestock for part of the year, tion, browsers (goats) can all plant material, overgrazing can be
used in prairie restoration target brush or grazers (cows, harmful, trampling of sensitive species,
sheep) can target grasses uncontrolled access to water can de-
nude stream banks, may spread exotic
and invasive species

Student Directions
Restoration Scenario: A local landowner recently left a ten acre rural property to a conservation group, Ecosystem
Protection Services. The donation came with the stipulation that the land be restored back to prairie to enhance
habitat for native plants and wildlife and increase local biodiversity. Previously the site was used for livestock grazing,
and it is currently a mixture of non-native grasses and invasive weeds. The site historically supported open prairie
that was maintained by Native American tribes who routinely burned the area. The topography is a combination of
upland and lowland that is bisected by a standing or slow moving water course during the wet season.

1. Work in teams of 2-4 students to create a restoration 4. Make a budget using the Final Student Budget Keep
plan packet. Your plan will be submitted to the in mind the individual rate sheet units and the size
conservation group, Ecosystem Protection Services, of your site. Remember that the costs are generally
as a bid proposal to do the actual restoration per acre and you are working at a ten acre site. Give
work. The plan needs to cover the first year of an itemized cost for each restoration tool used and
work including site preparations, restoring natural calculate the grand total cost for the entire project.
vegetation, and monitoring. You need to balance
the restoration goals, current conditions at the site, 5. Write out a restoration plan to accompany your
environmental concerns you identify, and the costs map. Use your Restoration Plan Budget Worksheet.
of your project. There is no single right answer or to guide you in the steps needed. Include the tools
approach to this project. Use your proposal letter to you will use in site prep, restoring vegetation, and
justify your team’s decisions. monitoring. The site may dictate using more than one
method or tool to reach your plan goals.
2. Identify your restoration goal from the scenario.
Write it in your own words using the appropriate 6. Sell your proposal by writing a persuasive letter to
restoration terminology. Be sure to extract all the accompany your bid. Your letter should include why
useful information from the scenario for your plan. you think your plan describes the best option. The
letter should be signed by all the members of your
3. Use the site map to help design your restoration team and addressed to the proper organization.
plan. The map identifies topography, current
vegetation, and other factors that you need to take 7. Your completed bid proposal packet will be used to
into consideration (e.g., water, neighboring housing). assess your entire team’s grade (see rubric at end of
Use one or more map overlays to diagram your lesson).
restoration plan.

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 S Student Designing a Habitat
Project
Restoration Plan
In the Field!
Take a field trip to view a restoration project in progress. Ask the managers of the restoration project to talk to the
class about what they are doing at the site, including their restoration goals, how the site was selected, what historical
data they used, the steps of the project, and where they are in the restoration process. If available, visit restoration sites
in various stages of completion (beginning, middle and finished). Make observations in your field journal at each of
the sites. Compare the sites: how do they differ, not only in ecosystem type but progress toward their desired future
conditions?

Science Inquiry
Collecting monitoring data to assess restoration site conditions before, during
and after a restoration project allows land managers to learn what restoration
techniques are most effective. They can then use the information to improve future
restoration work. Ask if you may be involved in any monitoring that goes along with
the restoration site. Talk to the agencies involved to find out what methods they use
and what they hope to learn.
Many natural areas have been historically maintained by fire at some frequency.
Today, using prescribed fire can frequently come into conflict with present-day
policies. Air quality regulations, public perceptions, and safety concerns can all make
using prescribed fire a challenge. Brainstorm alternative methods for maintaining a
restoration site. How would you test your methods?

Reflection Taking it Further

Contact a local land management
This activity has touched on some of the philosophical difficulties
agency to participate in a habitat
associated with habitat restorations. Use what you know to
evaluate the ways environmental ethics, public opinion, scientific restoration project. A restoration
work, and/or government policy impact your environment and project is a long term commitment.
society. Explore your own personal views on one of these topics. By partnering with a local project
run by a natural resource agency,
the class can take as small or as large
a part as time allows. Work with
your partnering agency to identify
lessons that will make this project
a true community service-learning
experience.

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 S Student Designing a Habitat
Project
Restoration Plan
Self Assessments
1 What are the component parts
of a successful restoration plan?
Resources
2 List and explain two tools
used in each: planning, ◆◆ The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration:
site prep, restoring http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.ser.org/resource/resmgr/
vegetation, and monitoring custompages/publications/SER_Primer/ser_primer.pdf
in restoration projects. ◆◆ Apostol, Dean, and Marcia Sinclair. (2006.) Restoring
the Pacific Northwest: The Art and Science of Ecological
3 Work as part of a team to
complete a restoration project
Restoration in Cascadia. Island Press.
◆◆ A Guide to Prairie and Wetland Restoration inEastern Nebraska:
proposal. What did you learn? http://www.prairieplains.org/assets/files/restoration_manual_1.pdf

Prairie Restoration Project Rubric

CATEGORY Novice (1) Apprentice (2) Crew leader (3) Professional (4)
Restoration Goal Written in complete Written in complete Written using student’s Written in student’s own words,
sentences, but cop- sentences. Includes words, missing only one or encompasses all components
ied from scenario. No some factors from two components, and uses from scenario, written in com-
attempt to use resto- scenario, and uses at one or more restoration plete sentence form, and show-
ration terminology. least one restoration terminology words. ing proper usage of restoration
terminology word. terminology.

Site Map With Site map missing Site map with overlay. Site map with overlay. Site map with one or more
Overlay overlay. Incomplete Missing one or two Missing one restoration overlays. Overlay shows all res-
key, or map and key restoration tools from tool from plan, or key is not toration tools used from plan,
do not match restora- plan, or key is not com- complete or clear. includes clear and complete key
tion tools from plan. plete or clear. to match plan.

Restoration Plan Plan is incomplete, Plan complete but Plan complete and ad- Plan is logical to follow, written
missing one or more does not include entire dresses all restoration in paragraph or outline form.
of the restoration year in logical form, or tools needed. Logical plan Includes one year timetable
tools needed, or plan is missing one of the format could be improved. for site, and addresses all the
does not include required restoration restoration tools needed.
entire year. tools needed.

Budget Sheet Budget sheet is not Budget sheet has Budget sheet matches plan, Budget sheet matches plan and
complete, missing one or more errors in specifies tools used. Math specifies tools used. Math is
tools from plan, matching plan, or errors has one or two errors in correct for individual tools and
mistakes in math, or in math, or total project figuring tool costs. extended for entire job. Total
does not include costs. cost of project figured correctly.
total project costs.

Bid Proposal Letter sloppy, not Letter is neat and in Letter is neat and in proper Letter neat, written in proper
in Persuasive properly addressed, proper format. Letter format. Letter is persuasive format, addressed to com-
Letter not signed, or not in explains some but not in selling the proposal and pany name and signed by all
proper letter format. all decisions made in explains most of the deci- team members. Demonstrates
Letter does not ex- plan. sions made in the plan. persuasive writing in selling
plain decisions made proposal, and explaining all
in plan. decisions made in plan.
7-251
 S Student Designing a Habitat
Project
Restoration Plan
Map – 10 acre site

7-252
S Student Designing a Habitat
Project
Restoration Plan
Restoration Plan Budget Worksheet
Cost/ Hourly Cost/ Cost/
Activity Cost per site Additional notes
acre rate pound plug
Price range depends on site complexity,
Prescribed burn $3,000-5,000 location, types of vegetation fuel, and
permits
Brush clearing Estimate 1 hr/acre
$91
(mechanical)
Spot spray $61 Estimate 1 hr/acre

Need to be aware of drift issues close to

Broadcast spray $55
water and housing
Hand pulling $25 Estimate 4 hr/acre

Tractor work (seeding, $75

mowing)
Plug planting (100 plugs
$50
per hour)
Grass seed (rate of 5lbs/ $25
acre)

Wildflower seed (forbs)

$1000
(rate of 3-5lbs/acre)

Grass & grass-like plug

(1210/acre at 6 ft. spac- $0.45
ing)
Wildflower plug (forbs)
(1210/acre at 6 ft. spac- $1.40
ing)
Price range depends on site complexity,
size, and method used for monitoring.
Monitoring $75.00 Estimate 1 hr for photo point, 8 hr for sam-
pling, 24 hr for complete count.

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 S Student Designing a Habitat
Project
Restoration Plan
Final Student Budget
Cost/Unit Total Cost for
Tool Used Labor Costs
(Acres or Hours) 10 Acre Site
Site prep

