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LESSON 1
BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

'What is multilingualism?' this question is not as simple as it appears at first glance.

Decades have been spent on intense discussions about what kind of person a
multilingual is. Explanations and descriptions of various communities labeled as
multilingual vary in their accounts—the basic understanding of multilingualism is often
diverged for researchers depending on their differing backgrounds and ideologies.

Multilingualism is the presence of several languages in one country or community, or

city. Multilingualism uses three or more languages, and it is the ability to speak several
languages. In this last sense, multilingualism is widely regarded as 'a natural state of
humankind' (Flynn, 2016). Also, neuroscientists discuss multilingualism in the context
of how the brain is organized among those who speak multiple languages.

A significant figure of people are multilingual and use more than two languages in their
everyday life. The languages they use have various statuses as majority/minority
languages both in their community and globally. Some of the languages are mainly
used in the private domain. In contrast, others are mainly used in public environments,
such as work or school.

The lesson focus on individual' bilingualism and multilingualism. The individual's

acquisition of multilingual competence, some tentative explanations for additive
multilingualism, and implications for multilingual education.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Provide an understanding of bilingualism and multilingualism.
2. Acquire a basic knowledge of aspects and theories of the bilingual and
multilingual acquisition of language.
3. Challenge myths about multilingualism.

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Before You Proceed…

Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about Bilingualism and
Multilingualism? What do you still want to know about it? What have you learned about
it, or what do you expect to learn?

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Write TRUE if the statement is truthful and FALSE if not.

__________1. Using two or more languages places unnecessary emotional stress

on children.
__________2. Children who acquire additional language do not develop fluency in
any of these languages.
__________3. Multilingualism is a helpful social and personal resource.
__________4. Speaking more than one language restricts with children’s intellectual
development.
__________5. Multilingual societies are usually poor and underdeveloped.
__________6. It is significant educationally that children learn in their mother
tongues in the early years of schooling.

ANALYSIS

• How can you describe the society you live in? Is it the norm for people to be
bilingual or multilingual?

• Are you aware of any words commonly used in your language that have
been informally adopted from another language like the German-Italian
example above?

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BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Bilingualism and multilingualism is an interdisciplinary and multifaceted field. As is

manifest from the prefixes (bi- and multi-), bilingualism and multilingualism
phenomena are dedicated to studying construction, processing, and comprehension
of two (and more than two) languages, respectively. However, in everyday usage,
bilingualism is used as a cover term to embody both bilingualism and multilingualism.
Multilingualism is the practice of more than one language, either by an individual
speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers be more
numerous than monolingual speakers in the world's inhabitants. More than half of all
Europeans privilege to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue.
Still, many read and write in one language. Always useful to traders, multilingualism is
beneficial for people wanting to participate in globalization and cultural openness.
Because of the easy access to information enabled by the internet, persons'
experience in numerous languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who
can speak several languages are also called polyglots.

TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO SOCIAL STATUS

a. Additive bilingualism: the new language and culture develop together with the
mother tongue. Both the original language/culture and the native one is
perceived as positive and evolve in a complementary way.

b. Subtractive bilingualism: the new language and culture are perceived as

more "prestigious" and are acquired "at the expense" of the mother tongue,
which is destined to a gradual, even if partial, loss. Unfortunately, it happens
too often that children are no longer able to communicate with their
grandparents in their country of origin, for they have stopped using that
language.

TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO FLUENCY AND COMPETENCE

a. Balanced bilingualism is where two languages are spoken with the same level
of fluency and competence; for example, if a bilingual person maintains
relations and contacts with their original community while using the new
community's language regularly.

b. Dominant bilingualism is where one of the languages is spoken with greater

fluency and competence than the other. According to the Dynamic Systems
Theory (De Bot, Lowie &Verspoor, 2005), language acquisition is a complex
process in which "forgetting" is as much part as "acquiring" and in which the
phrase "use it (the language) or lose it" applies.

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TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO AGE OF ACQUISITION OF

THE LANGUAGES

a. Simultaneous bilingualism: when parents speak two different languages,

they may decide to use their respective mother tongues with their child. The
child will, therefore, be simultaneously exposed to two languages from birth.

b. Sequential bilingualism: when a family migrates to another country, the child

will be immersed in that country's language. Consequently, they will develop
competence in one or more languages besides their mother tongue. In some
cases, if exposure is extreme (school, play with friends), the new language may
become dominant compared to L1 (which may be used with family members
only).

Meanwhile, multilingualism is the ability to speak more than two different

languages fluently. For us to fully understand MLE, it is also essential to discuss
the structure of language. Every language is unique. For example, in English,
an adjective comes before a noun (beautiful lady, red rose). In contrast, in
Spanish, the adjective comes after (casa [house] Roja [red]). In German, you
can put a noun after noun together to form compound words (der Geburtstag
[birthday] + das Geschenk [present] = das Geburtstagsgeschenk [birthday
present]); in Chinese, the pitch of your voice determines the meaning of your
words. But all languages have structural underpinnings that make them logical
for the people who speak and understand them. There are five main
components of language. These are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax,
and context.

LEARNING THEORIES ON BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Second, language learning theories have drawn significant attention to many

researchers in the field of linguistics. In this lesson, there are three influential
theories related to bilingualism and multilingualism.
1. Iceberg Analogy-CUP Model: It supports the transfer of skills across
languages and emphasizes that the common aspects of two languages not only
do they transfer, but they are interdependent (ibid). Two pictures better describe
the theory: the first one is illustrated by an ordinary language balloon inside the
head connected with both the L1 and L2, and the second depicts two icebergs
which are separate above the surface, the one includes the linguistic features
of L1 and the second the linguistic features of L2, but they function through a
conventional operating system below the surface, the Common Underlying
Proficiency (Baker, 2011). In other words, the particular theory emphasizes that
there is a possibility to acquire two or more languages and that educational
attainment may be achieved through one, two, or more languages the same
way. The academic performance may be negatively affected if there is not
enough motivation from the school and family to develop both languages or if
there is pressure to replace the first language with the second.

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2. The Thresholds Theory: As Baker (2011) states, Cummins (1976) and

Toukomaa and Skutnabb-Kangas (1977) were the first that developed the
Thresholds Theory that explains the relationship between cognition and
bilingualism and refers to people who have a certain level of foundation and
competence in the two languages. The picture below is provided to understand
the analysis of this theory easily.

Thresholds theory is explained by a picture of a house divided into three floors. Two
thresholds are those that separate the floors. These thresholds are levels of
competence, and each level has consequences for a child (Baker, 2011). The level
below the first threshold represents those who are limited bilinguals meaning their
proficiency in both languages is limited or inadequate for their age. The consequences
for a child may only be negative since he/she cannot deal with either of the two
languages.
On the middle floor, some have developed an age-appropriate proficiency in one of
the two languages. At the same time, competence in the other one remains limited.
These children, who are partly bilinguals, may have some positive differences in
cognition but not significant ones since they have not fully developed their English
proficiency.
At the top level, there are those called balanced bilinguals who have age-appropriate
competence in both languages. It means that they have many chances to experience
the positive effects of bilingualism. The advantages of bilingualism depend on factors,
such as motivation, pressure from the environment of the child, and levels of stress
(ibid).

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3. Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and cognitive academic

language proficiency (CALP): It refers to the way meaning is communicated
either through contextual or cognitive cues. The figure below depicts this
distinction.

The framework is constituted of two continua; the two extremes of the horizontal
continuum (context-embedded and context-reduced) refer to the level of contextual
support needed to communicate meaning (Cummins, 1994). In the context-embedded
case, the purpose is transferred by lots of interpersonal cues, such as gestures, facial
expressions, feedback, and change in intonation during a speech. In the context-
reduced situation, an adequate level of competence and knowledge of the language
must communicate meaning.
Moreover, the vertical continuum consists of cognitively demanding and cognitively
undemanding tasks. The first one refers to activities where the cognitive involvement
required to complete training is little since the linguistic tools that need to use have
been automatized while in the second case, the tasks require higher cognitive
involvement (ibid).
Furthermore, another distinction made is among the quadrants I-IV; a person with little
fluency belongs to quadrant I, which means that necessary interpersonal
communication is context embedded. In contrast, advanced language competence
belongs to quadrant IV (Baker, 2011). The quadrants II and III are middle phases of
the development of an individual's linguistic competence.
4. The Natural Approach Theory: Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell introduced
the Natural Approach theory in 1997 to develop a teaching approach that
integrates the principles of the "naturalistic" character in SLA research. They
aimed to identify the Natural Approach with the traditional approaches to
language teaching, and by "traditional," they mean the "use of language in
communicative situations without recourse to the native language" (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001 p.178). Krashen and Terrell place the Natural Approach to

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the category of communicative approaches claiming that communication is the

primary function of language and that acquisition occurs when learners
understand the meaning in the target language. This approach was developed
by Krashen's language acquisition theory, which consists of five
principles/hypotheses.

• The Monitor hypothesis claims that the brain recalls learned knowledge, which
functions as a monitor/editor that corrects or checks the linguistic output during
L2 acquisition.
• The Natural Order hypothesis supports that grammatical rules are acquired in a
specific order, meaning that some grammatical morphemes are acquired earlier
than others. For instance, the morpheme -s in the third person of Simple Present
is acquired later than the -s in the plural (ibid).
• The Input Hypothesis focuses on acquisition rather than learning. It supports
that fluency emerges during the time after the learner has been exposed to an
adequate amount of comprehensible input, such as more uncomplicated
phrases or use of simplified speech (repetition, the slower pace of speech) to
the learner of the L2 (Krashen, 1982).
• The Affective Filter hypothesis claims that the learner's psychological state can
function as a filter, which either allows or blocks the input. Three variables
positively related to SLA are; motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety that
can positively affect L2 acquisition (ibid).

5. The socio-cultural theory: Lev Vygotsky introduced a theory of cognitive

development in 1934. Even though his early death left many parts of the theory
incomplete, he has already set the ground for further research. The
Sociocultural Learning Theory is constructed upon the knowledge that a
learner's atmosphere plays a pivotal role in his/her learning development.
According to Vygotsky, the learning process involves three key themes: culture,
language, and the "zone of proximal development."

• Culture. Vygotsky suggested that cultures are formed through the use of tools
and symbols and that this crucial distinction separates the human race from that
of animals. Intelligence is attained when a learner can "internalize" the tools
provided in the culture. When the tools of culture develop and emerge, the
learners' ability to grow as individuals and increase their knowledge base is
widened.

• Language. It is a direct result of the symbols and tools that emerge within a
culture. A person can learn language through various social events, scenarios,
and processes, which all result in the acquisition of language. This characteristic
of the Sociocultural Learning Theory depends on the impression that students
complete three speech progress stages. First, they must involve in the social
environment, which is known as "social speech," and begins at the age of 2.
Next, they will acquire "private speech," which occurs when learners voice their
thoughts aloud and start at the age of 3. The last is "inner speech," which takes

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the system of notions that keep on inside our minds and directly influences our
behavior or thoughts and begins at the age of 7.

• Zone of Proximal Development. The "gap" or distance exists between a learner's

possible educational development, which is determined through problem-solving
activities, and the development that takes place. It is assessed when learners
are requested to engage in problem-solving tasks under the supervision of an
instructor.

Most Multilingual Countries in the World

Country No. of official Languages No. of Languages
Russia 24 129
India 23 427
Papua New Guinea 4 820
Indonesia 1 742
Australia 1 275
China 7 241
Philippines 2 170

THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines is an archipelago that comprises some 7000 islands. Approximately
170 mutually unintelligible languages are spoken throughout the country. The official
languages are Filipino (formerly called Pilipino, based upon Tagalog, the metropolitan
Manila region) and English. After more than a decade of investigating with diverse
approaches to language education and as a result of a nationwide language policy
survey undertaken during 1967 and 1968,

MYTHS CONCERNING MULTILINGUALISM

Multilingualism seems to be the norm in the world. As already mentioned, more people
in the world are bi- or multilingual than monolingual. However, prejudices and
misconceptions about multilingualism are still widespread. In this lesson, we are going
to report some of the most commonly held misconceptions.
1. Learning two or more languages entails an excessive cognitive load. It may
have adverse effects on general cognitive development.
NO: From birth, our brain is perfectly able to "handle" two or more languages.
Numerous research studies have demonstrated that bilingualism's benefits on
a cognitive level are much more significant than the disadvantage.

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2. It may be better to delay one of the languages to become "stable" before

introducing the other.
NO: Parents may discover that introducing the second language late may be
too difficult.

3. Bilingual children mix up the two languages and are confused.

NO: Bilingual children switch from one language to the other, but the changes
always follow precise rules. Children are not confused by the use of two
languages. On the contrary, they develop the ability to select the appropriate
words from the appropriate language based on the interaction context.

4. If the parents of a child speak two different languages, the child will naturally
become bilingual.
NO: If there is not enough exposure to the minority language (the one that is
not the language of the environment), the child might not develop enough
competence in this language.

5. Having to learn more languages is too difficult for students with dyslexia.
NO: Multilingualism being the norm in the world, it is known that practically all
children can learn more languages in a naturalistic context. Indeed, learning
several languages in a school context with 3 to 4 lessons a week and homework
on top may be too much for some children. However, there is no reason to
exempt dyslexic students from starting to learning another language.

ABSTRACTION

Bilingualism
According to
Fluency and
Learning Competence Bilingualism
Theories in According to
Bilingualism Age of
and acquisition of
Multilingualism the languages

Bilingualism
Bilingualism Myths
and
According to concerning
Multilingualis
Social Status multilingualism
m

1. Explain the figure above.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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2. How does Bilingualism and Multilingualism address equality in education

and culture?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

APPLICATION

TRUE/FALSE. Read each statement below cautiously. Place a T on the space if the
statement is TRUE. And write F on the line if you think the statement is FALSE.
______1. Speaking more than two languages gives unnecessary emotional
stress on children.
______2. Children who acquire more than one language do not become fluent
in any of these languages.
______3. Multilingualism is a helpful social and personal resource.
______4. Speaking two or more languages interferes with children's intellectual
development.
______5. It is imperative educationally that children learn in their mother
tongues in the early years of schooling.