Restoring Natural
Vegetation

Project Monitoring

Total Project Costs

7-254
 References
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). Level III 8. Botany Bouquet
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Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.
Map M-1, various scales. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity
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9. Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules
The Nature Conservancy (2007). The Hawaiian High Dichotomous Key To Common Fruits adapted with per-
Islands Ecoregion. Retrieved from: http://www.ha- mission from Sean T. Coleman, Ph.D., Associate Professor
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University of California Museum of Paleontology. (2007). Kesseler, R. & Stuppy, W. (2006). Seeds: Time Capsules
The World’s Biomes. Retrieved from http://www.ucmp. of Life (A. Papadakis, Ed.). Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books.
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Stein, B.A. (2002). States of the Union: Ranking America’s
Botanic Garden Conservation International. (n.d.).
Biodiversity. Arlington, Virginia: NatureServe. Retrieved
Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Retrieved from
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The Academy of Natural Sciences. (2004). The Lewis and
Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot Clark National Bicentennial Celebration. Retrieved from
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Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI:
University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. University of California at Davis. (n.d.). UC Davis Cen-
terbfor Plant Diversity Herbarium. Retrieved from http://
herbarium.ucdavis.edu/herbarium.html
SECTION 1: PLANT IDENTIFICATION
Lawrence, B.A. & Kaye, T.N. (2009). Reintroduction of
1. What’s In A Name? Castilleja levisecta: Effects of ecological similarity, source
Hickman, J.C., Ed. (1993). The Jepson Manual: Higher population genetics, and habitat quality. Restoration
Plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of Califor- Ecology: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-
nia Press. 100X.2009.00549.x/abstract
6. The Secret Life of Flowers
SECTION 2: ECOREGIONS OF OREGON
Adapted with permission from: National Gardening
Association. (1999, September). Digging into Flowers: 14. The Place I Call Home
Pollen, Petals, Pistils, & Other Parts. Growing Ideas: A Commission for Environmental Cooperation. (2009).
Journal of Garden-Based Learning, 10(3), 4. “Ecological Regions of North America.” Map. Montreal,
The Pollinator Partnership. (2007). Nature’s Partners: Canada: Commission for Environmental Cooperation.
Pollinators, Plants, and You. A Comprehensive Pollinator U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006). Level Iii
Curriculum For Grades 3-6. Retrieved from http://www. Ecoregions Of The Continental United States (revision
pollinator.org/nappc/PDFs/curriculum.pdf. of Omernik, 1987): Corvallis, Oregon, USEPA – National
Adapted with permission from: National Gardening Associa- Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory,
tion. (1999, September). The Secret Life of Flowers. Growing Map M-1, various scales.
Ideas: A Journal of Garden-Based Learning, 10(3), 1. Wiken, E., Nava, F.J. & Griffith, J. (2011). North American
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ronmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada. meaning of co-evolution. Proceedings of the National
The Nature Conservancy. (2007). The Hawaiian High Academy of Science of the U.S.A. 91(25): 12278–12282.
Islands Ecoregion. Retrieved from: http://www.ha- Roberts, M.F. & Wink, M. (Eds.). (1998). Alkaloids:
waiiecoregionplan.info/ecoregion.html. Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications. New
York: Plenum Press.
15. Ecosystem Comparisons Gershezon, J. & Kreis, W. (1999). Biochemistry of ter-
Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for pinoids. In M. Wink, Biochemistry of plant secondary
Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: metabolism. London, England: Sheffield Academic Press.
University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.
Van Soest, P. J. (1982). Nutritional Ecology Of The Rumi-
Raven, P.H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992). Biology of nant: Ruminant Metabolism, Nutritional Strategies, The
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And Plant Fibers. Corvallis, OR: O & B Books.
SECTION 3: ECOLOGY OF NATIVE PLANTS
17. Survival Quest: A Pollination Game SECTION 4: THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE
US Forest Service. (2010, October). Celebrating Wild- UGLY: NATIVE, NON-NATIVE, AND INVASIVE
flowers: Pollinator Syndromes. Retrieved from http:// PLANTS
www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/syndromes.shtml.
21. Weed Explosion
Oregon Orchid Society. (n.d.). Orchid Conservation. ODA Plant Division, Noxious Weed Control. (2010). Bull
Retrieved from http://www.oregonorchidsociety.org/ thistle. Retrieved from http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/
conservation. PLANT/WEEDS/profile_bullthistle.shtml.
18. What’s Goin’ Down Underground Oregon Department of Agriculture Noxious Weed
Singer, M.J. & Munns, D.N. (1999). Soils: An Introduction Control Program. (2010). Noxious Weed Control Policy
(4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. and Classification System. Retrieved from http://www.or-
egon.gov/ODA/shared/Documents/Publications/Weeds/
Rothrock, P.E. & Squiers, E.R. (2003). Early Succession in a
NoxiousWeedPolicyClassification.pdf.
Tallgrass Prairie Restoration and the Effects of Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, and Micronutrient Enrichments. Proceed- Zouhar, K. (2002). Cirsium vulgare. In Fire Effects Informa-
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Campbell, N.A., Reece J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain. M.L.,
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Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V. & Jackson, R.B. (2008).
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Cummings. Sheley, R., Petroff, J. & Borman, M. (1999). Introduction to
Biology and Management of Noxious Rangeland Weeds.
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Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (2004,
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Elzinga, C.L., Salzer, D.W. & Willoughby, J.W. Measuring
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Medicinal plants. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2008 Environment.
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Waksmundzka-Hajnos, M., Sherma, J. & Kowalska, T. 29. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live
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Reid, W.V., Laird, S.A., Meyer, C.A., Gamez, R., Sittenfeld, Alonso, A., Dallmeier, F., Granek, D. & Raven, P. (2007).
A. Janzen, D.H., Gollin, M.A. & Juma, C. (1993, May). Biodiversity: Connecting with the Tapestry of Life (2nd
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California Academy of Sciences. (2005). Hotspot: Cali-
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Clewell, A., Rieger, J. & Munro, J. (2000). Guidelines
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Leopold, A. (1949). A Sand County Almanac. New York: national Primer on Ecological Restoration. Society for
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 Glossary
Abiotic ���������������������� the non-living elements of an ecosys- to a new location with the intent of
tem. Example: rocks, water permanent establishment. Most com-
Accessory fruit �������� a succulent fruit developing from monly used in response to habitat
the receptacle instead of the pistil. loss and climate change.
A strawberry is an example, with the Axil ������������������������������ the angle point between the stem
ripened ovaries’ small achene on the and the leaf growing from it.
fruit surface. Azimuth ��������������������� a description of a location as it relates
Achene ���������������������� a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with a to North in degrees, minutes, and
single, small seed that attaches to the seconds.
ovary wall at only one point, as in the Basal ���������������������������� leaves growing from the base of the
fruit of a sunflower. plant stem.
Adaptation ���������������� a process over multiple generation in Berry �������������������������� a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with
which a species changes to better fit many seeds, like a tomato or blue-
the habitat. Example: Natural selec- berry.
tion would favor the deeper-rooted Biennial ���������������������� a plant that takes two years to
plants during climate shifts that cause complete its life cycle; usually form-
drought conditions. ing a rosette of leaves the first year,
Adventitious root ���� a root structure developing in an un- and producing flowers and fruit the
usual location, such as growing from a second year.
stem. Binomial
Aggregate fruit �������� a cluster of small fleshy fruit, as in the nomenclature ���������� a two-part unique scientific name
cluster of drupelets that make up a consisting of a genus and specific
raspberry. Arising from several pistils epithet. Example: Camassia quamash.
in a single flower, each producing a Biochemical �������������� a chemical process in living organisms.
single drupe that are connected to Biodiversity �������������� the variation of all life forms within an
form the aggregate. ecosystem; often used to measure the
Allelopathy ���������������� the process whereby one plant spe- health of a given ecosystem.
cies produces biochemicals to inhibit Biome �������������������������� the world’s major ecological commu-
the growth of other plant species. nities, defined by the predominant
Alternate �������������������� a leaf pattern where one leaf grows flora and climate, and covering large
from each node on the stem, alter- geographic areas. Examples: desert,
nating sides of the stem. forest, grassland, tundra.
Analgesic ������������������ a medicinal pain reliever. Biotic �������������������������� the living elements that make up an
Angiosperm �������������� a flowering plant that produces seeds ecosystem.
in a fruit. Botany ������������������������ the scientific study of plants.
Annual ������������������������ a plant that completes its entire life Bract ���������������������������� a small, leaf-like part at the base of a
cycle in the same year; germinate, flower or along the flowering stem
flower, set seed and die. Bud ������������������������������ undeveloped stem or flower; covered
Anther ������������������������ the enlarged, pollen-bearing part of with scales.
the stamen; located at the tip of the Bulb ���������������������������� a short, vertical, thickened underground
filament. stem such as an onion; NOT a root.
Antibacterial ������������ a substance that inhibits or destroys Burden basket ���������� a woven basket, usually conical-
bacteria. shaped with pointed or flattened
Antioxidant �������������� a substance that slows oxidation. In bottom, made in an assortment of
the human body it counteracts the sizes and weaves to accommodate
negative effects of oxidation on body the load to be carried.
tissues. Calyx �������������������������� the outermost whorl of flower parts,
Assisted migration �� deliberately moving members of a the collective name for the sepals.
species from their present habitat
G-258
 Glossary
Candidate species ���� plant and animal species that are Competition ������������ an interaction between organisms or
proposed for addition to the Federal species for a limited supply of one or
Endangered Species Act (ESA). more resources (such as food, water,
Capsule ���������������������� a dry, dehiscent fruit with more than and territory).
one carpel. Composite flower ���� the clustering of numerous small flow-
Carbon sink �������������� places of carbon accumulation, such ers together on a single flower base
as in large forests (organic com- (receptacle).
pounds) or ocean sediments (calcium Compound ���������������� a leaf divided into two or more sepa-
carbonate); carbon is thus removed rate leaflets.
from the carbon cycle for moderately Conservation
long to very long periods of time.1 biology ���������������������� the scientific study of nature and bio-
Carpel ������������������������ one section of an ovary.2 diversity, with the focus on protecting
Caryopsis ������������������ a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with a species, their habitats, and ecosys-
single seed that is firmly attached to tems through stewardship of entire
the ovary wall on all sides and found biological communities.
in grasses; a grain. Cordage �������������������� several strands of fiber twisted to-
Circumscissile gether to make string or rope.
Capsule ������������������������ a capsule which separates into hori- Cordate ���������������������� heart-shaped.
zontal top and bottom sections. Corm �������������������������� a short, enlarged, vertical under-
Classification ������������ In biological science, a method to ground stem covered with papery
group and categorize organisms. leaves.
Clearcut �������������������� a method of harvesting timber in which Corolla ������������������������ all the petals of a flower.
all the trees are removed and then the Cotyledon ���������������� the first leaf of a plant embryo; some-
entire plot is replanted. times called a seed leaf.
Climate ���������������������� the long term predictable weather; Crustose �������������������� a crust-like growth form that is closely
the average weather conditions of a attached to the substrate, like paint,
particular place over a long period generally adhering to the lower sur-
of time. Climate is what allows you to face.3
predict what the weather conditions Cultural landscape ���� a landscape created by people and
will be next year. their culture; a product of nature and
Climax community ���� the final stage of succession, in which of human interaction with nature,
there is a relatively stable plant com- that the associated people define as
munity with many complex interactions heritage resources.4
between organisms. Culture ���������������������� a system of beliefs, values, and
Coevolution �������������� the process in which species exert assumptions about life that guide
selective pressure on each other and behavior and are shared by a group
gradually evolve new features or be- of people. It includes customs, lan-
haviors as a result of those pressures.1 guage, and material artifacts. These
Coiling ������������������������ a basket-making technique in which are transmitted from generation
coils of materials are stitched togeth- to generation, rarely with explicit
er in a spiraling pattern; designs are instructions.5
made by using different color stitch- Cuticle ������������������������ a waxy layer found on leaves or stems.
ing material. Day-length ���������������� duration of the period from sunrise
Common name �������� a name by which a species is known to sunset.6
to the general public, rather than its Dehiscent ������������������ a type of fruit that opens or releases
scientific or taxonomic name; can vary seed when mature.
by region or country. Delisting �������������������� the process of removing an animal
Community �������������� all the organisms within a particular habi- or plant species from the Federal
tat, interacting in a complex food web.
G-259
 Glossary
Endangered Species Act (ESA).7 of extinction within the foreseeable
Dichotomous ���������� a splitting of a whole into exactly two future throughout all or a significant
non-overlapping parts; from “dichot- portion of its range (see also ESA).7
omy”. Endangered Species
Dichotomous key ������ a tool to identify objects (such as Act (ESA) �������������������� The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is
plants); a succession of paired choices federal legislation, intended to provide
that progressively lead to a final iden- a means to conserve the ecosystems
tification. upon which endangered and threat-
Dicot �������������������������� a plant that sprouts two seed leaves ened species depend, and to provide
or cotyledons; “di” meaning two, and programs for the conservation of those
“cot” referring to cotyledon. species, thus preventing extinction of