Insights

KEEP IN MIND

• Bilingualism and multilingualism have both de facto existences and essential

places in the psychological, political, and social debates that define social and
ethnic groups, communities, and regions.

• Types of Bilingualism According to Social Status: Additive bilingualism and

Subtractive bilingualism.

• Types of Bilingualism According to Fluency and Competence: Balanced

bilingualism and Dominant bilingualism.

• Types of Bilingualism According to Age of acquisition of the languages:

Simultaneous bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism.

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Post-test

Multiple Choice. Circle the letter corresponds to your answer.

1. It refers to the use of two (or more) languages by an individual.
a. Individual Bilingualism
b. Societal Bilingualism
c. Elective Bilingualism
d. Natural Bilingualism

2. Christal speaks French and German fluently, so he is _____.

a. Monolingual c. Trilingual
b. Bilingual d. Multilingual

3. Elora speaks, reads, writes and understands English, Spanish, French, and
Italian. She is _____.
a. Monolingual c. Trilingual
b. Bilingual d. Multilingual

4. The situation in which two languages are learned with no status differences
attributed to either of them and the first language does not suffer any
detriment due to the speaker's acquiring the second language, is referred to
as ____
a. Additive bilingualism
b. Balanced bilingualism
c. Subtractive bilingualism
d. Dominant bilingualism

5. What is the term used for situations where the second (majority) language
becomes dominant, even replacing a child's first (minority) language, as with
some immigrant families?
a. Semilingual
b. Sequential bilingualism
c. Language loss
d. Subtractive bilingualism

References:

Baker, C. (2000). A teachers' and parents' guide to bilingualism. Clevedon, Avon:

Multilingual Matters.

Baker, C. (2000). Foundations of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon,

Avon: Multilingual Matters.

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Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (5th ed.).

USA: McNaughton & Gunn Ltd.

Bright, W. (ed.) (1992) International Encyclopedia of Languages. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Cenon, J. (1998). Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education

Multilingual Matters.

Cheshire, J. (ed.) (1991) English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cummins, J. (1994). Primary Language Instruction and the Education of Language

Minority Students. In Leyba, C. (Ed.), Schooling and Language Minority
Students (pp.3-46). Los Angeles LA: Evaluation, Dissemination, and
Assessment Center.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.

California: Pergamon Press, Inc.

Paulston, C. B. (1982). Swedish Debate and Research about Bilingualism. A Critical

Review of the Swedish Research and Debate about Bilingualism and Bilingual
Education in Sweden from an International Perspective. Retrieved from:
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED228843.pdf.

Richards, J. K. & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

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LESSON 2
DIVERSITY AND EDUCATION IN A
GLOBAL WORLD

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

Diversity is inherent among different communities around the globe. Still, it is generally
ignored in many educational settings despite its evident presence. It is in a similar
notion that theoretical paradigms were continuously changing in the fields of language
learning and applied linguistics.

For many years, the conventional field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
considered languages' acquisition in all language skills (speaking, writing, reading,
and listening) based on native-like ability levels. In turn, it has allowed a change in the
philosophy of language learning, from acquisition, which considers languages as fixed
and permanent, to growth, which supports the fluidity and fluctuation of languages.

The controversial term second language may not indicate many individuals'
experience of language growth, whose repertoires cover more than two languages,
including heritage languages. In reality, languages within a person's repertoire will
continuously alter, evolve further or less depending on their history, needs, and
geographical location.

This lesson discusses language diversity across the world and its connection to
education and culture. Language education is central to politics, economics, history,
and, most definitely, education in this period of globalization.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Familiarize with the terminologies being used in an article;
2. Portray the occurrences that took place in establishing the English
curriculum in the Philippines;
3. Cite specific scenario/s that would make themselves relate with the
experiences of the characters in a given selection;

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4. Identify the importance of having a barrier-free conversation in any language

of their choice; and
5. Use a social media platform to apply what is being learned from the lesson.

Before You Proceed…

Rearrange the letters below to fit with its definition.

1. rsvetidiy - ______________________
/noun/ the value or state of having many different forms, types, ideas,
etc.
2. gapdiram - ______________________
/noun/ a pattern or model for something that may be copied
3. irprertoee - ______________________
/noun/ all the things that a person is able to do
4. iolizabgltaon - ______________________
/noun/ the act or process marked by shared culture and point of view
from different parts of the world
5. olnigunomal - ______________________
/adjective/ using or expressed in only one language
6. ilgbaluin - ______________________
/adjective/ able to express and understand two languages
7. eiigndusno - ______________________
/adjective/ produced, living, or existing naturally in a particular region or
environment
8. lononpaegh - ______________________
/adjective; (often capitalized)/ consisting of or belonging to an English-
speaking population where two or more languages are spoken
9. hraofncneop- ______________________
/adjective; (often capitalized)/ of, having, or belonging to a population
using French as its first or sometimes second language
10. ageyogdp - ______________________
/noun/ the art, discipline, or profession of teaching

Lesson Proper

Over the previous decades, a rich body of literature has emerged as a strong
reaction to the monolingual system, providing alternative approaches and strategies
to language learning that promote the person's linguistic skills. It does not only include
first or second language but any other language knowledge, even if partial. The
following two instances demonstrate how languages can vary:

Case Number 1:

Martha was a native in the Basque Country, and at home, she learned Basque,
her first language. She started learning Spanish at the age of 6, and developed
high skills in both languages, becoming fully bilingual.

She moved to France on an exchange program at the age of 21and gained

French working skills after two years. She moved to Amazonia at the age of 23,
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though, and as most of her colleagues were Spanish and Brazilian, she did not
use French as much as she did. However, her Basque was well preserved. She
would use it in her family's online interactions, but her French skills decreased.

Martha started studying Katukina, an indigenous language, since she was

creating projects with indigenous peoples. After two years, she moved to
Argentina, where she met an Argentinean and began learning a different variety
of Spanish. By this stage, she had limited French and Katukina, although still
able to have fundamental interactions. The best was her Basque expertise and
the variation of Spanish spoken in Spain.

Case Number 2:

Raised in Syria, Mohamed studied Arabic, his first language, in his home country.
He and his family immigrated to Ontario, a Canadian Anglophone province, at
the age of 3. His parents would speak Arabic at home-considered his heritage
language due to the new background – but he was introduced to English at
daycare.

His school life continued to be the primary language of instruction is English, and
his parents agreed to enroll him in a cultural heritage program so that Mohamed
could learn to learn Arabic. At the age of 13, he and his family moved to Quebec,
a Francophone province in Canada. The language of instruction was French (or
Quebecers, a variation of French). At that point, Mohamed's most robust
language was English, even though Arabic was his first language.

Provided that Quebec schools' language of instruction was French, his emphasis
will be on studying that language. Martha and Mohammed's life travels allowed
them to learn different languages and their variations, partly or at high levels,
which may or may not continue to evolve in the future.

Their history shows that the concept of language development – first, second, third,
etc. – and concepts of origin, international and local languages are fluid rather than
stagnant. They are highly dependent on the context, along with its political, social, and
historical systems.

Life is not unique in a globalized world where regional and transnational migration,
along with the emerging technology and the internet, has dramatically changed the
way people live, function, and grow languages.

In consideration of the emerging difficulties of language development, the fields of

language education and applied linguistics have developed accordingly, rejecting the
conceptions of a native-speaking paradigm for language development. Also, a native
speaker's notion was disputed because of the lack of language variation; that is,
because of its underlying presumption that there is only one type of a native speaker.

For instance, in English Language Teaching (ELT), Jenkins (2006) discusses the
importance of including diverse varieties of English or World Englishes in linguistic
pedagogy, with native speakers from different locations (e.g., India, Australia, Nigeria,
and elsewhere) same with the non-native English speakers.

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Varieties in registers, rhetoric, sociolinguistic use, lexical, grammatical, and

phonological subjects are essential for language learning. For example, while accents
may be a factor in verbal communication, different accents are essential to linguistic
diversity. They should not be considered to represent a barrier to communication.

Studies investigating phonetic spelling show that non-native speech can have a high
level of factual accuracy even when uttered with the first language (Galante and
Thomson 2016), implying that native-like speech is unnecessary.

Accordingly, the concept of possession of a language is not only a right for the native
speaker but also any language user (Ortega 2014). Cultural diversity debates and
ownerships have a great deal of importance in current language education programs.
It is also why plurilingualism is well in line with super diverse cultures, as it accepts
different languages and respects and encourages linguistic diversity within the same
community.

Although the general view of plurilingualism is not historically recent (Flores 2013), it
gained momentum with its formal introduction in the French publication of the Council
of Europe's Language Policy Division in the late 1990s (Coste et al. 1997), which was
later published in the English variety of the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR-Council of Europe 2001).

One must consider that the French concept of compétenceplurilingue et pluriculturelle

was translated as two distinct concepts in the English version of the CEFR (2001):
plurilingual skills and pluricultural competence (Coste et al. 2009), which may have
consequently oriented pedagogy and research to address language and culture with
diverse individuality.

ACTIVITY

Form a group having three to five members and make one-minute video advocacy
that intends to showcase the beauty of diversity in promoting equality and a more
effective way of using the global language. The output will be graded using the criteria
that follow:

Creativity - 25%
Clarity - 25%
Content - 25%
Collaboration - 25%
Total - 100%

ANALYSIS

Unlike the cases being provided in this lesson about Martha and Mohamed, most of
the students like you have not experienced their level of exposure in using various
languages from different parts of the world. What then are the experiences closest to
the ones the two of them have you encountered then? Cite a specific scenario about
that happenstance and share how you cope/deal with it.

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ABSTRACTION

Imagine you were the youth ambassador of the Philippines who would be joining a
language summit which will be participated by different ASEAN representatives; how
do you think you would come up with a good impression among the other delegates
when it comes to conversing with them? Do you think they would love to visit our
country after they get acquainted with you? Why or why not?

APPLICATION

Employing a social media platform of your choice, talk to a foreigner for not more than
five (5) minutes and try to inscribe your conversation in a whole sheet of the legal-
sized pad to see how well you can cope with the phase of your discussion them.
Include in that note some factors that either hind/help you understand each other.

Insights

When you were still much younger than you are now, did you have an experience
wherein you witnessed anybody being shied away from others because of the
"standard language acceptability" they failed to possess? How did you react then?
Do you think your action helped or worsened the situation that you and that person
were engaging in? Should that occurrence be given a chance to repeat, would you
do what you did back then? Why or why not? Write your answer in the space
provided.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Post-test

Multiple Choice. Circle the letter corresponds to your answer.

1. Based on this module, what terms inherent among different communities

around the globe but are generally ignored in many educational settings
despite its noticeable presence?
a. Similarity c. diversity
b. accent d. ignorance

2. Why is language acquisition not constant in one's life?

a. Language within the repertoire of a person will continuously alter
depending on their needs, history, and geographical location.
b. It is because every day, one learns new things and encounter
different experiences that make them acquire different language
styles.
c. Options a and b are both correct.
d. Both options a and b are incorrect.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 18

3. Which is NOT considered as the idea of this lesson?

a. The accuracy of language use does not depend on its users' accent,
word choice, or pronunciation.
b. When spoken by different speakers with various non-native tongues,
English could still be useful in communicating with others.
c. English-speaking people should not limit their capacity to expressing
themselves based on the way English native-speakers' way.
d. It is a must for people to speak English to understand each other.

4. Galante and Thomson (2016) found out that studies investigating phonetic
spelling show that non-native speech can have a high level of factual
accuracy even when spoken with the first language's accent. What does it
mean?
a. It implies that native-like speech is not necessary for communication.
b. Sounds produced during the communication process is not so
important.
c. One's phonetic ability does not matter in terms of speaking.
d. None of the given options could be considered acceptable.

5. Using the schema about the affixes of the word plurilingualism, which of the
following is nearest to its literal translation?
a. many languages state
b. state of many languages
c. language of many states
d. none of the given options

6. Which of the given sentences below does not fit to explain the statement:
"In reality, languages within the repertoire of a person will constantly alter,
evolve more or less depending on one's needs, history and geographical
location."?
a. It means that when a person wants to be good at using any language,
they should go and live within others who are using the target
language.
b. It means that a person's language growth depends on circumstances
they get themselves involved in using the language they acquire.
c. It means that when a person does not go from place to place, that
would mean that their language would not evolve.
d. It means that unless a person has to understand a specific language
since its part of their task/desire to do so, language acquisition could
not be possible.

7. Who states that "…the concept of possession of a language is not only a

right for the native speaker but also any language user."?
a. Flores 2013 c. Galante and Thomson 2016
b. Coste et al., 2009 d. Ortega 2014

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 19

8. Which of the following terms was considered something that may not
indicate many individuals' experience of language growth, whose
repertoires cover more than two languages, including heritage languages?
a. Mother tongue c. third language
b. second language d. acquired language

9. The following statements show reasons as to why Second Language

Acquisition (SLA) should not consider the acquisition of languages in all
language skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) based on native-
like ability levels EXCEPT:
a. One's ability to deal with language should not be determined based
on how good they imitated its source.
b. Individual language-users have a different background, so it is only
normal to have distinctions in using the language under concern.
c. Language has different facets, and for adequate communication to
occur, they ought to be considered.
d. Native-like users are experts with their language, so it is only fair to
follow their communication way.

10. The phrase: "varieties of English or World Englishes in language pedagogy"

pertains to:
a. Different English languages from different origins
b. English languages with different meanings
c. Different nationalities speak the English language.
d. The use of the English language in an improper way

References:

Ansah, M.A. (2016). Language Choice in Multilingual Communities: The Case of

Larteh, Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 25, 37-57.

Bob C. (2014). Language Planning and Policy. Accessed from www.slidehare.net on

August 20, 2020

Haugen E. (1997) Language Standardization. In: Coupland N., Jaworski A. (eds)

Sociolinguistics. Modern Linguistics Series. Palgrave, London.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_27

de Galbert, Pierre Gaspard. (2019). Learning in Multilingual Contexts: Language

Policies, Cross-Linguistic Transfer, and Reading Interventions. Doctoral
dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education.

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LESSON 3
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

The connection between language and society is firmly anchored. The relationship
between the two is deeply rooted. Language performs various functions in the
community, and culture prepares a similar way. The other one will be affected if one
will not exist.

Language is the key tool for communication, establishing peace and order in our
society, showing power and authority, and achieving goals and objectives. However,
it can also destruct society if it will use inappropriately. It must follow the conformity
governing society to avoid conflict and see the border of an individual's distinction.

Society, however, has control in our language by giving us preferences regarding what
is suitable and not. Each of us has our insight or point of view. A group of individuals
may accept our language, but it could be offensive or abuse for others. We should
know how, when, and where to say it and for what purpose.

Social changes produce changes in language, and language incorporates social

values. It affects standards in ways that have not been accurately understood.
Nevertheless, social values are only the same as linguistic values when society is
constant. Once society starts changing, then language change also occurs.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Develop a critical understanding and analysis of the relationship between
language and society.
2. Increase your understanding of terminology, concepts, and research paradigms
which are essential in understanding sociolinguistic
3. Reconstruct differing language views and programs to be applied to the
teaching and learning process.

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Before You Proceed…

Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about language and society? What
do you still want to know about it? What have you learned about it, or what do you
expect to learn?

Write True if you agree with the statement and False if not.

__________1. The beliefs a particular group has about land are derived from culture.
__________2. A person behaves toward people of another group because of the
ways his cultural group has taught him to behave.
__________3. The color of a child’s eyes is decided by its culture.
__________4. Some groups in the world have no culture.
__________5. How a person behaves towards a spouse's relations depends on
his/her culture.
__________6. Making an eye connection with the person you are speaking to is a
matter of culture.
__________7. Your culture determines where you should live.
__________8. Children are born with their culture already in their brains.
__________9. You cannot be a member of more than one culture at a time.
__________10. A culture is maintained mainly through its language.

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Reflect on this: What do you think is the most widely used language in Southeast Asia?
How do ASEAN countries regard English? At what stage/ age do you start learning
English in school and at home? Share your thoughts below.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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ANALYSIS

Based on the illustration below, make a short essay on how language affects society
and vice versa?

Social Class

Education
Factors Affecting
Language Use
Gender

Language and Relationship

Society Between
Language and
Society Age

Various
Definitions of
Sociolinguistics

LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

People and social phenomenon equally play a vital role in language as language is a
means of communication. Sociolinguistics as the area of language and society is
intended to show how such factors govern our use of language as a class, gender,
age, education, and social status. A subgroup of this area is anthropological linguistics,
which is concerned with the system and practice of language in diverse cultures and
to what degree the cultural environment has influenced language development.
The study of language and society or sociolinguistics – can be dated to about the
middle of the twentieth century. Before that, some authors mentioned in what manner
language usage was influenced or indeed directed by socially relevant factors, such
as profession, age, class, or gender. Undeniably, the father of modern linguistics,
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), perceived language as a kind of social behavior,
and in this, he reflected. The word 'Sociolinguistics' was coined already
in 1939 in the title of an article by Thomas C. Hodson. Social context looks at
associations between language and society and looks at language as individuals use
it. It studies the relationship between a person's speech and social identity.
Social context is engaging, stimulating, but consists of many difficulties. There are very
few definite responses to things. We essentially try to become conscious of the way
language differs according to who persons are and what they are doing. The behavior
they have to their language. People need to remember that there has been very little
research into the social context.
Social context will think about diversity within a language. Everyone who speaks a
language has a vast linguistic selection, except they have very severe learning

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 23

language difficulties. It means they can use the language in many different ways,
depending on the circumstances they have. The kind of language that they use also
depends on their social background and social identity.
Various Definitions of Sociolinguistics
1. "The study of the link between language and society, language variation,
and language attitudes." (Spolsky, 2010).

2. A branch of anthropological linguistics examines how language and culture

are related and how language is used in different social contexts (Bell,
1976).

3. A study of the relationship between language and social factors such as

class, age, gender, and ethnicity. (Hudson, 1996).

4. The study of stylistic and social variation of language. (Wardhaugh, 2010).

5. The study of language concerning its socio-cultural context. (Van Dijk,

2009).

6. The study of the effect of any aspects of society, including cultural norms,
expectations, and context on the way language is used (Trudgill, 2000).

7. Sociolinguistics attempts to find correlations between social structure and

linguistic structure and observe any changes that occur. (Gumperz, 1971).

8. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and

society. (Holmes,1992).

9. Sociolinguistics is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language

as a social and cultural phenomenon. It investigates the field.

of language and society and has close connections with the social
sciences, especially social psychology, anthropology, human geography,
and sociology. (Trudgill, 2000)

10. The sociolinguistic perspective has enabled researchers to document and

measure a hereto overlooked type of variation in language use and
language behavior. (Fishman, 2001).

11. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language. The most
productive studies in the four decades of sociolinguistic research have
emanated from determining linguistic variants' social evaluation. These are
also areas most susceptible to scientific methods such as hypothesis
formation, logical inference, and statistical testing. (Chambers, 2002).

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All the definitions mentioned above make it clear that Sociolinguistics is a discipline
that links sociology with linguistics. Sociolinguistics emphases on language use, and
on what can be said in a specific language, to whom, by whom, in whose presence,
when and where, in what means and under what social circumstances.

Relationship Between Language and Society

The multifaceted relationship between society and language has been seriously
discussed, particularly over the past few decades. Several essential theories and
hypotheses come to mind when considering this relationship; The Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis describes how language influences how we observe our world. It is often
mentioned as the main contributor to the conversation on culture and language. The
debate very much mirrors the famous "chicken and egg" debate: which comes first,
society or language?
1. Language performs various functions in society, and society does the same way.
If one does not occur, the other one will be affected.
2. Language is a crucial tool for communication purposes. Simultaneously, society
controls our language by giving us preferences regarding what is acceptable and
not.
3. Social changes produce changes in languages. Language incorporates social
values.
4. Language influences society and people.
5. People influence language and language use.

In the study of Sociolinguistics, one has to do with the interaction of language and
society. It studies how all characteristics of society affect speech and how language
has an impact on society. The human society will be lifeless if deprived of language,
and so will be the language without its speakers. It means that language and society
are inseparable from each other. Ferdinand de Saussure developed this idea in his
book The Course in General Linguistics, published later in 1916, where he stated that
'language is primarily a social activity.'

Factors Affecting Language Use

1. Social class:
Social class is one of the essential factors in the interpretation of literary discourse.
One can understand the social level of a person based on social class. Two main
groups of language users, mostly those performing non-manual work and those
with more years of education, are the 'upper class.' In contrast, those who serve
some kind of manual labor are 'lower class.' The terms' lower' and 'upper' are
frequently used to subdivide the social classes.
Therefore, differences between the upper class can be compared with the lower
class. Notably, individuals are incredibly conscious of the variances in speech

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 25

patterns that mark their social class and frequently adjust their style to the
interlocutor.
2. Age:
Age affects sociolinguistic patterns is very obvious when relating the speech of adults
with that of children. It is known that the variances in anatomy and physiology or
biological age are mainly responsible for these variances, but socially–concerned with
distinction also occurs in the course of life. At least three stages- childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood, are supposed to give significant results in discussing
such variations.

In the early childhood period, relatively immature verbal patterns are seen because of
ongoing language learning and incomplete growth of the child's vocal anatomy.
However, local forms of pronunciation begin from this stage of the acquisition process.
From their earliest speech stages, children develop sociolinguistic competence. They
engage themselves in complex register variation and become acutely aware of the
relationship between social roles and language inconsistency. They first acquire the
social functions of variables before they progress in linguistic constraints.

In the teenage period, the peer group linguistically influences the speaker, and
sometimes its role can reach the native influence. At the age of twelve, the pressure
to be conventional to peers' standards is excellent enough to eradicate most of the
initially acquired linguistic differences. It brings about a noticeably standardized local
accent.

In old age, the learner is supposed to be firm with the phonological structure of the
language. The speaker uses standard language due to the circumstances of the
speaker or personal ambitions of the speaker. Some sociolinguistic variations can be
marked during the period of adulthood.
3. Education:

Education is one of the essential aspects of the sociolinguistic explanation of the

literary discourse. The level of education impacts the language of the speaker. More
highly educated speakers and those belonging to a higher social class tend to use
more features belonging to the standard language.
In contrast, the area's original language is better preserved in the language of the
minor and less educated classes. The first language use often reflects one's education
and social identity. The standard language is considered a language of educated
people; non-standard language has usually been regarded as the language used in
unsophisticated and uneducated individuals.
4. Gender:

Gender plays an essential role in the study of linguistic expressions used by speakers.
It is noticed that the language of the female members is diverse from the way their
male counterparts. There has been an inherent relation between language and
gender. The patterns of language use of males are different from those of females in
terms of intonation patterns and speech quantity. Although males and females belong

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 26

to the same speech community, they may practice different linguistic forms from a
given social class. The linguistic forms used by women and men contrast to some
extent in all speech communities.

ABSTRACTION

Answer the following questions:

1. How does the speaker's social role affect language use?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. How does culture influence linguistic behavior?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

3. What is the relation between language and society?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

4. What is the relationship between language and people?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

5. Make a list of how many groups you are a member of, i.e., do you move out
and in groups in a day, a week, or even a month? (i.e., class, women'
s/men's group, church, social club (name it) sports club (name the sport),
music, etc.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

APPLICATION

Explain your answers on the blanks below.

1. What are some of the grammatical variances between the language of men and
women that have been revealed in linguistic research?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 27

2. In your own words, briefly describe two of the possible explanations for these
grammatical differences.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. In your opinion, is one of the more plausible than the other? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Insights

Keep in mind:

•Language is mutually a system of communication between a social phenomenon and

Individuals.

•Sociolinguistics examines how language and culture are related and how language
is used in different social contexts.

•The human society will be lifeless without language, and so will be the language
without its speakers. It means that language and society are inseparable from each
other.

•Factors Affecting Language Use: Social class, age, education, and gender.

Post-test

Multiple Choice. Circle the letter of your choice.

1. Sociolinguistics is most appropriately defined as:
a. The study of human behavior
b. The scientific study of vocal sounds
c. The study of animal vocalizations
d. The scientific study of language usage

2. Which is NOT a part of sociolinguistics?

a. The study of people's attitudes toward specific speech characteristics
b. The study of the sounds in an articulated language
c. The general perception of a dialect within a society
d. It is the study of socioeconomic and political power factors and their
influence on language change.

3. All of the following statements about language are true, EXCEPT:

a. It is a system of communication.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 28

b. It often involves mutual intelligibility.

c. It can include many dialects.
d. All the word meanings are the same.

4. The study of how socio-cultural norms and contexts shape language use in
society is called.
a. Sociolinguistics c. Phonetics
b. Speech pathology d. Linguistics

5. The following are factors affecting language use EXCEPT:

a. Age and gender c. Education
b. Social status d. linguistic determinism

Essay:
1. Explain the sociolinguistics situation of multilingual societies. Ex. New
Zealand, Philippines, etc.
2. Why is gender considered as variable sociolinguistics?
3. Suppose language is an essential human attribute, and humans are
necessarily social beings. What problems and paradoxes do you see for
theoretical work in sociolinguistics if the last grapple with the relationships
between linguistic and social factors?

References:

Eble, C. (2005). What is Sociolinguistics?: Sociolinguistics Basics.

http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/sociolinguistics/sociolinguistics/

Fishman, J. A. (ed.) (2001), Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Reversing

Language Shift, Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.

Gumperz, J. J. (1971), Language in Social Groups. Stanford, CA: Stanford

University Press.

Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman.

Meyerhoff, Miriam. (2006), Introducing Sociolinguistics. London/New York:

Routledge.

Trudgill, Peter. (2000), Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and

Society. England: Penguin Books.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Fifth Edition. Blackwell

Publishing.

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LESSON 4
SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONCEPTS

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

A language is not just words. It's a culture, a tradition, a community's

unification, a whole history that creates what a community is. It's all
embodied in a language. – Noam Chomsky

Languages continue to evolve, and so does our understanding of it. As it develops, it

brings discoveries of concepts and paradigms that explain various linguistic
phenomena. These paradigms shape how we think about languages, why we use
them, and to what extent. In a world of languages, there are at least 7,102 known
languages alive in the world today. There are 23 languages with at least 50 million
first-language speakers. China has the most native speakers around the globe
(Ethnologue, 2016). But the question is, how do languages evolve? Why does it
matter?

Sociolinguistics has been a dynamic field of study throughout the years. The
connections between languages and society have been established since Noam
Chomsky and William Labov emerged in the 1960s. Peter Trudgill (1983) describes
sociolinguistics as a part of linguistics concerned with language as a social and cultural
phenomenon. It investigates relationships between language and society to
understand better how language functions in communication processes and language
structure (Wardaugh, 1986). With sociolinguistics, the reality is, there is nothing in this
world that is not touched by language. It is everywhere and in any field that we know
– religion, politics, art, law, etc.