Disturbance �������������� a temporary pronounced change in plants and animals. The law is adminis-
an ecosystem. This can be a natural tered by the Department of Interior’s
disturbance such as fire or flood, or Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and
a human-caused disturbance such as the Commerce Department’s National
clearcutting. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
Dominant species ���� the most numerous and vigorous tion (NOAA) Fisheries, depending on
species. Ecological communities the species protected. 7
are described and defined by their Endemic �������������������� found only in a specific geographic
dominant species. area.
Dormancy ������������������ a temporary non-growing period in Endocarp ������������������ the innermost layer of a fruit
the life cycle of a plant or seed. Endomycorrhizae ���� mycorrhizal fungi that grow within the
Drupe ������������������������ a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with root cells and are commonly associ-
a single seed with a stony covering, ated with grasses, row crops, veg-
such as a peach or cherry. etables, and shrubs.9
Ecoregion ������������������ denote areas within which ecosys- Endosperm ���������������� the food tissue contained with the
tems (and the type, quality, and embryo within the seed.
quantity of environmental resources) Entire �������������������������� a margin of a leaf that is not toothed,
are generally similar. Ecoregions clas- notched or divided.
sify patterns and the composition of Equinox ���������������������� two times during the year (spring and
biotic and abiotic phenomena using fall) when the sun crosses the plane of
geology, physiography, vegetation, the Earth’s equator and day and night
climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and are of equal length.10
hydrology. Examples: Willamette Val- Eradication ���������������� elimination, complete destruction.10
ley; Northern Basin and Range.8 Example: The widespread eradication
Ecosystem ������������������ an interacting system of biotic and of a species can lead to extinction.
abiotic elements. Ethnobotany ������������ the study of the relationship between
Ecosystem services ���� the life-sustaining services provided people and the plants in their envi-
by healthy diverse ecosystems. ronment.
Examples: flood control; water and Exocarp �������������������� the outermost layer of a fruit
air purification; pollination; nutrient Exotic �������������������������� introduced, not native
cycling. Extinct ������������������������ a species that no longer exists (see
Ectomycorrhizae �������� mycorrhizal fungi that grow on the also ESA)
surface layers of the roots and are Extirpated ����������������� a species that no longer survives in
commonly associated with trees 9 regions that were once part of its
Embryo ���������������������� the un-sprouted young plant con- range, but that still exists elsewhere in
tained within the seed. the wild or in captivity (see also ESA)
Endangered Famine food �������������� a readily available food source
species ������������������������ an animal or plant species in danger strongly associated with hardship
G-260
 Glossary
Fauna �������������������������� the animal life of a given area or severity of wildfires.
region Funiculus �������������������� the stem-like stalk of a seed, connect-
Fiber cell �������������������� a plant cell with a thickened wall that ing ovule to the placenta.
gives structure Generalist species ���� an organism able to thrive in a wide
Fiber plant ���������������� a plant used or cultivated for its variety of environmental conditions
fibers; fibers used to make or manu- and with varied resources.
facture products Genus/
Fibrous root �������������� a root system where the roots are all genera (plural) ���������� a group of species with similar char-
approximately the same thickness; a acteristics or relationship; within the
system of small, branching roots taxonomic classification system fol-
Fibrous ���������������������� resembling fibers lowing “family.” It forms the first word
Field journal �������������� a place to record one’s observations, of a scientific name; always Capital-
interpretations, and data while working ized and italicized.
in or enjoying the outdoors, used by Germination �������������� the process whereby seeds or spores
scientists and naturalists sprout and begin to grow.10
filament ���������������������� a thread-like stalk that supports the Greenhouse gas ������ gases that trap heat in the atmo-
anther sphere. Some occur naturally and are
Flora ���������������������������� the plant life of a given area or region emitted in natural processes; others
Flower ������������������������ The reproductive structure of a flow- are generated by human activity.12
ering plant in which seed develop- Gymnosperm ������������ a plant that produces seeds in a cone-
ment takes place; often colored and like structure, instead of contained in
showy. the ovary of a fruit.
Foliose ������������������������ a lichen growth form with lobes, Habitat ���������������������� an area that provides a plant or
loosely or tightly attached to the animal with a suitable combination
substrate; leaf-like 3 of nutrients, water, shelter, and living
Follicle ������������������������ a dry, dehiscent fruit with a single space.
carpel opening on a single side Harden off ���������������� a process in which plants grown in a
Forest thinning �������� a forest management practice of re- greenhouse are slowly exposed to
moving trees to allow more space be- natural conditions (temperatures,
tween trees, to maximize growth, and/ sunlight, water) before being planted
or to protect from fire and diseases outdoors.
Frankia bacteria ������ a bacteria the converts atmospheric Herbaceous �������������� a plant with no woody stems; leaves
nitrogen gas into ammonia in a and stems may die down to soil level
process known as nitrogen fixation. at the end of the growing season or
Frankia bacteria live in root nodules may persist year round. Can be an-
of some woody plants.11 nual, biennial, or perennial.
Frequency ���������������� the number of occurrences within a Herbalist �������������������� someone that uses herbs for healing
given time period.10 and medicinal purposes.
Fruit ���������������������������� ripened flower part that contains the Herbarium/
seeds. herbaria (plural) ������ a collection or library of preserved
Fruticose �������������������� a three-dimensional growth form of a plant specimens. Specimens are dried
lichen, not differentiated into upper and mounted or preserved in alcohol
and lower surfaces, and including for studying taxonomy or geographic
pendulous and stringy, upright, or distribution; they act as a historical
bushy forms.3 record of change over time.
Fuels reduction �������� using management tools such as thin- Herbivory ������������������ the consumption of plants by animals,
ning, brush removal, and prescribed including insects.
burns to reduce the amount of Hesperidium ������������ a fleshy fruit with a tough outer skin
surface fuels, to prevent or lessen the
G-261
 Glossary
or rind. Examples: oranges, lemons. Legume ���������������������� a simple, dry, dehiscent fruit that
Hip ������������������������������ a berry-like fruit containing many opens along both long edges, as in the
achenes. Example: rose hip. fruit of a member of the pea family.
Hotspot ���������������������� In reference to biodiversity, hotspot Lignin �������������������������� a natural polymer found in plant cells
refers to a region that must meet two that binds cellulose fibers to harden
strict criteria: it must contain at least and strengthen cell walls of plants.10
1,500 species of vascular plants (>0.5 Lobed ������������������������ with rounded segments on the mar-
% of the world’s total) as endem- gin, such as an Oregon white oak leaf.
ics, and it has to have lost at least 70 Locule ������������������������ the cavity in the ovary that contains
percent of its original habitat. Twenty the seed or the anther that contains
five biodiversity hotspots have been pollen.
identified worldwide.13 Loculicidal
Hyphae ���������������������� microscopic fungi cells that usually capsule ���������������������� a dehiscent fruit that disperses seed
grow as long threads or strands.9 through the locule cavity.
Imperfect flower ������ a single-sex flower; containing pistils Macro ������������������������ very large in scale, scope, or capability.10
or stamens but not both. Margin ������������������������ used to describe the edge of a leaf.
Indehiscent ���������������� A fruit that does not open upon Mesocarp ������������������ the middle layer of a fruit.
maturity. Micro-abiotic ������������ a small-scale look at an ecosystem’s
Inflorescence ������������ a cluster of flowers. abiotic elements. Example: Small-scale
Internode ������������������ the part of the stem between leaf topography (such as cliff, boulder) can
nodes. affect soils, wind, moisture and other
Introduced ���������������� a species that is brought in to an ecosys- factors that influence plant growth or
tem by humans (whether accidentally or plant selection in a given spot.
on purpose) and becomes established Microclimate ������������ small, local atmospheric zones in
there. If the presence of this species which the climate differs from the
causes negative effects in its new loca- surrounding area. Example: a pro-
tion, it is considered “invasive.” tected place that remains warmer
Invasive ���������������������� a species, typically non-native, that than the surrounding area.
causes harm to the environment, Microscopic �������������� so small as to be invisible without a
economy, or human health. microscope.
Lanceolate ���������������� a lance- (or sword-) shaped leaf, much Mitigation ������������������ steps taken to avoid or minimize
longer than wide, with the widest negative environmental impacts.
part of the leaf towards the base or Mitigation can include taking protec-
bottom. tive steps, repairing, restoring, or
Landscape ���������������� the visible expanse of an area of land, compensating by replacing.15
encompassing physical elements Monocot �������������������� a plant that sprouts one seed leaf or
(landforms, water bodies), biotic cotyledon; “mono” meaning one, and
elements (dominant flora and fauna), “cot” referring to cotyledon.
and human elements (buildings, Mulch �������������������������� a protective layer put over soil to
roads, farms).14 inhibit evaporation or weed growth,
Leaf margin �������������� the edge of a leaf. to control soil temperature, to enrich
Leaf ������������������������������ flattened, above-ground piece of the soil, or to prevent the dispersal of
a plant attached to a stem, usually pathogens.
green during the growing season; Multiple fruit ������������ a fruit formed from several separate
uses sunlight to make food for the flowers on a single axis, as in a pine-
plant (photosynthesis). apple.
Leaflet ������������������������ a division of a compound leaf that is Mutualism ������������������ a symbiotic relationship between
similar to a leaf but is attached to a two different species in which each
leaf vein instead of the stem. gains benefits from the other; they
G-262
 Glossary
are interdependent.10 Observation ������������ the act of noticing or paying attention,
Mycelium ������������������ large mass of fungi hyphae.9 using one’s senses.10 In science, a basic
Mycorrhizal fungi ���� a type of fungi that colonizes plant method of collecting data or of devel-
roots. They form a mutualistic relation- oping an understanding of a system.
ship in which plants supply carbon for Open weave ������������ a basket-weaving technique which
the fungi and fungi bring soil nutrients leaves openings between the weav-
(phosphorus, nitrogen, micronutrients, ing; allows water to drain, or used for
and perhaps water) to the plant.9 carrying large items such as firewood.
Native ������������������������ a plant that is naturally found in an Opposite ������������������ a leaf pattern where two leaves grow
area, as opposed to a plant that across from each other at the same
people introduce into an area; see node on the stem.
“introduced”. Organism ������������������ an individual living thing that can
Naturalized �������������� introduced species, now established react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, and
in a natural landscape and integrated maintain homeostasis. Can be a virus,
into the ecosystem. bacterium, fungus, plant, or animal.15
Natural landscape �� a landscape unaffected by humans. Ovary ������������������������ the enlarged base of the pistil that
Natural selection ���� a process of evolution that acts on contains the developing seed.
variation within a population. Organ- Ovate �������������������������� oval or egg-shaped, widest at the base.
isms with traits favored within a given Overlay ���������������������� a technique used to add color de-
set of environmental circumstances signs on twined baskets. The colored
have a selective advantage over indi- weaving fiber is woven on the inside
viduals with different traits; favored of the basket and brought to the
traits are only advantageous within a front with a half twist to replace
particular situation and may not aid the standard weaving fibers as the
survival in other circumstances.16 design calls for. The colored fiber will
Nectar ������������������������ a sweet liquid produced in flowers to replace the standard fiber and the
attract pollinators. Pollinators benefit weaving will slant in the same direc-
from the nutrient source and the plant tion as the rest of the twining.
benefits from their pollination services. Ovule �������������������������� the unfertilized seed.
Nitrogen fixing �������� a process in which bacteria convert Palmate ���������������������� a shape and vein pattern that is di-
atmospheric nitrogen gas, which is vided from a central point into lobes;
unavailable for plant use, into am- similar to a hand with spread fingers.
monia, that can then be taken up by Panicle ������������������������ a flower arrangement with a central
plants. This mutualistic interaction stalk and branched side stalks, with
takes place underground in the roots multiple flowers that mature from the
of plants, in the legume family and in base to the tip.
some woody plants. Parasite ���������������������� an organism that grows, feeds and is
Node �������������������������� swelling or knob where new growth sheltered on or in a different organ-
originates. ism while contributing nothing to the
Non-native ���������������� a plant introduced, purposely or ac- survival of its host.18
cidently, by human activity. Parasitism ������������������ a relationship between two differ-
Nonvascular �������������� plants lacking a system of cells modi- ent types of organisms in which one
fied to transport water and nutrients. benefits (the parasite) at the expense
Noxious ���������������������� plant classified as injurious to public of the other (host).
health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, Parthenocarpy �������� fruit developed without fertilization
or any public or private property.17 or seed development.
Nut ������������������������������ indehiscent fruit; hard and dry, usu- Pedicel ������������������������ the stalk of a single flower attached in
ally with one seed. an inflorescence or a grass.
Nutlet ������������������������ a small nut. Peduncle �������������������� the stalk of a single flower.
G-263
 Glossary
Pepo ���������������������������� an indehiscent fruit; fleshy with many square) used as a representative
seeds and a tough outer rind/skin or sample within a larger study site.
exocarp. Examples: squash, cucum- Pollination ������������������ the process of transfering pollen
ber. between anther and stamen.
Percent cover ������������ percent of measured area (for exam- Pome �������������������������� a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with
ple: ground, sky) covered by a target a leathery or papery core, such as an
species; a method of collecting data apple.
when monitoring plant populations Poricidal capsule ������ a dehiscent fruit that opens at pores.
Perennial �������������������� a plant that lives three or more years. Precipitation ������������ water falling from clouds in any form,
Perfect flower ���������� a flower that has both male (stamen) such as rain, snow, or sleet.
and female (pistil) reproductive Predation ������������������ a symbiotic relationship between two
parts. different species in which one, the
Pericarp ���������������������� the outer wall of a fruit. predator, feeds on the other, the prey.
Perspective �������������� the appearance of things relative to Prescribed burn ������ a management tool used in forestry
one another as determined by their and ecosystem restoration to clear
distance from the viewer.10 land of excess organic ground material,
Petal ���������������������������� the whorl of modified flower leaves; get rid of unwanted vegetation, pre-
usually the brightly-colored, showy pare a site for planting, and/or encour-
part of the flower. age the growth of favorable species.
Petiole ������������������������ a stalk that attaches the leaf to the stem. Puadrat ���������������������� a square frame used for sampling.
Phenology ���������������� the study of the timing of life cycle Raceme ���������������������� a flower arrangement with a central
events in plants and animals in relation stalk and single, individually-stalked
to changes in season and climate.19 flowers that branch from the central
Phenotype ���������������� the observable traits or characteris- stalk and generally mature from the
tics of an organism. base to the tip.
Pheromones �������������� a chemical substance secreted ex- Rare ���������������������������� infrequent or uncommon within a
ternally by some animals (especially sampling site; or scarce within a spe-
insects) that influences the physiology cies’ habitat range.
or behavior of other animals of the Receptacle ���������������� structure at the end of the flower
same species.10 stalk where the flower parts attach.
Photoperiod ������������ the duration of daily exposure to Reclamation �������������� working to bring disturbed land back
light, either naturally or artificially.20 to its natural state; reclamation of
Phytochemical ���������� a plant-derived chemical. mining sites.
Phytotoxin ���������������� a chemical produced by a plant that is Rehabilitation ���������� to make habitable or useful again; to
toxic to other plants or animals. return to original condition.
Pinnate ���������������������� leaves or veins emerging from a cen- Reintroduction �������� to return members of a species to
tral stalk or vein. their historical range. This strategy is
Pistil ���������������������������� the female reproductive part of the sometimes used when a species has
flower, including the stigma, style, become locally extinct or if its popu-
and ovary. lation is threatened.22
Plant community ������ all the different plant populations ex- Restoration ���������������� the act, process, or result of returning
isting within a certain area or habitat. a degraded or former habitat to a
Plant diversity ���������� the number of plant species per unit healthy, self-sustaining condition that
of area.21 resembles as closely as possible its
Plant population ������ a group of individuals, usually of the pre-disturbed state.23
same species, within a specific area Restoration
and at a given time. ecology ���������������������� the application of the principles of ecol-
Plot ������������������������������ a small area (frequently a meter ogy to the restoration of derelict, de-
graded and fragmented ecosystems.24
G-264
 Glossary
Rhizobia bacteria ���� the nitrogen-fixing organism associ- Silique ������������������������ a dehiscent fruit; dry, longer than
ated with root nodules on legumes.15 wide, and separating into two halves.
Rhizoid ���������������������� a root-hair-like structure found on Simple leaf ���������������� an undivided leaf that is not sepa-
moss, liverworts, and some vascular rated into individual leaflets, but may
plants.25 still be lobed.
Rhizome �������������������� an underground stem that travels Simple fruit �������������� a fruit developing from a single ovary.
between plants; differs from a root Solitary flower ���������� occurring singly and not in a cluster.
by the presence of nodes. Solitary ���������������������� single.
Rhizosphere �������������� the microhabitat immediately sur- Solstice ���������������������� one of the two times of the year
rounding plant roots.15 (summer/winter) when the sun is at its
Riparian ���������������������� the transitional ecosystem between greatest distance from the equator.10
land and water; the land directly in- Specialist species ���� an organism that can only thrive in a
fluenced by water along rivers, lakes, limited or narrow range of environ-
and streams.15 mental conditions and resources.
Root ���������������������������� part of a plant without leaves; usually Species ���������������������� a group of organisms that share a
found underground. Roots anchor unique set of common characteristics
the plant and take up nutrients (food) and that (usually) can reproduce among
and water. themselves but not with other such
Samara ������������������������ a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with groups.15 A species is the basic unit in
wings, as in the fruit of a maple. taxonomic classification, under genus.
Saprophyte �������������� an organism that lives on dead or Species of
decaying organic matter. concern ���������������������� an informal term referring to a spe-
Scarification �������������� process of cutting or softening of the cies that might be in need of conser-
seed coat to hasten germination.25 vation action. Such species receive no
Schizocarp ���������������� an indehiscent fruit; dry; at maturity, legal protection and use of the term
splits into one-seed segments. does not necessarily imply that a spe-
Scientific name �������� the two-part Latin name assigned to cies will eventually be proposed for
a species under the system of bino- listing under the Endangered Species
mial nomenclature established in the Act (ESA).7
1700s by Swedish botanist Carolus Spike �������������������������� a flower arrangement with an un-
Linnaeus.26 branched, central stalk and single,
Seasonal round �������� the annual pattern followed in the un-stalked flowers that mature from
production or collection of food.27 the base to the tip.
Seed coat ������������������ the outer covering on a seed. Spore �������������������������� a walled reproductive cell body
Seed dispersal ���������� methods by which plants spread their capable of giving rise to a new indi-
seeds. Examples: animal ingestion, vidual, either directly or indirectly
wind, water.28 Stamen ���������������������� the male reproductive part of the
Seed ���������������������������� a mature or ripened ovule. flower, including the anther and fila-
Seed-bank ���������������� a place where seeds are stored for ment.
long term preservation; seeds that Staple food �������������� a food making up the dominant part
are present in or on the soil. of the diet, that supplies a major part
Seed leaf �������������������� the embryo’s first leaf; cotyledon. of a person’s nutritional needs for
Sepal �������������������������� the green, leaf-like parts of a flower that survival; readily available.
usually sit directly below the petals. Stem ���������������������������� part of the plant that supports the
Septa �������������������������� the tissue separating the locules. leaves and buds; usually grows above
Septicidal capsule �� a fruit that disperses seed through ground.
the septa. Stewardship �������������� the responsibility to care for our
Serrate ������������������������ a leaf margin with teeth like a saw. natural resources sustainably, that
Sessile ������������������������ without a stalk, stem, or petiole. is, in a way that preserves them for
G-265
 Glossary
future generations. Topography �������������� detailed study of the surface features
Stigma ������������������������ the portion of the pistil that is recep- of a region 10
tive to pollen. Traditional
Stomata ���������������������� the pores or openings which allow knowledge ���������������� knowledge gained through long-
the exchange of gases. standing traditions and practices of
Storyboard ���������������� a graphic organizer; a series of panels regional indigenous communities.
of rough sketches outlining a se- Transect �������������������� a line on the ground along which
quence of actions. Borrowed from sample plots or points are estab-
the film-making industry. lished for collecting data.30
Stratification ������������ the process of exposing seeds to low Transplant ���������������� in plants, a technique of moving a
temperatures to mimic nature and plant from one location to another,
improve germination rates. as in planting a potted plant in the
Structure �������������������� Structure is a fundamental and some- ground.
times intangible notion covering the Tuber �������������������������� a fleshy, thickened, underground
recognition, observation, nature, and stem. A plant structure used to store
stability of patterns and relationships nutrients for plant re-growth dur-
of entities.14 ing the next growing season. Also a
Style ���������������������������� narrow part of the pistil that connects means of asexual reproduction.
the stigma to the ovary. Tumpline ������������������ a woven or leather strap, worn across
Substrate ������������������ a surface on which an organism grows the forehead or shoulders, attached
or is attached.10 to a burden basket for hands-free
Succession ���������������� in ecology, the gradual and orderly pro- carrying.
cess of change in an ecosystem brought Twining ���������������������� a basketry weaving technique using
about by the progressive replacement two or more weft strands passed
of one community by another until a around the warp structure and
stable climax is established.10 twisted. By using different color, size,
Symbiosis ������������������ a long-standing relationship between or texture weft strands, this tech-
two different species. Usually under- nique lends itself to intricate decora-
stood to mean mutualism (beneficial tive design.
to both); but can also take the form Ubiquitous ���������������� being present everywhere at once 10
of commensalism (beneficial to one, Umbel ������������������������ a flat-top or convex umbrella-like
neutral to the other) or parasitism inflorescence with multiple small
(beneficial to one, costly or damaging flowers; individual flower stalks arise
to the other).15 from approximately the same point.
Taproot ���������������������� a large central root from which small- Urban growth
er roots branch off, such as a carrot. boundary (UGB) ������ a management tool used to contain
Taxonomy ������������������ in biology, the study of the general urban areas and limit their expansion.
principles of scientific classification; a It divides land that is urban—to be
classification of organisms into groups used for housing, shops, factories—
based on similarities of structure, from land that is non-urban and to
origin, or other characteristics.10 be used for purposes such as conser-
Tepal �������������������������� common term for sepals and petals vation, agriculture, mineral extrac-
when both look very much alike.29 tion, airports and the like. An urban
Threatened growth boundary encourages urban
species ������������������������ an animal or plant species likely to consolidation and protects valued
become endangered within the non-urban areas from urban devel-
foreseeable future throughout all or opment.31
a significant portion of its range (see Vascular tissue ���������� tissue that conducts water and nutri-
also ESA).7 ents through the plant body in higher
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 Glossary
plants.10 Endnotes
Vein ���������������������������� transports water, sugars, and miner-
als within the leaf blade; can be seen 1. Environmental Science: A Global Concern, online
radiating throughout the leaf. glossary, McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center:
Warp �������������������������� in reference to basketry, the vertical highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070294267/student_
elements that the weft fibers weave view0/glossary_a-d.html
around; commonly the elements that 2. Horticulture and Crop Science, online glossary of plant
give a basket structure. parts, Ohio State University:
Weather �������������������� the atmospheric conditions at a given hcs.osu.edu/
time, as in rain or sunshine.
3. Epiphytes and Forest Management, online glossary,
Weed �������������������������� any plant out of place, unwanted
Oregon State University:
where it is growing, difficult to get rid
people.oregonstate.edu/~mccuneb/glossary.htm
of, with an ability to spread.32
Weft ���������������������������� the horizontal weaving fibers of a 4. Sonoran Desert Educational Center, online kids’ glossary:
basket or mat. www.pima.gov/cmo/sdcp/kids/gloss.html
Whorled �������������������� a leaf arrangement in which three or 5. Building Bridges: A Peace Corps Classroom Guide to
more leaves are growing from the Cross-Cultural Understanding: www.peacecorps.gov/
same node on the stem. wws/publications/bridges/pdf/BuildingBridges.pdf
Wildfire ���������������������� a rapidly spreading fire, often occur-
ring in wildland areas, that is out of 6. National Weather Service Glossary:
control.24 www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/index.php
Wildflower ���������������� wild or uncultivated flowering plant.10 7. US Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species Program,
Woody ���������������������� made of, containing, or resembling online glossary:
wood; made hard like wood as the www.fws.gov/endangered/about/glossary.html
result of the deposition of lignin in 8. Ecoregions, Western Ecology Division, Environmental
the cell walls. Examples: woody plants; Protection Agency:
perennial herbs with woody stems.10 www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm
9. Tugel, Arlene, Ann Lewandowski, Deb Happe-vonArb,
eds. 2000. Soil Biology Primer. Rev. ed. Ankeny, Iowa:
Soil and Water Conservation Society. Available online:
soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/biology.html
10. WordNet, Princeton University: wordnet.princeton.edu/
11. Frankia and Actinorhizal Plants:
web2.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/benson/Frankia/
FrankiaHome.htm
12. Climate Change—Greenhouse Gas Emissions, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency:
https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climatechange_.
html
13. Biodiversity Hotspots, Conservation International:
www.biodiversityhotspots.org/
14. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia: en.wikipedia.org
15. Biology-Online.org: www.biology-online.org/dictionary
16. Understanding Evolution, University of California
Museum of Paleontology:
evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_01
G-267
 Glossary
17. Noxious Weed Policy and Classification System 2000, 26. Encyclopedia of Life Learning + Education Group,
Oregon Department of Agriculture Noxious Weed Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University,
Control Program: www.oregon.gov/oda/plant/weeds/ glossary: education.eol.org/glossary
docs/weed_policy.pdf?ga=t 27. Definitions of Anthropological Terms, Oregon State Uni-
18. Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology: versity: oregonstate.edu/instruct/anth370/gloss.html
www.textbookofbacteriology.net/NHPR.html 28. Jean-Michel Cousteau Ocean Adventures, PBS, online
19. Project Budburst: glossary: www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/glossary/
www.budburst.org 29. Key to the Common Spring Wildflowers, glossary,
20. Glossary of Meteorology: Victoria College, Texas: www2.victoriacollege.edu/dept/
http://glossary.ametsoc.org/?s=p&p=25 bio/flower/key/terms/Glossary.htm
21. Celebrating Wildflowers, U.S. Forest Service: www. 30. The Science Behind Algonquin’s Animals online glossary,
fs.fed.us/wildflowers/Rare_Plants/index.html Algonquin Provincial Park: www.sbaa.ca/glossary.asp
22. National Geographic’s Strange Days on Planet Earth, 31. The Victorian Coastal Strategy 2008, online glossary,
glossary: www.pbs.org/strangedays/glossary/R.html Victorian Coastal Council, Melbourne, Australia:
23. Water Habitat Restoration; Air, Water, and Climate www.vcc.vic.gov.au/
Change; Executive Office of Energy and Environmental 32. Alien Invasion: Plants on the Move, curriculum glossary:
Affairs, Mass.gov: http://www.mass.gov/eea/ weedinvasion.org/
24. Wiktionary, the Free Dictionary: en.wiktionary.org/wiki/
25. Raven, PH, RF Evert, and SE Eichhorn. 1992. Biology of
Plants 5th Edition. Worth Publishers.