With the development of sociolinguistics as a field, several concepts have also

emerged. In this lesson, the students will familiarize themselves with these
sociolinguistic concepts and its applications to language policymaking and
development.

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Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Demonstrate mastery of the various sociolinguistic concepts revolving
around English Language Teaching;
2. Relate sociolinguistic concepts into the study of language programs and
policies;
3. Apply these sociolinguistic concepts in policymaking, language teaching,
and research.

Before You Proceed…

Watch the following videos online. Observe the use of language in the
following situations. How are they similar? How are they different?

▪ Ms. Janina San Miguel

(Bb. Pilipinas 2008) Question and Answer

Link:https://youtu.be/NZsHsjfviXM

▪ Ms. South Carolina

(Miss Teen USA 2007) Question and
Answer

Link:https://youtu.be/lj3iNxZ8Dww

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 31

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Daniels (1985) wrote an article about his 'nine ideas about language.' How much do
you agree with his ideas? Tick the box that best corresponds to your answer.

Strongly Strongly
Statements Agree Neutral Disagree
Agree Disagree
1. Children learn their
native language quickly,
efficiently, and mainly
without instruction.
2. Language operates by
rules.
3. All languages have
three major
components: a sound
system, vocabulary, and
a system of grammar.
4. Everyone speaks a
dialect.
5. Speakers of all
languages employ a
range of styles and a set
of sub-dialects or
jargon.
6. Language change is
expected.
7. Languages are
intimately related to
societies and individuals
who use them.
8. Value judgments about
different languages or
dialects are matters of
taste.
9. Writing is a derivative of
speech.

ANALYSIS

BILINGUALISM

Did you know that 50% of the world's population is bilingual? Bilingualism is evident in
reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Bilingualism denotes the ability to speak two

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 32

(or more) languages (Fromkin, 2003). It refers to the full proficiency in two languages.
There are two types of bilingualism:

– Individual bilingualism: within one person

• A psychological state of a person who has access to two
language codes to serve communication purposes
• There are numerous degrees of bilingualism and various
situations under which a person may become bilingual

– Societal bilingualism: within a society

• Two languages are used in a society or community, and that
several people can use two languages
• Switzerland and Canada are two examples of nations that
recognize more than one official language

There are five dimensions of bilingualism:

1. Cognitive organization of two languages

2. Age of acquisition
3. Language proficiency
4. A sequence of acquisition of two languages
5. Societal factors
All of these dimensions contribute to the proficiency and mental lexicon of a bilingual
individual. It is also important to note that some scholars deemed bilingualism a
disorder rather than a proficiency because it alters the way we think. The patterns
seem to be abnormal.

There are also several types of bilinguals. They are summarized as follows:

Classification Types of Description

Bilinguals
Compound ▪ Has a single semantic system but two linguistic codes
Bilingual ▪ Usually refers to a person whose two languages are
Compound vs. acquired at the same time
Coordinate vs. Coordinate ▪ Has two semantic systems and two linguistic codes
Subordinate Bilingual ▪ Usually refers to someone whose two languages are
learned in distinctively different contexts.
Bilinguals ▪ The weaker language is interpreted through, the
Subordinate
Bilingual stronger language
Early ▪ Someone who has acquired two languages early in
childhood (usually received systematic training/
Early vs. Late Bilinguals learning of a second language before age 6)
Bilinguals Late ▪ Someone who becomes bilingual later than childhood
Bilinguals (after age 12)
Balanced ▪ Someone whose mastery of two languages is roughly
Balanced vs. Bilinguals equivalent
Dominant Dominant ▪ Someone with more excellent proficiency in one of his
Bilinguals vs. Bilinguals or her languages and uses it significantly more than the
Semilingual other language
Semilingual ▪ Someone with insufficient knowledge of either language
Successive Successive ▪ Someone who learns one language after already
vs. Bilinguals knowing another

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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Simultaneous ▪ It is a situation for all those who become bilingual as

vs. Receptive adults
▪ Also called "consecutive bilinguals."
Bilinguals ▪ Someone who learns two languages as "first
Simultaneous
Bilinguals languages."
▪ A person who is simultaneous bilingual goes from
speaking no languages at all directly to speaking two
languages
▪ Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will
become simultaneous bilinguals.
Receptive ▪ Being able to comprehend two languages but express
Bilinguals oneself in only one
Additive ▪ The second language learning does not affect the
Additive vs. Bilingual learning of a first language
▪ Both languages are well-developed
Subtractive ▪ The second language learning interferes with the
Subtractive
Bilinguals learning of a first language
Bilingual
▪ The second language replaces the first language
Elite ▪ Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home often
Bilinguals to enhance social status.
Elite vs. Folk Folk ▪ Individuals who develop second language capacity
Bilinguals Bilinguals under the circumstance that is not frequently of their
choosing, and in situations where the society does not
value their innate language
Language acquisition (2) - LinkedIn SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/cmcgoun/language-
acquisition-25957401

CODE-SWITCHING

Codeswitching (C.S.) is a speech style in which fluent speakers switch languages

between or within sentences (Fromkin, 2003). Here are some examples of code-
switched utterances.
– I mean, c’est un idiot, cemec-là (French-English)
– Women zuotianqukan de movie were astounding (Mandarin-English)
– Chigum ton-uls ops-nunde, I cannot buy it (Korean-English)
– Kaya ko namangawin 'Yung assignment, but I will do it tomorrow nalang
(Filipino – English)

Codeswitching reflects the grammars of both languages simultaneously and occurs

wherever groups of bilinguals speak the same languages. Gumpers and Hernandez
(1969:2) put it "each time minority language groups arise into interaction with majority
language groups under conditions of rapid social change." Hence, code-switching is a
feature of stable bilingualism in communities where most speakers can speak both
dialects.

Codeswitching does not constitute "broken" English and is not a language disability in
which bilinguals try to cope with incomplete mastery of either language. C.S. is a
reflection of community norms (Mahootian, 2005)

Codeswitching has its grammatical structure. For example, codeswitching follows the
word direction rules of both languages.
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
 34

• My mom fixes tamales verdes

• *My mom fixes verdes tamales
• Mi mamáhace green tamales
• *Mi mamáhace tamales green

Gardner and Chloros (2009) enumerated the characteristics of Code-Switching as

follows:

1. Code-Switching as a sign of different/ opposite tendencies

▪ C.S. arises in various contexts, as a symptom of quite the opposite
developments, from accommodation to divergence and from language
maintenance to language shift.
▪ C.S. is seen as an essential component of change

2. Code-Switching as a form of Language Interaction

▪ C.S. was merely the alternation of two varieties which preserved their
monolingual characteristics.
▪ Two languages come into contact; thus, several processes occur borrowing,
morphophonemic integration, and native synonym displacement.

Code-Switching is one of the possible contact outcomes between two (or more)
varieties, often coexisting and overlapping with other results. Bilinguals select "the
most parsimonious grammar that serves both languages" (Otheguy, 1995). With this,
C.S. is becoming a liquid and natural process.

LANGUAGE CHANGE

Language changes over time at a varying level. These changes occur in sounds or
pronunciation, meaning, and vocabulary. The language also varies in time, physical
space or setting, and social context. But these changes are caused by the speaker's
innovations. Based on research, changes in language are usually forwarded by the
speakers in the adolescent age. Usually, the change happens in this manner.

New form Spread Usage Replace

A change in sound, for example, in new to nuclear (/new-clear/). This manner is usually
a change proposed by people in a higher social class. We call this 'changes from
above.' These are changes in language that people are aware of. Whereas 'changes
from below' are the changes in language that people are not aware of. An example
would be some changes in vowel pronunciation (beer, bear). Such changes exhibit the
spread of vernacular forms that imitate the speech that is considered prestigious or
may be an expression of solidarity.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 35

TYPES OF LANGUAGE CHANGE

There are three types of language change. Please refer to the table below.

Types of Language
Description Examples
Change
The formation of the new Before the detection of
vocabulary used to the new world, the
designate some physical word America did not
Incremental Change
intervention, new social exist in Europe.
motivation, or new items of
knowledge
Words that are not used any Words related to
longer since the object is nohunting or falconry
Decremental Change longer used and archery are not
commonly used
nowadays
The replacement of words or 'rooves' as the plural
structures, but both ways of 'roof' in place of
Replacement Change
coexist in the language used standard English'
roofs'

HOW DOES LANGUAGE CHANGE SPREAD ?

Language change spreads from group to group, from style to style, and from word to
word. It is usually being studied in apparent-time and real-time. Apparent-time
analyzes language change by comparing the speech of people of different ages.
Studies have shown that younger speakers use more of the newer forms by observing
the increase and decrease of a form by an age group. Whereas, language change in
real-time happens by observing the changes that occur over some time. This method,
insofar, is the most reliable because it considers the social factors affecting language
use.

REASONS FOR LANGUAGE CHANGE

There are three most essential descriptions for language/ linguistic change.

1. Social Status - Persons of higher social status in the community introduce

changes from other communities that are considered prestigious.

Example:
▪ Upper-class London
▪ Lower class people spread less-conscious linguistic changes.

2. Gender - Differences in the speeches of male and female can cause a linguistic
change

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 36

– It can be whichever of the two who introduce the change.

– Females tend to introduce changes associated with both prestigious and
vernacular forms.
– Male introduce changes associated with vernacular forms.

3. Interaction - Interaction among individuals is crucial in channeling linguistic

change
– Linguistic change in communities with little interaction with the outside
world progress slowly.
– Isolation causes linguistic conservatism.
Example: Iceland

LANGUAGE SHIFT

Holmes (1992) described Language Shift as replacing one language by another as

the primary means of communication and socialization within the community.

The following factors drive it:

a. Demographic factor -A factor playing a role in the development of language shift

in which there is a community of language moving to a region whose a language is
different from another language, thus the presence of a tendency to shift toward a new
language

b. Attitude/Value factors– refers to negative and positive attitudes toward a

language. A negative mindset can accelerate language shift. It can occur when an
ethnic language is not highly valued and not seen as a symbol of identity. Holmes
(1992) stated that "young people are the fastest to shift languages.

– A positive attitude toward a language might support effects to use the minority
language in a variety of domains and also to help people resist pressure from the
majority group to switch to their language (Holmes, 1992)
c. Economic factor - an essential element that sees the need for a language shift. As
Holmes (1992) states, "job seekers see the importance of learning a new language
used widely in business."

d. Social and political factors – imposes language shift in a multilingual country. The
authority usually chooses one language as the lingua franca to unite the various kinds
of ethnic groups; consequently, most speakers with particular indigenous language
decrease (Bayer, 2005).

- Social factor refers to where the language shift occurs as most communities consider
another language in a predominantly monolingual society that dominated.

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 37

LANGUAGE DEATH

Language Death is a term used to refer to when a community is the last one in the
world to use a particular language (Crystal, 2003). Crystal (2003) further explains that
a language dies when nobody speaks it anymore. When all the people who talk about
a language die, the language dies with them (Holmes, 1992).

TYPES OF LANGUAGE DEATH

Language Death comes in many types.

1. GRADUAL DEATH – involves the gradual replacement of one language by

another
Example: Replacement of Gaelic language by English in parts of Scotland

2. SUDDEN DEATH – the rapid death of a language without a prevailing period

of bilingualism. The last speaker is monolingual in the vanishing language, as
in the case of Tasmania.

3. RADICAL DEATH – due to severe political suppression, a community may opt-

out of self-defense to stop speaking their language. The last utterers are thus
fluent in the dying language but do not use it or transmit it to their children.

4. BOTTOM-TO-TOP DEATH – a language ceases to be used as a medium of

conversation but may survive in particular use like a religion or folk songs.

CAUSE OF LANGUAGE DEATH

Tsunoda (2006, p. 57) says that a language may be vanished due to language shift.
He further splits the causes of language endangerment into:

1. natural/environmental decline or loss of population - natural

catastrophes (volcanic eruption, earthquake, droughts, floods, and famine),
diseases and epidemics, violent acts of humans such as warfare, slavery,
massacres, and genocide

2. Political, military dispossession of the land – due to invasion, conquest,

colonization, settlement, or grazing; relocation of people (people may be
relocated to an unfamiliar – and often inhospitable – environment for
settlement. Relocation may be executed by force, such as prisoners.

3. social mixing of speakers of different languages – began by

intermarriage reservations/ settlements, boarding schools, improved mass
media and communication in the dominant language (T.V., radio, broadcast
films, videos, C.D.s, printing press, books, and magazines; indifferent
attitude (language apathy and language negligence)

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 38

4. language policy - the education of children (promoting dominant

languages); prohibition of the use of the indigenous language in education,
the imposition of the dominant language punishment, and humiliation for the
benefit of indigenous language

5. cultural/religious - relative lack of indigenous literature; aboriginal

literature is limited to linguistic work (grammar and translation), religion
(hymn books, Bible translations), and school curriculum materials

6. linguistic – Language purism can lead to language loss (Fishman, 1964).

PIDGINS AND CREOLES

When utterers of different languages come together for trade, job, employment, or
immigration and colonization, they may produce a new language to serve as a
rudimentary lingua franca. The made communication system is called a pidgin.
Pidgins are rule-governed but have simplified grammatical structures and lexicons.
Most of the pidgin vocabulary comes from the dominant language (the superstrate or
lexifier language). At the same time, the other languages are substance languages
and contribute to the grammatical structure.

Many linguists believe that pidgin evolves: First, the pidgin has no native speaker, is
severely an exchange language reserved for special functions, and has very few clear
grammatical rules and few words. Later, if the need for the pidgin remains, the pidgin
becomes alleviated. If children begin to learn this alleviated pidgin as a native
language, then it becomes a creole.