G-268
 APPENDIX I: Recommended Field Guides
Recommended Botanical Field Guides and Natural History References

* Field Guide.
** Field Guide; organized by plant families and contain dichotomous keys to help in plant
identification. We recommend using these guides when possible.
^ Field Guide; organized by family.
*** Natural history of the botanical community.

GENERAL: TREES OF NORTH AMERICA 2006. *

Brockman, C. Frank et al. Trees of North America: A Nelson, Gil. East Gulf Coastal Plain. A Field Guide to
Field Guide to the Major Native and Introduced Species the Wildflowers of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, includ-
North of Mexico. New York: St. Martin’s, 2001. * ing Southwest Georgia, Northwest Florida, Southern
Alabama, Southern Mississippi, and Parts of South-
Kershner, Bruce et al. National Wildlife Federation Field eastern Louisiana. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2005. *
Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling,
2008. ** Neyland, Ray. Wildflowers of the Coastal Plain: A
Field Guide, Includes the Lower Mississippi River Val-
Sibley, David. The Sibley Guide to Trees. New York: ley, Gulf, and Atlantic Coastal States. Baton Rouge:
Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. * Louisiana State UP, 2009. *^
SOUTHEAST Spira, Timothy P. Wildflowers & Plant Communities
Bryson, Charles T., and Michael S. DeFelice. Weeds of of the Southern Appalachian Mountains & Piedmont:
the South. Athens: University of Georgia, 2009. **^ A Naturalist’s Guide to the Carolinas, Virginia, Ten-
nessee, & Georgia. Chapel Hill: University of North
Hemmerly, Thomas E. Appalachian Wildflowers. Ath- Carolina, 2011. **
ens: University of Georgia, 2000. *
Sorrie, Bruce A. A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the
Kirkman, L. Katherine., Claud L. Brown, and Donald Jo- Sandhills Region: North Carolina, South Carolina,
seph Leopold. Native Trees of the Southeast. Portland, Georgia. Chapel Hill: UNC, 2011. *
OR: Timber, 2007. **
Taylor, Walter Kingsley. Florida Wildflowers: A Com-
Medina, Barbara F., and Victor Medina. Southern prehensive Guide. Gainesville: University of Florida,
Appalachian Wildflowers: A Field Guide to Common 2013. *
Wildflowers of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, in-
cluding Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Blue Vidrine, Malcolm F. The Cajun Prairie: A Natural His-
Ridge Parkway, and the Chattahoochee National Forest. tory. Eunice, LA: M.F. Vidrine, 2010. ***
Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2002. * NORTHEAST
Miller, James H., and Karl V. Miller. Forest Plants of the Clemants, Steven Earl., and Carol Gracie. Wildflowers
Southeast and Their Wildlife Uses. Athens: University of in the Field and Forest: A Field Guide to the North-
Georgia, 2005. * eastern United States. New York: Oxford UP, 2006.
Nelson, Gil. Atlantic Coastal Plain Wildflowers: A Field **
Guide to the Wildflowers of the Coastal Regions of Kricher, John C., and Gordon Morrison. A Field
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Guide to Eastern Forests, North America. Boston:
and Northeastern Florida. Guilford, CT: FalconGuide, Houghton Mifflin, 1988. *
A-269
 APPENDIX I: Recommended Field Guides
Recommended Botanical Field Guides and Natural History References

* Field Guide.
** Field Guide; organized by plant families and contain dichotomous keys to help in plant
identification. We recommend using these guides when possible.
^ Field Guide; organized by family.
*** Natural history of the botanical community.