Pidginization includes a simplification of some language and a reduction of the

number of domains of use. In contrast, creolization consists of expanding lexicon and
grammar and increasing the number of contexts of use. Pidgins are somewhat
rudimentary, but they do have rules. Some of these rules are:

• Phonemes may have multiple allophonic pronunciations

• Pidgins typically lack the function of morpheme
• Auxiliary verbs, articles, prepositions, case endings, tense,
plurals, and others
• Reduplication and compounding are very common in pidgins to expand
otherwise small lexicons (data from Komtok):
• big-big "enormous."
• luk-luk “stare at”
• grasbilongfes "beard."
• hanbilongpisin “wings (of a bird)”

Syntactically, people may create sentences based on their native language's word
order until the pidgin becomes stabilized. A creole is a language that has progressed
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
 39

in a contact situation to become the natural language of a generation of speakers.

Where a pidgin is simplified, a creole is just as expressive and complex as any human
language. Creoles may have inflections, more complex pronoun systems, and the
number of compounds may be reduced. For example, warabilong skin (“sweat”)
becomes skinwara

How are children able to construct a creole based on the rudimentary input of the
pidgin? And why do creoles around the world have so many linguistic similarities?

One answer is that their innate linguistic capabilities allow them to flesh out the pidgin
into a full-fledged language. An example is the Tok Pisin. Tok Pisin was creolized
throughout the 20th century and is spoken in Papua New Guinea. Tok Pisin has its
writing system, literature, mass media and is used for debate in Papua New Guinea’s
parliament.

Sign languages can also be pidgins. In the 1980s, adult deaf people came together in
Nicaragua and constructed a pidgin for communication. But when children joined the
group, they creolized the pidgin, and it became the full-fledged sign language Idioma
de Signos Nicaragüense (ISN)

ABSTRACTION

Answer the following questions:

1. Code-switching is a result of language contact. With CS, two or more languages

can be mixed and used at the same time. How do languages preserve their
own identity?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Like plants and animal species, when a language becomes nonexistent, it is

gone forever. Over half of the world's 6800 languages are endangered. How do
you think we can preserve and conserve our dying languages? Suggest some
ways.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

APPLICATION

These some words from Tok Pisin. From what English words are they derived? The
answer is shown for the first entry.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 40

Insights

Languages work within the scope of the society, and a society cannot work without a
language. These two concepts are intertwined and are difficult to separate from each
other. One sociolinguistic concept can affect another. Like in the world we live in,
languages are ever-changing, and they also live a life where they can flourish and
prosper. But if we, the speakers and users of languages, abuse and neglect them,
they might die.

Post-test

Based on the discussion, determine whether the following statements are TRUE or
FALSE. On the space provided, write the letter T if you think that the idea is right to
the sociolinguistic concepts discussed above and F if it is not.

__________ 1. Learning two or more languages confuse a child and lowers his/ her
I.Q.
__________ 2. A child would learn one language properly before learning a second
one.
__________ 3. An individual cannot be a real bilingual if he learns a second language
late.

__________ 4. Most individuals in the world are monolingual; that is, they only know
how to speak one language.

__________ 5. If everyone spoke the same language, we would benefit from

increased understanding and efficiency and lose nothing.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 41

References:

Gardner-Chloros, P. (2009). Code-switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511609787

Kramsch, C., and Widdowson, H. G. (2001). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. pp.65-77.

Quintan, J. (2015). Language Maintenance, Shift, and Death. Accessed from

www.slideshare.net on August 17, 2020

Ramirez, N. (2010).Language Change. Accessed fromwww.slideshare.net on August

17, 2020

Uzir, A. (2013). Language Change. Accessed from www.slideshare.net on August 17,

2020.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 42

LESSON 5
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
ENGLISH CURRICULUM IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

During the old times in the Philippines, the fundamentals of education were given to
children. This schooling was both technical and vocational.

The father trained his sons to be hunters, warriors, miners, fishermen, shipbuilders,
and lumbermen. On her part, the mother trained her children in horticulture, cooking,
serving, and other household arts.

It is said that there was a barangay education in ancient Panay called Bothoan under
the care of a priest, usually an older man. The subjects taught to the students in this
barangay school were reading, writing, arithmetic, the use of arms, and lubus (the
possession of kinaadman or amulets).

Thus, during that period, schooling was tailored to their needs. Owing to the conquest
of several foreign countries and historical events, our curriculum has undergone
several changes. However, we have still preserved some of the ancient teachings that
are present even in our day.

With the country's commemoration of independence in 1946, scarcely seven decades

ago, every part of the education system was put into line with the new status of a new
nation striving to achieve and maintain political and economic freedom and create a
nation fully unified in social and cultural diversity.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Familiarize with the acronyms which are associated with the historical
background of the English curriculum in the Philippines;
2. Provide contextual evidence about the history of the English Curriculum in the
Philippines.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 43

3. Analyze the importance of each period in the development of the English

curriculum in the Philippines.

Before You Proceed…

Give the terms representing the meaning of the following acronyms by rearranging the
entries inside the word box.

Teaching Second Language English

Nationalism Education Advancement Decentralized

Committee Elementary Achievement Movement

National Secondary Bilingual Policy

New 1. ELT School _________________________________

Curriculum Program
2. TESL _________________________________
Test 3. MAN Development as a/of for/for the
_________________________________
4. EDCOM _________________________________
5. NEAT _________________________________
6. NSAT _________________________________
7. BEP _________________________________
8. NESC _________________________________
9. PRODED _________________________________
10. SEDP _________________________________

Lesson Proper

Upon writing this article, English Language Teaching (ELT) in the Philippines is now
one hundred and nineteen years old.

When the Philippine education system was established on January 21, 1901, through
the Education Act No. 74 or the Education Act of 1901, English became the sole
medium of education in the Philippine schools (Bureau of Education, 1901).

From 1901 to the present, the English curriculum has undergone many developments,
and a range of delivery methods have been tried and tested, leading to the following
timeline:

PERIOD 1 (1901-1925): THE SPEAK, READ AND WRITE MOVEMENT

• During this time, it was essential to use a standard instruction tool in the
archipelago to get the work of opening schools completed quickly and
efficiently.
• The authorities found that the inhabitants spoke regional languages and that
Spanish was restricted to a few Filipinos.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 44

• It was then agreed that the English language should be the language of
instruction.
• The desire to use English has proven to be a gesture of goodwill, and the
Americans readily agreed to teach their language.
• The Thomasites became the first American teachers to lecture as they were
chosen by the Board of the United States Civil Service.
• It is the period that English has been adopted as a means of instruction in
schools.
• The era is often marked by changes in the use of textbooks and materials,
including a curriculum that has been continuously updated.
• English was the only language that might be spoken in the school grounds, and
it was called the 'Speak, Read and Write English Only' era.
• With the declaration of education Act 74, the President of the United States,
William McKinley, has advised the Philippine Commission that English is the
universal tongue of citizens to unify areas.
• This very Act acted as the basis for the establishment of the Bureau of Public
Schools, now the Department of Education.
• The use of the English language as the primary medium of instruction continued
with the 'Americanization' of the Filipinos and the Filipino child's complete
inclusion in teaching English in classrooms.

PERIOD 2 (1925–1935): THE INDIGENIZATION OF ENGLISH MOVEMENT

• In Period 1, the Filipino youth was 'Americanized' by the exclusive use of

English as a medium of instruction.
• In Time 2, books representing American culture were either indigenized or
philippinized. Books reflecting Filipino values, feelings, and attitudes have
begun to be written. It was termed the Indigenization of the English Campaign
of Sibayan and Gonzalez (1990).
• At the time of the Monroe Study in 1925, Filipino teachers spoke Filipino
English. Students with grammar and enunciation were strongly affected by the
learner's first language, a mother tongue intervention (Monroe, 1925).
• The publishing of Philippine Prose and Poetry in 1927 was followed by the
Philippine Public Schools, a scholarly journal for teachers in January 1928.
However, this paper was discontinued in 1932 (Galang, 1980).

PERIOD 3 (1935–1950): THE VERNACULAR AND WIKANG PAMBANSA (LOCAL

AND NATIONAL LANGUAGE) MOVEMENT

• It was named the Vernacular, and Wikang Pambansa Campaign since

vernaculars or local dialects were used as an auxiliary instruction medium in
primary grades.
• Wikang Pambansa, or National Language, has been required to be taught in
both elementary and high schools.
• Significant historical developments were taking place during this period, which
dramatically changed English Language Teaching status.

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 45

• It was the time of 1935 ratification of the Constitution, the founding of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1925, the transitional government (1935-
1946), the Japanese invasion during the Second World War (1941-1945), and
the creation of the Republic of the Philippines.
• Economic developments also contributed to the rise of nationalism through
expression.
• Efforts were then made to create a shared national language and to use the
vernacular.

PERIOD 4 (1950–1974): THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND

LANGUAGE MOVEMENT

This time was marked by three alternating stages which include: Teaching English as
a Second Language (TESL), the use of the vernacular language as a means of
instruction in the first two grades from 1957 to 1974, and the Movement for the
Advancement of Nationalism (MAN). Also, it is the era when the factors that follow
significantly affect the Philippines' education system:
• The Revised Educational Program of 1957
o The amended Educational Program of 1957 introduced vernacular to
instruction in Grades I and II in all public schools.
o It was followed by introducing the 'aural-oral approach' or the instruction
of English as a second language (Bureau of Elementary Education,
1957).
• Bulletin No 2 s. 1966: Theme Writing in the Primary Grades
o This Circular, dated January 21, 1966, lays out the structured theme
criteria for Grades IV-VI. It provides a systematic description of how to
create guided compositions, the theme measures for writing, and
ranking themes.
• The Revised Primary Education Curricula: Effective School Year 1970– 1977
o The period allotment for Language Arts English in Grades I – VI was as
follows.
▪ Grades I and II: 40 minutes
▪ Grades III and IV: 60 minutes
▪ Grades V and VI: 80 minutes
o Language Skills covered speech and pronunciation, reading and
phonics, listening, and writing.
o The 40-minute cycle for English in Grades I and II was devoted to
language; the 60-minute process for English in Grades III and IV was
devoted to either Vocabulary or Reading or both at the disposal of the
teacher, and the 80-minute duration for English in Grades V and VI was
devoted to language; the 40 minutes for reading and the 40 minutes for
reading.
• The Revised Secondary Education Program, 1973
o The English program for all high schools was Communication Skills
(English) that had 60 minutes for the first year and 36 minutes for the
second to the fourth year.

PERIOD 5 (1974–1993): THE BILINGUAL EDUCATION MOVEMENT

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
 46

• The promulgation, introduction, and assessment of the Bilingual Education

Policy (BEP), the incremental filtering of the communicative approach to
language teaching as a consequence of national and regional seminars in
English, the pilot-testing and adoption of the New Elementary School
Curriculum (NESC) through the Program for Decentralized Education
(PRODED) and the usage of the Secondary Education Development Program
(SEDP), the Education Committee (EDCOM) report, the increased time
allotment are given to English, Maths, and Science in the elementary grades.
The giving of the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) and the
National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT) were among the major
programs of this time.
• It is called the Bilingual Education Movement. Sibayan and Gonzalez (1990)
named this the Communicative Movement because of the communicative
approach. In public schools, however, the prevailing system is the Bilingual
Education in the context of PRODED, NESC, and SEDP.

PERIOD 6 (1993 TO THE PRESENT): COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

• Communication Arts in English and Filipino in SEDP have been renamed

English and Filipino to reflect a wider variety of materials, including literature
and the arts. In both cases, the solution was practical.
• The study of both languages was adapted to Filipinos' needs in Philippine
settings in some cases.
• The time allotted to English was 40 minutes with one-unit credit.
• The ultimate goals of English resources are "the improvement of skills in
listening, communicating, reading, vocabulary, literature, and writing, which are
facets of communication and the use of these skills and competencies
• for studying science and mathematics and for more studying in college and
vocation, thereby leading to the Filipino growth that we like" (Language Study
Center-Philippine Normal College, 1987, p. 1).
• Listening, listening, reading, and writing practices concentrate on language
roles and their related language structures and grammar points.
• Vocabulary development has been followed by listening, chatting, reading,
literacy, and writing practices.
• The skills to be focused on are a continuation of those which began in the
English Communication Arts high school programs as follows:

o Listening/Speaking
▪ Listening to and reviewing relevant aspects of school
announcements/rules and regulations;
▪ Precisely watching and following directions;
▪ Listening for various reasons and listening correctly to a message
received orally;
▪ Participate regularly in conferences, social debates, seminars,
and conventions.
o Language Function/Grammar
▪ Sending and following instructions

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 47

▪ Asking and responding yes-no, wh-and tag questions correctly,

acceptably, and properly
▪ Offering and denying something respectfully
▪ Creating and sending out demands of dignity
▪ Describing the idea, the object, the person, the location, or the
case.
▪ Explaining everything simply
▪ Creating assumptions on the evidence learned and interpreted
▪ Generalizing intelligently of what is seen, heard, or read
▪ Evaluating the views and evidence heard and interpreted
▪ Criticizing proposals and details respectfully and constructively
▪ Reacting to something you have learned or read
▪ Observing the right form of the verb in the sentences used
▪ Recognizing and using various types of sentences for oral or
written correspondence
▪ Using the overt and indirect expression for the system
▪ Observing the alignment of subject and predicate in the
sentences used.
▪ Using verbals, conjunctures, connectives, compound words, and
other categories for significant correspondence.
▪ Using of condensed sentences for successful contact

o Reading/Vocabulary/Literature
▪ Using library services to collect information for various purposes.
▪ Demonstrating reading comprehension on the literal,
interpretative, essential, and integrative aspects
▪ Fast reading and research reading for different purposes in and
out of the classroom
▪ Disclosing of details and other information found in graphic and
non-textual materials
▪ Getting meaning from foreign terms and phrases by context,
contextual analysis, inferring, descriptions, synonyms and
antonyms, the study of metaphors, and dictionary research
▪ Identifying and clarifying the meanings of what is read
▪ Demonstrating personal fulfillment and enjoyment resulting from
reading literature after recognizing literary objects, instruments,
and points of view.

o Writing
▪ Preparing an outline or mind map for one or more paragraphs
▪ Writing a note, a series of orders or directions simply and
economically
▪ Writing a very informative personal letter
▪ Filling out of documents correctly and neatly
▪ Producing a paper critically
▪ Coming up with a personal answer to something

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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▪ Using different methods of paragraph development: narration,

descriptive, expository, and argumentative.
▪ Accomplishing documents correctly and neatly.

• The definition of communicative competence pervades English content, which

applies to learners' capacity to participate in verbal and written exchanges with
others, using relevant and socially accepted language types.
• Communicative communication is the primary aim of language learning, while
linguistic ability would accomplish this goal. (Language Study Center-Philippine
Normal College, 1987).
• Communicative competence took center stage during this time. It was
understood that it was not enough to establish linguistic competence. It was
expressed in the lesson plans of the teachers and the experiences of the
English class supervisors.
• Accessibility of printed records in English in all the Controlling Domains (C.D.s)
of the Language makes English dominant and retained as the language of
education, culture, industry, media, research, technology, and economy.
• Language domain management defines the vocabulary and the laws that
regulate its use.
• In the Philippines, Education, administration, science, technology, business,
industry, and media are the dominant English realms.
• The country's English spread more quickly because of supporting
environments, organizations, services, and individuals.
• Policy encouragement is apparent in the laws, regulations, and directives
adopted to improve English use, rendering it prominent as it is used in language
management.
• More than a century after the United States sent Thomasites to the world; our
Filipino teachers are now hired to teach in the now eternal Thomasites.

ACTIVITY

The class will be divided into six (6) groups. It will be assigned to each of the
Periods covering the timeline during the Philippines' English curriculum. The task is to
make a PowerPoint Presentation wherein they will use their pictures to portray the
occurrences (based on their interpretation) during the period assigned for them. The
output will be graded using the criteria that follow:

Creativity - 25%
Clarity - 25%
Content - 25%
Collaboration - 25%
Total - 100%

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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ANALYSIS

Of all the periods involved in developing the English curriculum in the

Philippines, what do you consider has the most critical impact on the country's current
system of education? Make a 200 to 300-word essay to justify your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION

The illustration below explains in your own words. It discusses the significance
of the different periods of the English curriculum in the Philippines' educational
policies.

PERIOD 1
(1901-1925):
THE SPEAK,
READ AND
WRITE
PERIOD 6 MOVEMENT PERIOD 2
(1993- (1925–1935):
PRESENT) THE
COMMUNICAT INDIGENIZATI
IVE ON OF
LANGUAGE ENGLISH
TEACHING Historical MOVEMENT
Background
of English in
the
Philippines PERIOD 3
PERIOD 5
(1935–1950):
(1974–1993):
THE
THE
VERNACULAR
BILINGUAL
AND WIKANG
EDUCATION
PERIOD 4 PAMBANSA
MOVEMENT
(1950–1974): MOVEMENT
THE
TEACHING OF
ENGLISH AS A
SECOND
LANGUAGE
MOVEMENT

APPLICATION

Collect pieces of evidence of any document (e.g., magazine/news clippings,

memos, online articles, etc.) or video interviews by significant personalities that would
validate/invalidate the facts under the period being assigned in the group work (see
Activity). Prepare a one-minute video-recorded report about what is being found out
using those materials.

Note: The group could share the pieces of evidence, but the reporting must be
done individually.

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 50

Insights

As a future language teacher, how would you ensure that your students
would improve their communication skills? Use the provided space to come up with a
list of at least ten (10) things you have to consider in proving your answer.

______
_________________________________________________________________

Post-test

Write T in the space before each number if the statement that follows is TRUE and F
if they are FALSE.

______1. The Thomasians were the first American teachers who were selected by
the United States Civil Service Commission.
______2. President William McKinley of the United Arab Emirates instructed the
Philippine Commission that English shall be the common language of
people to unify the regions
______ 3. From 1925–1935, books that reflected American culture were indigenized
or Filipinized. Eventually, books expressing Filipino ideals, sentiments,
and attitudes started to be published.
______ 4. 1950–1974 was the era which was called the Vernacular and Wikang
Pambansa Movement because the vernaculars or local dialects were
allowed to be used as an auxiliary medium of instruction in the primary
grades.
______ 5. From 1974 through 1993, all high schools' English curriculum was
Communication Arts (English), which had 60 minutes for the first year and
36 minutes for second to the fourth year.
______ 6. The years 1974–1993 were termed the Bilingual Education Movement.
Sibayan and Gonzalez (1990) called this the Communicative Movement
because of the communicative approach.
______ 7. Communication Arts in English and Filipino in SEDP were renamed
English and Filipino, to reflect a broader scope focused on content,
including literature and the arts.
______ 8. English language teaching (ELT) in the Philippines is already one
hundred and fifty-one years old.
______ 9. Language Arts included language and spelling, reading and phonics,
speaking, and writing.
______10. The controlling domains of language dictate the language and the rules
that govern its use. In the Philippines, the controlling domains of English
are Education, government, science and technology, business, industry,
and media.

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 51

References:

Department of Education. (2003). Establishing the policy to strengthen the English

language as a medium of instruction in the educational system (No. 189, s.
2003). Manila: Bureau of Printing as cited by Mindo, Dinah F. (Department of
Education Region 3, The Philippines) in her research titled Curriculum
Innovations and Implementation Strategies: Philippine Experience.

English Curriculum Reform in the Philippines: Issues and Challenges from a 21st
Century Learning Perspective, Jessie Barrot National University, Philippines.

Bureau of Education. (1929). 30th Annual report of the director of education. Manila:
Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Education. (1931). 32nd Annual report of the director of education. Manila:
Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Elementary Education. (1940). Annual report of the director of education.

Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Elementary Education. (1941). A course of study in language for primary

grades. Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Elementary Education. (1957). Revised Philippine educational program

(Circular No. 3, s. 1957). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Secondary Education. (1989a). The secondary education development

program (SEDP). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Bureau of Secondary Education. (1989b). The new secondary education curriculum

(NSEC). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Department of Education. (2003). Establishing the policy to strengthen the use of the
English language as a medium of instruction in the educational system (No.
189, s. 2003). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. (1973). The revised secondary

education program (Order No. 9, s. 1973). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. (1993). Increasing the number of

elementary school days and time allotment in the new elementary school
curriculum (Order No. 1, s. 1993). Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Educational Development Project and Implementing Task Force. (1976). Survey of

outcomes of elementary education. Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Freer, W. C. (1906). The Philippine experiences of an American teacher in American

pioneer teachers and Philippine Education by Amparo Lardizabal. Manila:
Camelo and Bauserman.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 52

Fresnoza, F. (1950). Essentials of the Philippine educational system. Manila: Abiva

Publishing House.

Galang, Z. M. (Ed.). (1980). Encyclopedia of the Philippines, Vol. IX education. Manila:

McCullough Printing Co.

Isidro, A. (1949). The Philippine educational system. Manila: Bookman. Language

Study Center-Philippine Normal College. (1987). ANVIL I, A trainer's

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 53

LESSON 6
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN
THE PHILIPPINES

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

The role of language practice and language policy and use in instruction have been
observed to influence teaching and learning efficiency in the school setting. With the
rise of globalization and internationalization of services in education, the objective of
producing human resources prepared for the demands of the knowledge-based
economy has manipulated government strategies worldwide to put education at the
vanguard of its development plans.

The Philippines' cultural diversity and linguistic carry much complexity to education
and its language policy. With more than181 distinct languages in 7000 islands (Lewis,
Simons, & Fenni, 2013), the Philippines proposes an exciting environment for
implementing a language policy that can serve the whole country. Consequently,
language policies for the Philippines' schools have fluctuated dramatically over the last
century with a different system for almost every generation. Until lately, the 1974 and
1987 Bilingual Education Policies determined the language of instruction in schools to
be Filipino and English even though around 80% of the population does not speak any
of these as a first language.

The Department of Education (DepEd) challenged the Bilingual Education Policy in

2009 by issuing an order called for the institutionalization and promotion of mother
tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE). This order requires the practice of
the pupils' first language as the medium of instruction for all subject areas in pre-
kindergarten through grade three, with Filipino and English being taught as distinct
subjects (Philippines Department of Education, 2009).

The lesson will broadly discuss the dynamics of language, access, and influence. It
will look at the Philippines as a country of implicit and explicit assertions in language
use and policy affecting the education sector and access to the labor market.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Comprehensibly define different language programs and policies in the
Philippines;
2. Compare and contrast the language policies in the Philippines and the
implementation of MTB-MLE.
3. Critique several language programs and their applicability to the Philippine
classroom.

Before You Proceed…

Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about language programs and
policies in the Philippines? What do you still want to know about it? What have you
learned about it, or what do you expect to learn?

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Answer the questions briefly and compare your answers to your classmate.

1. Ask your mother and father about their language history. Include the original
province where your father, mother, and both grandparents were born. What
dominant language did they speak?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. How does the dominant language affect your acquisition of the other language?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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ANALYSIS

From the illustration below, describe the development of the language policy in the
Philippines briefly.

1. The Philippine 3. The Language

2. Executive Order
Bilingual Education Policy of the Commission
No. 335
Policy (BEP) on Higher Education

5. Mother Tongue-
4. Philippines Language
Based Multilingual
Policy in the 21st
Education in the
century.
Philippines (MTB-MLE)

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is one of the most wide-ranging education sectors globally. It consists
of around 62,000 schools (primary and secondary level). Over 21 million
schoolchildren enrolled in public schools alone (DepEd, 2015). It is also one of the
more ethnically and linguistically diverse nations in South East Asia, represented by
over a hundred ethnic groups and over 170 different languages, making language
policy planning more challenging than usual. The recent initiatives by the Philippine
government aim to increase quality and access to education. It resulted in the
institutionalization of the MTB-MLE in the country in 2009. It subsequently
implemented in all public schools in 2012 (with the use of 8 major languages).
This change in language policy is part of a growing trend worldwide to support mother-
tongue education in children's schooling. It is apparent in a rising number of
educational programs that utilize a mother-tongue approach in Southeast Asia.

Language Programs and Policies in the Philippines

The Language provision in the Republic of the Philippines 1987 Constitution, which
embodied in Article XIV, Sec. 6 and 7, provides the legal basis for the various language
policies implemented in the country. The Constitution's ratification mentioned above
resolved the national language since the 1935 and 1973 Philippine Charters were not
clear about this.
The provisions are the following:
1. Section 6. The national language of the Philippines is Filipino. It shall be further
developed and enriched based on the existing Philippine and other languages as it
evolves.

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2. For communication and instruction purposes, the Philippines' official languages are
Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law.

1. The Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP)

Consistent with the 1987 constitutional mandate and a declared policy of the National
Board of Education (NBE) on bilingualism in the schools (NBE Resolution No. 73-7,
s.1973), the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) promulgated its
language policy.
The policy was first implemented in 1974 when DECS issued Dept. Order No. 25,
s.1974 titled, "Implementing Guidelines for the Policy on Bilingual Education."
Bilingual education in the Philippines is defined operationally as the separate use of
Filipino and English as the media of instruction in specific subject areas. As embodied
in the DECS Order No. 25, Pilipino (changed to Filipino in 1987) shall be used as a
medium of instruction in social studies/social sciences, music, arts, physical education,
character education, practical skills, and home economics. English, on the other hand,
is allocated to mathematics, science, and technology subjects. The same subject
allocation is provided in the 1987 Policy on Bilingual Education, which is disseminated
through Department Order No. 52, s. 1987.
The policies are the following:
The policy on Bilingual Education aims to achieve competence in Filipino and English
at the national level, through the teaching of both languages and their use as media
of instruction at all levels. The regional languages shall be used as auxiliary languages
in Grades I and II. The Filipino nation aspires to have its citizens possess Filipino skills
to enable them to perform their functions and duties to meet the country's needs in the
community of nations.
The goals of the Bilingual Education Policy shall be:
1. enhanced learning through two languages to achieve quality education as called for
by the 1987 Constitution;
2. the propagation of Filipino as a language of literacy;
3. the development of Filipino as a linguistic symbol of national unity and identity;
4. the cultivation and elaboration of Filipino as a language of scholarly discourse, that
is to say, its continuing intellectualization; and the maintenance of English as an
international language for the Philippines and as a non-exclusive language of science
and technology.
5. Filipino and English shall be used as media of instruction, allocated to specific
curriculum subjects as indicated in the Department Order No. 25, s. 1974.
The regional languages shall be used as auxiliary media of instruction and as
the primary language for literacy, where needed. Filipino and English shall be taught
as language subjects at all levels to achieve bilingual competence goals.

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Since competence in the use of both Filipino and English is one of the goals of
the Bilingual Education Policy, the continuing improvement in the teaching of both
languages, their use as media of instruction, and the specification of their functions in
Philippine schooling shall be the responsibility of the whole educational system.
Tertiary level institutions shall lead in the continuing intellectualization of Filipino. The
program of intellectualization, however, shall also be pursued in both the elementary
and secondary levels.
2. Executive Order No. 335
On August 25, 1988, President Corazon Aquino signed Executive Order No. 335,
enjoining all departments/bureaus/offices/agencies/instrumentalities of the
government to take such steps as necessary for using the Filipino language in official
transactions, communications, and correspondence. The order was issued on the
belief that the use of Filipino in official dealings, communications, and correspondence
in government offices will result in a greater understanding and appreciation of
government programs, projects, and activities throughout the country, thereby serving
as an instrument of unity and peace for national progress.
All departments/bureaus/offices/agencies/instrumentalities of the government are
enjoined to do the following:
1. Take steps to enhance the use of Filipino in official communications, transactions,
and correspondence in their respective offices, whether national or local;
2. Assign one or more personnel, as may be necessary, in every office to take charge
of communications and correspondence written in Filipino;
3. Translate into Filipino names of offices, buildings, public edifices, and signboards
of all offices, divisions, or instrumentalities. If so desired, imprint below in smaller
letters the English text; Filipinize the "Oath of Office" for government officials and
personnel.