Leopold, Donald Joseph. Native Plants of the North- Yatskievych, Kay. Field Guide to Indiana Wildflowers.
east: A Guide for Gardening & Conservation. Portland, Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2000. *
OR: Timber, 2005. ***
GREAT PLAINS
Peterson, Roger Tory, and Margaret McKenny. A Field
Farrar, Jon. Field Guide to Wildflowers of Nebraska and
Guide to Wildflowers: Northeastern and North-central
the Great Plains. Lincoln, Neb.: Nebraskaland Maga-
North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. *
zine, 1990. *
GREAT LAKES
Freeman, Craig Carl., and Eileen K. Schofield. Road-
Black, Merel R., Emmet J. Judziewicz, and Merel R. side Wildflowers of the Southern Great Plains. Law-
Black. Wildflowers of Wisconsin and the Great Lakes rence, Kan.: University of Kansas, 1991. *
Region: A Comprehensive Field Guide. Madison, WI:
Kirkpatrick, Zoe Merriman. Wildflowers of the West-
University of Wisconsin, 2009. *
ern Plains: A Field Guide. Austin: University of Texas,
Chadde, Steve. A Great Lakes Wetland Flora. Pocket 1992. *^
Flora Press. 2002. **^
Kirt, Russell R., Henrietta H. Tweedie, and Roberta L.
GREAT LAKES (continued) Simonds. Prairie Plants of the Midwest: Identification
and Ecology. Champaign, IL: Stipes Pub., 1995. *
Oslund, Clayton, and Michele Oslund. What’s Doin’
the Bloomin’?: Pictorial Field Guide to Wildflowers, by Ladd, Douglas M., and Frank Oberle. Tallgrass Prairie
Season, of the Upper Great Lakes Regions, Eastern Wildflowers: A Field Guide to the Wildflowers, Grasses,
Canada and Northeastern U.S. Duluth, MN: Plant Pics and Woody Vines of the Tallgrass Prairie. Guilford, CT:
LLP, 2002. * Globe Pequot, 2005. *

Peterson, Roger Tory, and Margaret McKenny. A Field Savage, Candace Sherk. Prairie: A Natural History.
Guide to Wildflowers: Northeastern and North-central Vancouver: Greystone, 2011. ***
North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. *
SOUTHWEST
Tekiela, Stan. Wildflowers of Michigan Field Guide.
Blackwell, Laird R. Great Basin Wildflowers: A Field
Cambridge, MN.: Adventure Publications, 2000. *
Guide to Common Wildflowers of the High Deserts
Tekiela, Stan. Wildflowers of Minnesota: Field Guide. of Nevada, Utah, and Oregon. Guilford, CT: Falcon-
Cambridge, MN: Adventure Publications, 1999. * Guide, 2006. *^

Weatherbee, Ellen Elliott. Guide to Great Lakes Coast- Bowers, Janice Emily., and Brian Wignall. Shrubs and
al Plants. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2006. * Trees of the Southwest Deserts. Tucson, AZ: Southwest
Parks and Monuments Association, 1993. *

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 APPENDIX I: Recommended Field Guides
Recommended Botanical Field Guides and Natural History References

* Field Guide.
** Field Guide; organized by plant families and contain dichotomous keys to help in plant
identification. We recommend using these guides when possible.
^ Field Guide; organized by family.
*** Natural history of the botanical community.

Brown, David E. Biotic Communities: Southwestern ford, CT: Falcon, 2003. *

United States and Northwestern Mexico. Salt Lake City:
Stewart, Jon Mark. Mojave Desert Wildflowers: A Field
University of Utah, 1994. *
Guide to High Desert Wildflowers of California, Ne-
Carter, Jack L., Martha A. Carter, and Donna J. Ste- vada, and Arizona. Albuquerque, NM: Jon Stewart
vens. Common Southwestern Native Plants: An Identifi- Photography, 1998. *^
cation Guide. Silver City, NM: Mimbres Pub., 2003. *
Taylor, Ronald J and Kathleen Ort (ed.). Desert Wild-
Fagan, Damian, D. D. Dowden. Canyon Country Wild- flowers of North America. Missoula, MT: Mountain
flowers: A Guide to Common Wildflowers, Shrubs, and Pub., 1998.*^
Trees. Guilford, CT: FalconGuides, 2012. *
Taylor, Ronald J. Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower
Fischer, Pierre C. Seventy Common Cacti of the South- Sanctuary. Missoula, MT: Mountain Pub., 1992. *^
west. Tucson, AZ: Southwest Parks and Monuments
Whitson, Tom D., and L. C. Burrill. Weeds of the West.
Association, 1991. *
Western Society of Weed Science in Cooperation
Mackay, Pam. Mojave Desert Wildflowers: A Field with the Western United States Land Grant Universi-
Guide to Wildflowers, Trees, and Shrubs of the Mojave ties Cooperative Extension Services and the Univer-
Desert, including the Mojave National Preserve, Death sity of Wyoming, 2006.*
Valley National Park, and Joshua Tree National Park.
PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Morrison Book Publishing,LLC: Kearney (Nebraska),
2013. *^ Clark, Lewis. Wildflowers of Field and Slope in the
Pacific Northwest. Harbour Publishing. 2002.*
Mozingo, Hugh Nelson, and Christine Stetter. Shrubs
of the Great Basin: A Natural History. Reno: University Clark, Lewis. Wildflowers of Forest and Woodland in
of Nevada, 1987. *^ the Pacific Northwest. Harbour Publishing. 2003.*
Niehaus, Theodore F. Southwestern and Texas Wild- Clark, Lewis. Wildflowers of the Mountains in the Pa-
flowers. Norwalk, CT: Easton, 1984. * cific Northwest. Harbour Publishing. 2003. *
Quinn, Meg. Wildflowers of the Desert Southwest. Tuc- Clark, Lewis. Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest. Har-
son, AZ: Rio Nuevo Pub., 2000. * bour Publishing. 1998. *
Spellenberg, Richard. Sonoran Desert Wildflowers: A Clark, Lewis. Wildflowers of the Sea Coast in the Pacific
Field Guide to Common Species of the Sonoran Desert, Northwest. Harbour Publishing. 2004. *
including Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, Saguaro
National Park, Organ Pipe Cactus National Monu- Ross, Robert A., Wildflowers of the Western Cascades.
ment, Ironwood Forest National Monument, and the Henrietta L. Chambers and Shirley A. Stevenson.
Sonoran Portion of Joshua Tree National Park. Guil- 1988. Timber Press. *
A-271
Fagan, Damian. Pacific Northwest Wildflowers: A Guide Petrides, George A. Trees of the Rocky Mountains and
to Common Wildflowers of Washington, Oregon, North- Intermountain West. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole,
ern California, Western Idaho, Southeast Alaska and 2005.
British Columbia. Helena, MT: Falcon Pub., 2006. *
Scotter, G. W., Hälle Flygare, and G. W. Scotter. Wild-
Gilkey, Helen M., La Rea Dennis and L.D. Johnston. flowers of the Rocky Mountains. North Vancouver, B.C.:
Handbook of Northwestern Plants. Revised Edition. Or- Whitecap, 2007. *
egon State University Press. 2001. *^
Taylor, Ronald J. Desert Wildflowers of North America.
Horn, Elizabeth L. Coastal Wildflowers of the Pacific Missoula, MT: Mountain Pub., 1998. ^
Northwest: Wildflowers and Flowering Shrubs from
Taylor, Ronald J. Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower
British Columbia to Northern California. Missoula, MT:
Sanctuary. Missoula, MT: Mountain Pub., 1992. ^
Mountain Pub., 1993. *
Watts, Tom. Rocky Mountain Tree Finder: A Pocket
Pojar, Jim, A. MacKinnon, and Paul B. Alaback. Plants of
Manual for Identifying Rocky Mountain Trees. Berkeley,
the Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon, Brit-
CA: Nature Study Guild, 2008. **
ish Columbia & Alaska. Redmond, WA: Lone Pine Pub.,
1994 **^ Wingate, Janet L. Rocky Mountain Flower Finder: A
Guide to Wildflowers Found below Tree Line in the Rocky
Taylor, Ronald J. Northwest Weeds: The Ugly and Beau-
Mountains. Berkeley: Nature Study Guild, 1990. **
tiful Villains of Fields, Gardens, and Roadsides. Missoula,
MT: Mountain Pub., 1990. * HAWAII
Turner, Mark, and Phyllis Gustafson. Wildflowers of the Hall, John B., John P. Hoover, Ken Suzuki, and Robert
Pacific Northwest. Portland, OR: Timber, 2006. * Aldinger. A Hiker’s Guide to Trailside Plants in Hawaii.
Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Pub., 2008. *
INTERMOUNTAIN WEST
Kepler, Angela Kay. Hawaii’s Floral Splendor: A Friendly
Craighead, John J., Frank C. Craighead, and Ray J. Davis.
Color Identification Guide to Native and Introduced
A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain Wildflowers: Northern
Flowers of All the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii:
Arizona and New Mexico to British Columbia. Boston:
Mutual Pub., 1997. *
Houghton Mifflin, 1991. *
Sohmer, S. H., and Robert Gustafson. Plants and Flow-
Kershaw, Linda, A. MacKinnon, and Jim Pojar Plants of
ers of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987. *
the Rocky Mountains. Edmonton: Lone Pine Pub., 1998.
** Walther, Michael. A Guide to Hawai’i’s Coastal Plants.
Honolulu, HI: Mutual Pub., 2004.*
Pesman, M. Walter and Dan Johnson Meet the Natives:
A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain Wildflowers, Trees, and Wood, Paul, and Ron Dahlquist. Flowers and Plants of
Shrubs: Bridging the Gap between Trail and Garden. Hawaii. Waipahu, Hawaii: Island Heritage, 2005. *
Boulder, CO: Johnson, 2011. Print. *

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 APPENDIX II: Ethnobotany Resources
PRINT RESOURCES
Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany. A leading compendium of the plants used by North American native peoples
Portland, Or.: Timber, 1998. for medicine, food, fiber, and dye.
Ford, Richard I. Prehistoric Food Production in North A scientific journal article discussing prehistoric food production among
America. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology, North America’s native peoples.
University of Michigan, 1985. Print.
Sumner, Judith. The Natural History of Medicinal A look at the chemistry of pharmaceutical native plants used by various
Plants. Portland, Or.: Timber, 2008. cultures.
Berzok, Linda Murray. American Indian Food. West- The changing story of Native American food culture including prehistory and
port, CT: Greenwood, 2005.  American history after European arrival. Includes some recipes and informa-
tion on foraging and preparation.
Kavasch, E. Barrie. Native Harvests: American Indian A recipe book and primer on Native American foods and food preparation,
Wild Foods and Recipes. Mineola, NY: Dover Publi- including descriptions of ceremonial and medicinal plants.
cations, 2005.
Waheenee, and Gilbert Livingstone Wilson. Native The result of Wilson’s early 1900s interview with Buffalobird-woman, a North
American Gardening: Buffalobird-Woman's Guide to Dakota Hidatsa woman, on the traditional agricultural methods of her tribe.
Traditional Methods. Mineola, NY: Dover Publica- A fascinating primer on traditional gardening and food production in the
tions, 2005. Print. Great Plains.

Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West. A thorough guide to medicinal plants of the Pacific Northwest.
Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico, 2011.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Mountain A thorough guide to medicinal plants of the mountain west region.
West. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico, 2003.
Tilford, Gregory L. Edible and Medicinal Plants of Ethnobotany of the mountain west region.
the West. Missoula, MT: Mountain Pub., 1997.
Kershaw, Linda. Edible & Medicinal Plants of the Ethnobotany of the mountain west region.
Rockies. Edmonton: Lone Pine Pub., 2000.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Desert and A thorough guide to the medicinal plants of the desert Southwest.
Canyon West: A Guide to Identifying, Preparing, and
Using Traditional Medicinal Plants Found in the Des-
erts and Canyons of the West and Southwest. Santa
Fe, NM: Museum of New Mexico, 1989.
Alfs, Matthew, and Matthew Alfs. Edible & Medicinal Midwestern edible and medicinal plants guide.
Wild Plants of the Midwest. New Brighton, MN: Old
Theology Book House, 2013. 
Peterson, Lee, and Roger Tory Peterson. A Field Eastern and Midwestern edible plants guide.
Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central
North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
Foster, Steven, James A. Duke, and Steven Foster. A Eastern and Midwestern medicinal plants guide.
Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern
and Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mif-
flin, 2000. 

ONLINE RESOURCES
National Museum of the American Indian Collec- http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/home.aspx
tions Database; Smithsonian Institute
Native American Ethnobotany Database; Daniel http://herb.umd.umich.edu/
Moerman; University of Michigan
Library of Congress; Ethnobotany of the Americas http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/tracer-bullets/ethnobotanytb.html

A-273
 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
There are different levels of ecoregional organization, as well as different methods of classifying ecoregions. This curriculum
uses a classification system developed by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) and the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), which uses three different nested scales, or levels, of ecoregion division. This curriculum uses two
different levels of ecoregional divisions: the broadest divisions, level I, which splits the United States into thirteen ecoregions.*
Each of these broad ecoregions can be divided into subsequently smaller and smaller units for more detailed study. To help
students gain an understanding of their local environment, this curriculum also includes study of level III ecoregions.

*Note: The state of Hawaii represents the thirteenth ecoregion, classified by the Nature Conservancy as the Hawaiian High
Islands Ecoregion. Hawaii is not included in the CEC ecoregion classification system.

The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is an international organization whose members are Canada, Mexico and
the United States. The CEC was created under the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) to address
regional environmental concerns, help prevent potential trade and environmental conflicts and promote the effective enforcement of
environmental law.

Level I Ecoregions:
Eastern Temperate Forests
Physical Setting:
This humid ecoregion is mostly low in elevation, with the Appalachian
Mountains running north-south reaching elevations of over 2,000 meters.
The north is glacially influenced. Perennial streams, large watercourses,
lakes, and wetlands are abundant.
The climate changes along the latitudinal gradient from cool, continental to
subtropical. The climate is generally warm, humid and temperate, with hot
summers and mild to cool winters.

Average annual temperatures: 4 °C - 22 °C

Average summer temperatures: 27 °C - 32 °C
Average winter temperatures: –12 °C - 4 °C
Average annual precipitation: 100 cm to 150 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

This ecoregion has a wide diversity of native broadleaf trees, including
many species of oak, maple, beech, hickory, ash and elm. Forests are often
This heavily populated ecoregion covers much of the mixed conifer-deciduous, with a variety of pine species being common.
eastern United States, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Black cherry, yellow poplar, sweet gum, basswood, hackberry, persimmon,
Mexico and from the farm country of Iowa, Oklahoma, and eastern red cedar and flowering dogwood are also common here.
Texas east to the Atlantic Coast. The forests have a dense
canopy of mixed decidious trees and needle-leaf conifers. Characteristic Native Wildlife:
Common mammals include gray squirrel, eastern chipmunk, raccoon,
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I. porcupine, gray fox, bobcat, white-tailed deer and black bear. These forests
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
host an incredibly rich diversity of bird, amphibian, reptile, and fish species.
http://www.cec.org

A-274
 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
Marine West Coast Forests
Physical Setting:
The landscape is dominated by volcanic and glacially influenced
mountains, with some glacially influenced coastal plains. Heavy rainfall has
resulted in leached, nutrient-poor soils throughout much of the forests.
The climate is moderated by the adjacent Pacific Ocean, decreasing
seasonal temperature extremes. The region is heavily influenced by high
annual precipitation.

Average annual temperatures: 5 °C - 9 °C

Average summer temperatures: 10 °C - 16 °C
Average winter temperatures: –1 °C - –3 °C
Average annual precipitation:  150 cm - 300 cm, with extremes of
500 cm along the northern coast.
Characteristic Native Plants:
Coastal rainforests: Western red cedar, western hemlock, Douglas-
fir, Sitka spruce, California redwood. Drier valleys: Garry oak, Pacific
This ecoregion stretches along the Pacific Coast from madrone, Douglas-fir. Sub-alpine: Mountain hemlock, amabalis fir.
Alaska to northern California. The landscape is dominated Alpine: shrubs, forb, mosses and lichens.
by mountains and fringed by coastal plains. These are
Characteristic Native Wildlife:
North America’s temperate rainforests, the wettest and
among the most productive forests in the nation. Black-tailed deer, black and grizzly bear, elk, wolf, otter, raccoon, quail,
marbled murrelets, cormorants, gulls, mures, petrels and puffins, and
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I. northwestern crows.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

Great Plains
Physical Setting:
The topography is relatively flat and open. The northern reaches are
dotted with glacially influenced wetlands. Tablelands, plateaus, and rolling
hills are shaped by erosive winds and water. The Great Plains grasslands
were characterized by deep, fertile soils, much of which have been
damaged by intensive agriculture.
The climate varies from north to south along the latitudinal gradient.
Western grasslands, in the rainshadow of the Rocky Mountains, are drier.
Precipitation increases toward the east, where native vegetation is taller
and more lush.

Average annual temperatures: 1.5 °C - 25 °C

Average annual precipitation: 25 cm - 115 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

The ecoregion was dominated by a wide diversity of grasses, especially
grama, wheat, bluestem, fescue, spear, and buffalo. Forbs were also
diverse here, especially in the families Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Shrubby
The Great Plains stretch from far north in Alberta south
areas include fringed sage, sagebrush, mesquite and yucca. Treed areas
into Mexico, and is comprised of vast grasslands. These vast
include aspen, cottonwood, hickory, and oak.
grasslands were maintained by climate, grazing ungulates,
and fire. The topography is relatively flat and open. Much
Characteristic Native Wildlife:
of this ecoregion has been converted to agriculture.
Water bodies are important grounds for migrating waterfowl. Huge herds
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I. of bison and pronghorn antelope once grazed here. Coyotes, grizzly bear,
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
wolves, deer, and elk were also once common.
http://www.cec.org

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 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
North American Forests
Physical Setting:
The topography of the North American Deserts is extremely varied, from
rolling hills, to the basin and range of the Great Basin, to high plateaus,
tablelands, canyon country, and rugged mountains. Soils are dry, lacking
organic matter and fertility, and high in calcium carbonate. Streams are
often ephemeral.
While temperatures vary greatly, all of these areas are characterized by
low precipitation and seasonal temperature extremes. Most precipitation
falls in the winter, though some also experience a wetter “monsoon” season
in the late summer.

Average annual temperatures: 0 °C - 25 °C

Average annual precipitation: 13 cm - 38 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

Low growing shrubs and grasses dominate in this ecoregion. Common
shrubs are sagebrush, creosote bush, shadscale, greasewood, and juniper.
Cacti species are abundant, as are yucca, ephedra and agave. Many areas
The North American Deserts include the hot, arid lands of
host a wide diversity of ephemeral annuals.
the southwest, but also arid shrublands stretching north
into British Columbia. Trees are scarce, with the vegetation Characteristic Native Wildlife:
being dominated by grasses, shrubs, and cacti which have Mule deer, pronghorn antelope, coyotes, bobcats, jackrabbits, kangaroo
unique adaptations to survive their harsh environment. rats, mice, and bats are among the common mammals. Birds and reptiles
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
are abundant and diverse here.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

Mediterranean California
Physical Setting:
This ecoregion is located along the interface between the North American
tectonic plate and the Pacific tectonic plate and includes many active
faults. The topography is comprised of a series of linear mountain ranges
which separate broad valleys.
This ecoregion has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry
summers and mild winters. Precipitation varies greatly from year to year.
Most precipitation falls in the winter, often in the form of fog.

Average annual temperature: 6 °C - 19 °C

Average annual precipitation: 20 - 100 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

The region is dominated by chaparral communities, which consist of tough,
evergreen shrubs such as chamise, ceanothus, and manzanita, which are
adapted to frequent fires. Scrub oak, coast live oak, valley oak, and various
sagebrush species are common. Many small forbs are fire-adapted as well,
and bloom in carpets following wildfire.
This small ecoregion is located along the Pacific Coast
from Southern Oregon to the Baja Peninsula. The area Characteristic Native Wildlife:
is agriculturally productive and densely populated.
Mule deer, bobcat, coyote, cougar, kangaroo rats, and pocket mice are
Vegetation here is a mixture of chaparral shrublands,
characteristic mammals. Ground nesting birds like quail are common, and
grasslands, and oak savannas.
reptiles, amphibians, and fish are diverse.
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

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 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
Southwestern Semi-Arid Highlands
Physical Setting:
This ecoregion forms a bridge between the Rocky Mountains and the
Sierra Madres. It is characterized by “sky islands,” isolated mountains which
rise out of dramatically different lowland basins.
The climate is arid, with hot summers and moderate winters. Much of the
precipitation falls during late summer “monsoon” season thunderstorms.

Average annual temperature: 12 °C - 20 °C

Average annual precipitation: 30 cm - 60 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

The grass and shrub dominated basins include grama grasses, tobosa grass,
mesquite, ephedra, sotol, yucca, ocotillo, cacti, and agave. A diversity of
oaks, juniper, pinyon pines, chaparral species, and pines are common on
the mountain slopes.

Characteristic Native Wildlife:

This ecoregion extends through central Mexico to
Common wildlife include mule deer, cougar, jaguar, coyote, bobcat,
Arizona and New Mexico in the United States. The hills
antelope, jackrabbit, Mexican fox squirrel, hawks, ravens, turkey vulture,
and plains of this ecoregion are dominated by grasslands,
canyon wrens, roadrunners, elf owl, acorn woodpecker, and a variety of
with scrub-shrublands in the transition zones. Livestock
reptiles including western diamondback rattlesnake and gila monsters.
grazing is the dominant human activity here.

Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

Temperate Sierras
Physical Setting:
The terrain here features steep foothills and mountains, canyons, and
deeply eroded plateaus. Streams here are often ephemeral.
The climate varies with elevation, but in general is arid and warm. Summers
are hot and winters are mild. Moisture is split between late summer
thunderstorms and late winter precipitation.

Average annual temperature: 3 °C - 19 °C

Average annual precipitation: 27 cm - 100 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

At lower elevations, chaparral, pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands are
found, featuring Madrean oaks in the south. Higher elevation vegetation
communities consist of ponderosa pine forests along with Douglas-fir,
southwestern white pine, white fir, and aspen.