3. The Language Policy of the Commission on Higher Education

In 1994, Republic Act No. 7722, creating the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), was signed. This Act, known as the "Higher Education Act of 1994," provides
that the CHED shall be independent and separate from the DECS and attached to the
President's Office for administrative purposes. Its coverage shall be public and private
institutions of higher education and degree-granting programs in all post-secondary
educational institutions, public and private.
One of CHED's first steps was to update the General Education Curriculum (GEC) of
tertiary courses leading to an initial bachelor's degree covering four (4) curriculum
years. It was done to make the curriculum more responsive to the demands of the next
millennium.
The new GEC requirements are embodied in the CHED Memorandum Order (CMO)
No. 59, s. 1996. Listed under miscellaneous of this CMO is its language policy, which
is as follows:

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Under the Bilingual Education Policy underlined in DECS Order No. 52, Series of
1987, the following are the guidelines vis-a-vis medium of instruction, to wit:
1. Language courses, whether Filipino or English, should be taught in that language.
2. At the discretion of the HEI, Literature subjects may be introduced in Filipino,
English, or any other language as long as there are enough instructional materials.
Both students and instructors/professors are competent in the language.
3. Courses in the Humanities and Social Sciences should preferably be taught in
Filipino.
4. Philippines Language Policy in the 21st century.
In 2004, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo initiated a return to English as the
Philippines' primary instruction language. With a large part of the country's GDP
coming from overseas foreign workers' remittances and outsourced call centers
located throughout the country, the reliance on English proficiency was apparent
(Gonzalez, 2006). In 2006, Representative Eduardo Gullas proposed an English-only
bill in Congress to make English the primary language of instruction in all Philippines'
classrooms.

5. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in the Philippines (MTB-

MLE)
One of the changes in Basic Educatioght about by the workers' remittances2 program
is the introduction of Mother Tongue- Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)
specifically in Kindergarten, Grades 1, 2, and 3 to support the goal of "Every Child- A-
Reader, and A –Writer" by Grade 1."
MTB-MLE refers to "first-language-first" education, schooling that begins in the mother
tongue, and transitions to additional languages, mainly Filipino and English. It is meant
to address the high functional illiteracy of Filipinos, where language plays a significant
factor. Since the child's language enables her/ him to express him/herself easily, then
there is no fear of making mistakes.
It encourages active participation by children in the learning process because they
understand what is being discussed and what is being asked. They can immediately
use their mother tongue to construct and explain their world, articulate their thoughts,
and add new concepts to what they already know.
There are currently twelve (19) significant languages or lingua franca that shall be the
language of instruction. The major languages are
a. Tagalog k. Hiligaynon
b. Kapampangan l. Waray
c. Pangasinense m. Tausug
d. Iloko n. Maranao
e. Bikol o. Maguindanaoan

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 59

f. Cebuano p. Chabacano
g. Ybanag q. Aklanon
h. Sinugbuanong Binisaya r. Kinaray-a
i. Bahasa Sug s. Yakan and Sinurigaonon
j. Sambal
(Manabat, 2016)

K to 12 Mother Tongue Curriculum Guide May 2016

MTB-MLE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK

Mother Tongue – Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) is the administration's

unique educational program as a prominent part of implementing the K to 12 Basic
Education Program. The passing of Republic Act 10523 underscores its significance,
otherwise known as the "Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013."
MTB-MLE is education, non - formal, in which the learner's mother tongue and
additional languages are used in the classroom. Learners begin their knowledge in the
language they understand best - their mother tongue - and develop a strong foundation
in their mother language before adding additional languages.
Research stresses that children with a solid foundation in their mother tongue develop
more vital literacy abilities in the school language. Their skills and knowledge transfer
across languages. This bridge enables the learners to use both their languages for
success in school and lifelong learning. In terms of cognitive development, school
activities will engage learners to move well beyond the basic wh-questions. To cover
all higher-order thinking skills in L1, which they can transfer to the other languages
once enough, Filipino or English has been acquired to use these skills in thinking and
articulating thoughts.
With the end goal of making Filipino children lifelong learners in their Li (M.T.), L2
(Filipino, the national language), and L3 (English, the global language), the learners
are more than prepared to develop the competencies in the different learning areas. It
will serve as their passport to enter and achieve well in the mainstream educational
system and, in the end, contribute productively to their community and the larger
society as well as Multilingual, Multiliterate, and Multicultural Citizens of the country.
For the effective implementation of the MTB-MLE, it is suggested that the two-track
method be used, which is the primer track to focus on accuracy and the story track to
focus on meaning. Learning via the two-track form to gain literacy proficiency and
comprehend academic content and gain curriculum mastery, creative, and critical
thinking skills for decisive decision-making.

MTB-MLE provides:
1. Literacy. We only learn to read once. Learning to read in the L1 develops skills
that transfer to reading any other language. Comprehension in reading other

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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languages only occurs after oral proficiency has evolved. The vocabulary of the
written L2 text is already part of the learners' spoken vocabulary.

2. Prior knowledge. Engaging learners in a discussion of what is already familiar

to them using the home language and culture enables better learning of the
curriculum by integrating and applying it into current knowledge schemes.
3. Cognitive development and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). Using the
learners' mother tongue provides a strong foundation by developing cognitive
skills and comprehension of the academic content from day one. The
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values gained through the mother tongue
better support learning other languages and learn through other languages
later.

As learners articulate their thoughts and expand ideas, both language and
critical thinking are strengthened. MTB-MLE cultivates critical thinking through
talking about ideas in the familiar language. When teaching only in the L2,
critical thinking is postponed until L2 is sufficiently developed to support such
analysis.

4. Strong Bridge. MTB-MLE provides an excellent bridge to listening, speaking,

reading, and writing the L2s (L2, L3) of the classroom using sound educational
principles for building fluency and confidence in using the other languages for
lifelong learning. Reading in the L2 is only introduced after essential L1 reading
fluency, and L2 oral proficiency is developed. Comprehension in reading the L2
occurs after the development of that spoken L2. Once sufficient oral and written
proficiency in the L2 is formed, a gradual transition to using the L2 as a medium
of instruction can progress without the L1 support.

5. Scaffolding. In L2 teaching, the L1 is used to support learning when the L2 is

not sufficiently developed to be used alone. The L1 is used for expression. The
teacher facilitates the development of the L2 to enable learners to express
ideas in the L2 adequately. In this way, the L1 strengthens the learning of the
L2 by supporting the L2 development for communication.

6. Teaching for meaning and accuracy. Decoding text requires accuracy, while
comprehending texts requires decoding skills within a meaningful context. Both
meaning and accuracy are essential, but in classrooms that teach only L2, there
is often a primary focus on accuracy until the L2 is sufficiently learned. Delays
actual meaningful learning until the L2 can support that learning.

7. Confidence building and proficiency development for two or more languages

along the following macro-skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and
viewing) for both meaning and accuracy.

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ABSTRACTION

Answer the following questions:

1. As a citizen of the Philippines, how do you think can we preserve the languages
that we have? Suggest some ways.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. How do ASEAN languages preserve their identities while maintaining the use
of English as a lingua franca? Cite some examples.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

APPLICATION

What do I think about bilingual instruction, English-only instruction, and mother tongue-
based education after studying the lesson? What is the importance of language
programs and policies in the Philippines? Explain your answers on the blanks below.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Insights

Keep in mind:

• Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) is the administration's

banner program for education as a prominent part of implementing the K to 12 Basic
Education Program. The passing of Republic Act 10523 underscores its significance,
otherwise known as the "Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013."

• Language Programs and Policies in the Philippines are the following: The
Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP), Executive Order No. 335, The Language
Policy of the Commission on Higher Education, Philippines language policy in the
21st century, Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in the Philippines (MTB-
MLE).

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Post-test

Essay: State points one by one and briefly explain.

1. Is using mother tongue language instruction hinder the learning of a second

language?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Compare and contrast the challenges teachers face in the Philippines and other
countries regarding language policies. Cite at least two researches from the
multilingual countries and one conducted in the Philippines.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

References:

CHED Memorandum Order 59 (1996). New general education curriculum. Pasig:

CHED.
DECS order 52 (1987). The 1987 policy on bilingual education. Manila: Department of
Education, Culture, and Sports.
DepEd (2015). Department of Education datasets. Available at
http://deped.gov.ph/datasets [accessed 8 November 2015].
DepEd Order 16 (2012). Guidelines on the Implementation of the Mother Tongue-
Based-
DepEd Advisory 398 (2012) Masters of Arts in Education program with a specialization
in mother tongue-based multilingual education. Pasig: Department of
Education.
Executive Order 335 (1988). Enjoining all
departments/bureaus/offices/agencies/instrumentalities of the government to
take such steps as are necessary for using the Filipino language in official
transactions, communications, and correspondence. Manila: Office of the
President.
Symaco, L. (2017). Education, Language Policy, and Language Use in the
Philippines. The University of Malaya. Published Thesis.

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LESSON 7
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC EDUCATION
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS, POLICIES, AND
PLANNING AMONG ASEAN COUNTRIES

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) encompasses eleven nations:

Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore (all joined in 1967),
Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos, and Burma [Myanmar] (1997), Cambodia (1999)
and Timor Leste (2005) have been benchmarking and following best practices in terms
of industries, agriculture, medicine, law, education, and language. While these nations
are considered as multilingual nations given the vast array of languages spoken in the
region, there was no reference to language and language policy in the original
Bangkok declaration. Kirkpatrick (2010) mentioned that the original members of
ASEAN have agreed that the English language has been the de facto working
language across the region. “The impression of English as the mutual language came
out automatically” and “There has been no definite regulation for the use of English,
but it has been used in all the actual situations” (Okudaira 1996). This de facto
benefiting English as ASEAN's working language became de jure with the ASEAN
Charter's adoption in 2009. Article 34 of the Charter reads, "The common language of
ASEAN shall be English."

With this kind of policy, it is essential to note that English has been used widely and
given good value among any other languages within the eleven nations. Some
researchers have argued that this is unfair treatment, and thus, inequality among
languages is an emerging phenomenon. Why and how is this happening? What are
the implications of this in English language teaching?

This lesson will review essential language programs and policies of ASEAN nations
and their significance in primary education. This lesson will highlight emerging laws
that govern the teaching of languages.

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Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Develop critical understanding and analysis of the different language programs
and policies implemented in Southeast Asia;
2. Reflect on the existing language policies and its principles to assist language
instruction;
3. Reconstruct differing language views and programs to be applied to the
teaching and learning process.

Before You Proceed…

Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about language policies in Southeast
Asia? What do you still want to know about it? What have you learned about it, or what
do you expect to learn?

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Reflect on this: What do you think is the most widely used language in Southeast Asia?
How do ASEAN countries regard English? At what age do you start learning and
acquiring English in school and at home? Share your thoughts below.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
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ANALYSIS

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

The global spread of English has

been commonly described in
three concentric circles (Kachru,
1985, 1992) consisting of Inner
Circle varieties, including
countries such as the United
Kingdom, the United States,

Photo source: https://jalt-publications.org

Australia, Canada, and New
Zealand, where English is used
as a native language. Outer
Circle varieties include ex-
colonial countries such as the
Philippines and Singapore,
where English is considered a
second language. The
Expanding Circle diversities
include China and Russia, where
English is taught as a foreign language. The Inner Circle countries are considered as
the "norm-providing," meaning they usually determine the English language standards
for the supplementary two circles; the Outer Circle countries are "norm-developing"
(i.e., developing their standard), and the Expanding Circle countries as 'norm-
dependent (i.e., depending on the standards set by the Inner Circle countries)(Low
and Ao, 2018). From the World Englishes perspective and following Kachru's model,
English in Southeast Asia (SEA) falls under two categories: Outer Circle and
Expanding Circle varieties. Countries considered on the Outer Circle are former
colonies of Great Britain and the USA, such as Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, and the
Philippines. In contrast, the Expanding Circle varieties include Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.
It is proper to analyze different language programs and policies according to the
category they belong to this context.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE POLICIES IN ASEAN

Kirkpatrick (2017) posed a critical question on the language policies implemented by

Southeast Asian (SEA) nations. The question is: how can the promotion of English as
the only working language and as the first language of education of ASEAN, after the
particular national languages, be married with or harmonizing to the need to respect
the variety of the languages, cultures, and belief systems of the region? Based on his
article, SEA nations continue to give high regard for English while still maintaining our

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national languages. It may sound problematic, but ASEAN's capability to craft policies
that can protect all languages is also admirable. One of those policies is the use of
English as a medium of instruction in schools. Below is a policy table in the use of
English as a medium of instruction in ASEAN countries.

\
While most of the ASEAN countries are adapting English as a Medium of Instruction,
other countries such as the Philippines and Malaysia have also used their mother
tongues as a medium of instruction in the early grades but still use English for higher
education. For example, in Malaysia, the government revert the use of Bahasa Malay
as a medium of instruction from English because it might disadvantage students from
rural areas. The Malaysian administration has taken steps to implement a policy to
pass grade in English compulsory for students who take the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
examinations (i.e., Malaysian Certificate of Education, equivalent to the Cambridge O-
Level examinations) till 2016, to raise Malaysians' overall English standards
(Stareducate Team, 2013).