Characteristic Native Wildlife:

This ecoregion covers the major mountain ranges
Mule deer, bighorn sheep, cougar, Mexican gray wolf, coyote, bobcat, ring-
of Mexico. In the United States, it includes disjunct
tail cat, kit fox, black-tail jackrabbit, tassel-eared squirrel, Cooper’s hawk,
mountainous areas of Arizona, New Mexico, and West
red-tailed hawk, turkey vulture, canyon wren, and Gila trout are found
Texas. Much of the land in this ecoregion is public. Arid
here.
shrub and woodlands dominate here.
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

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 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
Northwestern Forested Mountains
Physical Setting:
The mountains and plateaus of this ecoregion are connected by wide, arid
plains. In the mountain slopes, soils are shallow and nutrient-poor, while
in the plains soils are better developed and often suitable for agriculture.
Higher elevations are cold and range from humid to dry. The plains are
often influenced by the rainshadows of adjacent mountains, and are
generally arid or subarid.

Average annual temperatures: –6 °C - 10 °C

Average summer temperatures: 10 °C - 21 °C,
Average winter temperatures: –23 °C - 0 °C.
Average annual precipitation:  260  cm in the coastal mountains
40 cm in other mountainous areas, to
25 - 50 cm in the plains.
Characteristic Native Plants:
Alpine: small forbs, lichens, and shrub associations. Sub-alpine:
lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce. Lower mountains:
This ecoregion is comprised of chains of mountains that ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, western red
stretch from Alaska south through California and Nevada. cedar, western white pine. Northern Plateaus: white spruce and black
It is an system of extremes, ranging from alpine tundra at spruce. Interior Plains: big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, antelope brush,
the peaks of North America’s highest mountains to vast various bunch grasses.
conifer forests and dry sagebrush steppes.
Characteristic Native Wildlife:
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I. Mule deer, elk, moose, mountain goat, bighorn sheep, coyote, black and
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada. grizzly bear, hoary marmot, and pika.
http://www.cec.org

Northern Forests
Physical Setting:
The exposed bedrock here forms thin, coarse, and nutrient-poor soils.
Some areas of fine-textured soils do occur, and peatlands are extensive in
certain areas. Glacial activity has left a legacy of moraines and numerous
lakes. Many large river systems are headwatered here.
Summers tend to be short and warm, with long, cold winters. Most
precipitation falls during the cool months.

Average annual temperature: –4° C - 5 °C

Average annual precipitation: 40 cm - 100 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

Conifers including white and black spruce, jack pine, balsam fir, white and
red pine, red spruce, and tamarack dominate. Common deciduous trees
include white birch, aspen, balsam poplar, sugar maple, and various oaks.

Characteristic Native Wildlife:

Representative mammals include the woodland caribou, white-tailed deer,
This large, forested ecoregion is for the most part moose, black bear, raccoon, marten, fisher, striped skunk, lynx, bobcat and
sparsely populated. It is located on the Canadian Shield, eastern chipmunk. Common birds are the boreal owl, great horned owl,
a swath of exposed Precambrian bedrock with thin soil. ravens, blue jays and many waterfowl.
The ecoregion is comprised of extensive boreal forests,
which are dense and primarily evergreen.
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

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 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
Taiga
Physical Setting:
The topography of this ecoregion is heavily glacially influenced. Thousands
of lakes dot the landscape along with rocky glacial deposits. Peat and
permafrost cover most lowland areas.
Summers are short and cool with long days, while winters are long and very
cold with short days. Precipitation is limited and in many areas of Alaska’s
taiga falls primarily in the late summer.

Average annual temperature: –10 °C - 0 °C

Average annual precipitation: 20 cm - 50 cm
Characteristic Native Plants:
Lichens and mosses are key parts of these ecosystems, as well as sedges
and dwarf shrubs including birches, willows, Labrador tea, and bearberry.
Trees, too, are often stunted. Common species are white and black spruce,
jack pine, alder, aspen, tamarack, and lodgepole pine.

The taiga includes the northernmost forest systems in Characteristic Native Wildlife:
the world, stretching around the globe through Siberia, Characteristic mammals include moose, woodland caribou, barren ground
Scandinavia, Canada, and Alaska. Much of Alaska is taiga, caribou, wolves, black bear, marten, lynx, snowshoe hare, arctic fox and
which is comprised primarily of coniferous forests. The
landscape is scattered with lakes, bogs, and wetlands.
arctic ground squirrel. This is an important area for migrating waterfowl.
Plants are often dwarfed to adapt to the cold climate. Other common birds are bald eagles, ravens, gray jays, northern shrikes,
and sharp-tailed grouse.
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

Tundra
Physical Setting:
The topography of this ecoregion is heavily glacially influenced. Thousands
of lakes dot the landscape along with rocky glacial deposits. Peat and
permafrost cover most lowland areas. Much of the area is vast rolling
grasslands and mesas.
Summers are short and generally cool with long days, while winters are
long and very cold with short days. Precipitation is limited and many areas
of Alaska’s tundra are classified as desert.
Average annual temperature: –1.5 °C - 6 °C
Average annual precipitation: 10 cm - 50 cm
Characteristic Native Plants:
Lichens, heaths, and mosses are key parts of these ecosystems, as well as
sedges and dwarf shrubs including birches and willows. Plants become
more dwarfed toward the north.
Characteristic Native Wildlife:
The tundra includes the northernmost reaches of the Characteristic mammals include large herds of migratory barren-land and
United States and Canada. Short summers and long woodland caribou. Also present are grizzly bear, musk oxen, Arctic fox,
winters characterize this northern ecoregion. Permafrost Arctic hare, polar bear, wolf, moose, Arctic ground squirrel and lemming.
is common and much of the landscape is inhabited by Migratory birds are very important to the area, and a diversity of species,
dwarfed plants. especially waterfowl, nest here in the summer months.

Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

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 APPENDIX III: Ecoregions of the United States
Tropical Humid Forests
Physical Setting:
This ecoregion is comprised of flat alluvial plains. It is dominated by wet
soils, marshland, and swamps. Soils here tend to be rich in organic matter
and underlain by porous limestone. Historically, natural wildfires have
been frequent and important in maintaining the Everglades ecosystem.
Humans have drained large areas of wetlands for development.
It is generally hot and humid here, with a humid subtropical to tropical
savanna climate. The short dry season occurs in the winter, while
thunderstorms are common throughout the rest of the year. Summers are
hot and humid and winters are cool.

Average annual temperature: 22 °C - 25 °C

Average annual precipitation: 125 cm - 165 cm
Characteristic Native Plants:
Extensive sawgrass marshes are a primary component of the everglades
ecosystem, interspersed with tree-islands of slash pine, gumbo limbo, live
This ecoregion includes very little of the United States, oak, strangler fig, and royal palm. Pigeon plum, laurel oak, scrub oak, sand
consisting of the Everglades region of Southern Florida pine, and saw palmettos are common. The southern coast and associated
from Lake Okeechobee to Key West. In Mexico, the islands are comprised of mangrove swamps.
ecoregion includes most of the Yucatan Peninsula and Gulf
Characteristic Native Wildlife:
coast. Abundant wetlands are a defining characteristic here.
The wildlife here is unique and diverse, with alligators, American
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I. crocodiles, Florida panther, Key deer, white-tailed deer, manatee, brown
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada. pelicans, woodstork, ibis, and herons being characteristic.
http://www.cec.org

Hawaiian Islands
Physical Setting:
These islands are highly diverse in elevation, ranging from sea level to
over 4,000 meters. While the older islands are marked by steep, eroded
topography, the younger islands are comprised largely of fresh volcanic
material that continues to be colonized by living organisms.
The tropical/sub-tropical climate here is also highly variable. Both
precipitation and temperature vary wildly from one location to the next.

Average annual precipitation: 20 cm - 1000 cm

Characteristic Native Plants:

The Hawaiian Islands vegetation zones include everything from grasslands
to tropical forests to montane and alpine habitats. Shrublands are
dominated by guava, lantana, koa haole, klu, cacti, and pili grass. Koa,
kukui, mamani, ohia lehua, and algarroba are common trees of forested
areas, where they grow along with thick ferns, vines, and often epiphytes.
Plants adapted to mostly bare lava flows include ‘Ōhelo ‘ai and ‘a‘ali‘i.
This ecoregion covers the Hawaiian archipelago in the Pacific
Ocean. These volcanically formed islands are home to a Characteristic Native Wildlife:
diverse array of endemic species. The isolation of the islands
Hawaii’s only native terrestrial mammal is the Hawaiian hoary bat.
has lead to the evolution of many unique lineages. This
ecoregion is distinctly different from any other in the United
States.
Adapted from: North American Terrestrial Ecoregions Level I.
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
http://www.cec.org

A-280
 Appendix IV
Make your Own Quadrat Frame
Option 1: Option 3:
◆◆ 4 – 1 meter x ½ inch PVC tubing pieces ◆◆ 2 – 1 meter x ½ inch PVC tubing sleeves
◆◆ 4 right angle elbows ◆◆ 4+ meters of non-stretch twine or light rope
◆◆ PVC adhesive ◆◆ 1 small snap

Build a one-meter-square quadrat frame using PVC Thread the two tubing sleeves onto the twine and
tubing. Affix one elbow to each 1-meter piece with tie a small loop in the end of the twine. Measure 4
PVC adhesive. Transport frame as 4 pieces. Assemble meters of twine, plus 3-5 cm more, and cut. Tie the
the frame at monitoring site by joining the 4 pieces snap onto this end. The final length of your twine
into a square. should measure 4 meters from the end of the loop to
the end of the snap. Attach the snap to the small loop
Option 2: of twine to make an overall 4-meter loop. Stretch the
◆◆ 4 – 1 meter sticks or lath loop using the tubing, making a square shape, and lay
on the ground. This is best used with stakes or flags to
◆◆ 4 screws with wing nuts secure the corners into a rigid square. (Hint: double
check twine measurement after tying; you may need
Overlap the meter sticks at the end in a right angle.
to adjust your knots to make a 4-meter loop)
Have someone hold while you drill through both sticks.
Insert screw and wing nut, attaching the two. Repeat Using your quadrat frame:
for the other two meter sticks. Now overlap the ends
of the two pieces and drill making a square. Wing Make sure that your quadrat can be taken apart or
nuts can be loosened to fold up the square for easier folded up for carrying. It is best to leave one corner
transporting. of the quadrat unattached so you can unfold the
quadrat and slide it under the vegetation into place.
If all four sides are fixed, you must place the quadrat
over the vegetation, which can be difficult with tall
plants, shrubs, or trees. 

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 Project
Botany
Check out additional ecoregion-based curricula
created by the Institute for Applied Ecology
in partnership with the Bureau of Land Management

From Salmonberry to Sagebrush:

Exploring Oregon’s Native Plants
From Ponderosa to Prickly Pear:
Exploring the Native Plants of New Mexico
Look for our upcoming Colorado native plant curriculum,
to be published in 2017.
For more information, visit
www.appliedeco.org