The mother-tongue based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) is also one of the

many policies implemented in the region. It has been implemented in the Philippines
with the K-12 curriculum with grades 1-3 having Mother Tongue as an additional
subject. Longitudinal research conducted has proven that MTB-MLE is useful in
comprehension and learning a new language. Until now, a proper evaluation of its
effectiveness while in K-12 is yet to be done.

In a multilingual and multiracial Singapore, English was regarded as an ethnically

neutral language owned by none of the ethnic groups. It gradually became the
linguistic tool different racial groups used for cross-ethnic communication. It led to the

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strengthening of English status but the gradual weakening of the position of indigenous
languages in Singapore. The indigenous languages taught to students in schools were
usually not the pupils' mother tongues but the standard varieties of the ethnic
language. Several challenges occurred from the language shift to the deteriorating
English because of the emergence of a localized variety, Singlish.

To address this concern, the Singapore government introduced the ‘Speak Good
English Movement’ in 2000. Since Singlish is still widely spoken in Singapore, as
research shows (e.g., Wong, 2014; Tan, 2017), and since it is “a variety replete with
localized cultural and linguistic features" (Low and Pakir, 2018: 48), issues of identity
and intelligibility arise (for detailed discussions, see Wong, 2014; Low and Pakir, 2018;
Wee, 2018). For Singapore's English-knowing bilingual policy to remain sustainable in
the long run, issues related to loss of dialects, continued widespread use of Singlish,
and its effect on English standards have to be heavily weighted and considered.

In Indonesia and Thailand, English is currently taught as the primary foreign language
in all government schools. With the English language being regarded as "the
international lingua franca and language of modernity" (Kirkpatrick, 2010: 49), the
language demand has increased in Thailand and Indonesia. English is the foreign
language most widely taught in Thailand and a required subject for the National
University Entrance Examination (Darasawang, 2007).

English was thought to be the enemy's language and was banned in Vietnam when
the Ho Chi Minh administration came to power in 1975 after the Vietnam War. After
economic reforms in 1986, Vietnam became more interested in learning English. At
present, English has since become popular among students and many others, such
as diplomats, army officers, senior police officers, doctors, engineers, and even
government officials (Ho and Wong, 2004).

English is now a compulsory subject from Primary 3 with Vietnamese as the MoI
(Kirkpatrick, 2010). It has become the most widely learned foreign language in
Vietnam, with more than 90% of children learning it (Baker and Giacchino-Baker,
2003). Besides education, other sectors like tourism and manufacturing have also
seen a growing demand for English (Le and O'Harrow, 2007). Therefore, English
proficiency has become a prerequisite for those who intend to seek employment
opportunities in foreign companies operating in Vietnam.

In Laos, English is also the first foreign language taught in schools. As required by the
Ministry of Education, English is offered as a subject starting from Primary 3 despite
the shortage of qualified teachers and suitable course materials (Phommanimith,
2008). In neighboring Myanmar, the spread of English began in 1886 when the British
occupied the country, about 15 years after Malaya was taken by Britain and over ten
years before the United States annexed the Philippines (Kirkpatrick, 2010; Low, 2018).

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As Kirkpatrick (2010) observes, English in Myanmar is still "restricted to the elite and
to a small number of domains, mostly involving the few NGOs and aid programs that
remain."

Kirkpatrick (2017) further suggests using English as a Lingua Franca in Southeast

Asia should be considered a priority. ASEAN has an enormous impact on English
development and argues that English's significant role is as a lingua franca within the
region. English has been part of the curriculum and continues to be. But this also
means that it can create an effect on the cultural and linguistic diversity of ASEAN.
Southeast Asian nations still give due respect and value to the national and indigenous
languages. We just hope that individual governments will craft policies protecting both.
By adopting a lingua franca approach to the teaching of English and the associated
delay in introducing English into the classroom, Kirkpatrick (2017) hopes that at least
some of the linguistic and cultural diversity of ASEAN might be preserved, while, at
the same time, ensuring that English is actually taught and learned more successfully
than at present.

ABSTRACTION

Answer the following questions:

3. As a citizen of ASEAN, how do you think can we preserve the languages that
we have? Suggest some ways.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

4. How do ASEAN languages preserve their identities while maintaining the use
of English as a lingua franca? Cite some examples.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

APPLICATION

Examine the following Facebook post. What does it tells about the language teachers
belonging to ASEAN countries? What are the issues raised in this post, and how would
you address them? How do you feel about this? Explain your answers on the blanks
below.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 69

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Insights

The prominence or decline of English in the ASEAN region is closely linked to the
individual governments' language policies. A balance

between the use of indigenous languages spoken among the indigenous population
and the importance of English as a tool for positioning the country to compete in the
English-speaking world need to be upheld. We need to find approaches on how
multilingualism can empower us as a citizen of ASEAN and find purposeful ways of
exploring our societies.

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Post-test

Based on the discussion, determine whether the following statements are TRUE or
FALSE. On the space provided before the number, write the letter T if you think that
the statement is true to the topic discussed and F if it is not.

__________ 1. The Philippines belongs to the Inner Circle

__________ 2. Language policies should be geared towards the development of
nations
__________ 3. Language policies among ASEAN countries are neglecting indigenous
languages
__________ 4. Most ASEAN citizens are monolingual and therefore should limit the
use of English as a second language
__________ 5. There is no need for new language policies because the existing ones
are working

References:

Kirkpatrick, A. (2017). Language Education Policy Among the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). European Journal of Language Policy, 9,
25 - 7.

Low, E. L., &Ao, R. (2018). The Spread of English in ASEAN: Policies and issues.
RELC Journal, 49(2), 131-148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688218782513

Phuong Tra Vu. (2012). English in Southeast Asian countries. Literature. dumas-
00931949

Tupas, R. (2018). (Un)framing Language Policy and Reform in Southeast Asia. RELC
Journal, 49(2), 149–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688218772155

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LESSON 8
ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS IN
PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

Duration: 4 hours

Introduction

In terms of effect, the Philippines' educational system has been dramatically

influenced by the colonial past of the region, including the Spanish era, the American
era, and Japanese rule and occupation.

While all the colonizers had a significant impact on the education system, the most
prominent and deep-rooted innovations originated during the American occupation
(1898); it was during that time that 1. English has been recognized as the primary
language of teaching; and 2. A comprehensive education program was first
developed-a structure loosely modeled after the United States school system and then
implemented by the recently formed Department of Instruction.

Like the United States of America, the Philippines has had a comprehensive and highly
equitable school program, with higher education elements. The new Philippine
education system includes, first, six years of compulsory schooling (from grades 1 to
6), split informally into two stages, three years old. The first level is known as the main
level, and the second level is referred to as the secondary level.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify issues and concerns in Philippine education.
2. Create a jingle that will showcase the ideas on how to improve the quality of
education.
3. Make a summary of the articles read in connection to Philippine education.
4. Provide a comic strip of the futuristic education system in the Philippines.

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Before You Proceed…

If given a chance to speak with the President of Bulacan State University and you
would be asked to write five (5) issues on the campus that you would like to talk with
her, what would they be? Indicate your response by filling up the blanks below:

1.____________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________
3.____________________________________________________________
4.____________________________________________________________
5.____________________________________________________________

Lesson Proper

Although the Philippine education system has historically been a model for other
Southeast Asian countries, this has not been so in recent years. Such a structure has
deteriorated – an increasingly evident and valid reality in the more isolated poverty-
ridden regions of the world.

Many issues are facing the national Philippines when it comes to the school sector
and below are some of the main concerns that are reflective of such a statement:

Quality of Education

In 2014, the findings of the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National
Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) indicated that there had been a
deterioration in the standard of primary and secondary education in the
Philippines. The student performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE was
significantly below the goal mean score.

The low consistency of the Philippine education system is expressed in the

contrast of the graduation rates between the heavily urbanized city of Metro
Manila, which also happens to be the capital of the Philippines and also the most
significant metropolitan region in the country and other areas of the world such
as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas.

While Manila can boast 100 percent of its primary school completion rate, other
parts of the country, such as East Visayas and Mindanao, have a primary school
completion rate of just 30 percent or less.

This kind of figure is no surprise to the Philippine education system, with students
coming from Philippine metropolitan areas having the financial capacity to finish
at least their high school schooling.

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Budget for Education

The next question facing the Philippine school system is the funding for
schooling. While the government has been required by the Philippine
Constitution to devote the highest proportion of its spending to education, one of
the lowest budget allocations among ASEAN countries remains for education in
the Philippines.

Affordability of Education

The third prominent problem that the Philippine education system is consistently
faced with is the quality (or lack thereof) of schooling. There is a broad gap in
educational success across different social classes.

Hence, socio-economically deprived students, otherwise known as children who

are part of high-and low-income poverty-stricken households, have considerably
higher drop-out rates at the primary school. In comparison, most recent tertiary
graduates come from comparatively well-off communities.

Drop-out Rate (Out-of-school youth)

France Castro, Secretary of the Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT), noted

an urgent need to tackle the growing number of out-of-school youth in the region.

The Philippines has a total of 1.4 million out-of-school students, according to

UNESCO statistics, and is also the only ASEAN country to be listed in the top
five countries with the most significant number of out-of-school youth.

In 2012, the Department of Education registered a drop-out rate of 6.38% in

primary school and a drop-out rate of 7.82% in high school. Castro also claimed
that "the growing number of out-of-school children is caused by hunger. Price
rises for gasoline, energy, food, water, and other basic goods are pushing the
poor into desperate poverty." Consequently, more households are more
unfortunate; the number of students enrolled in public schools, exceptionally high
school, is rising.

In 2013, the Department of Education reported 38 503 primary schools alongside

7,470 secondary schools.

Mismatch

There is a vital gap between education and real jobs. It is a big concern at the
tertiary level. It is also the source of the continuing presence of a significant
number of educated and unemployed or underemployed citizens.

According to Dean Salvador Belaro Jr., a Cornell-educated Congressman

representing the 1-Ang Edukasyon Party-listed in the House of Representatives,
the number of trained unemployed is approximately 600,000 a year. This state is
referred to as the "knowledge gap."

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Brain Drain

Brain Drain is a persistent problem apparent in the Philippines' education system

due to the new globalization phenomenon, with an estimated 2.3 million overseas
Filipino workers (OFWs) working abroad between April and September 2014.

Subsequently, this ongoing mass migration causes an unprecedented brain drain

with severe economic implications. The Philippine Government has paid the
college bill for millions of people who live their most active years overseas.
Consequently, the Philippines' already weak school system implicitly subsidizes
the opulent industries that host the OFWs.

Social Divide

In terms of educational opportunities in the region, there is a troublesome and

distinct social divide. Many modern cultures have had an equalizing influence on
the issue of education. This division in the social system has made education
part of the fundamental structure that produces a divide between the rich and the
poor.

Lack of Facilities and Teacher Shortage in Public Schools

There is a significant lack of facilities around Philippine public schools-including

classrooms, teachers, desks and seats, textbooks, and audio-video content.

According to the Department of Education of 2003, Undersecretary Juan Miguel

Luz, more than 17 million students are registered in public schools in the
Philippines. With an average population growth rate of 2.3 percent, around 1.7
million children are born per year, which means that more people can assume
control of their share of the (limited) education provisions in a few years. To sum
up, there are many students and so few money.

Although the government promises to raise the allotted budget for schooling,
there is a prevalent problem facing the public-school system in light of the
shortages. In comparison, state universities and colleges are increasingly
increasing their schooling to provide a way of buying services, rendering tertiary
education impossible to obtain or, more often than not, unavailable to the poor.

It is worth remembering, though, what the Aquino administration has done in its
five years of government concerning classroom building-the number of
classrooms constructed from 2005 to the first half of 2010 has tripled.

In comparison, the number of classrooms constructed between 2010 and

February 2015 was estimated to be 86,478, slightly higher than the 17,305
classrooms constructed between 2005 and 2010 and sufficient to account for the
66,800-classroom shortfall in 2010.

In President Aquino's Fourth State of National Address (SONA), he spoke of the

government's achievement of zero backlogs in facilities such as classrooms,

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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desks and benches, and textbooks that addressed the disparity in teacher
vacancies, with 56,085 new teachers in the 61, 510 teaching subjects in 2013.

However, the data obtained by the Department of Education reveal that since the
start of classes (June 2013), the classroom shortages led to 19 579, 60 million
shortages of classrooms, 2.5 million shortages of seats, and 80, 937 shortages
in water and sanitation services.

In comparison, 770 schools in Manila, Cebu, and Davao Metro were deemed
overcrowded. The Department of Education has issued reports showing that 91
percent of teachers' 61 510 vacancies had been filled with appointments (5, 425
to be specific) to be approved.

Issues Regarding The K-12

There is a disagreement as to the standard of education received by the scheme.

In 2014, the findings of the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National
Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) indicated that there had been a
deterioration in the standard of primary and secondary education in the
Philippines.

The student performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE was significantly
below the goal mean score. The Philippine education system's low consistency
is expressed in the contrast of the graduation rates between the heavily
urbanized city of Metro Manila.

While Manila can boast of 100 percent of the completion rate of primary school,
other areas of the country, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, have a
primary school graduation rate of just 30% or even less.

This kind of figure is no surprise to the Philippine education system, with students
coming from Philippine metropolitan areas having the financial capacity to finish
at least their high school schooling.

The next question facing the Philippine school system is the funding for
schooling. While the government has been required by the Philippine
Constitution to devote the highest proportion of its spending to education, one of
the lowest budget allocations among ASEAN countries remains for education in
the Philippines.

The other prominent problem that the Philippine education system is consistently
faced with is the quality (or lack thereof) of schooling. There is a broad gap in
educational success across different social classes. Socio-economically
deprived students, otherwise known as children who are part of high-and low-
income poverty-stricken households, have considerably higher drop-out rates at
the primary school. In comparison, most recent tertiary graduates come from
comparatively well-off communities.

Finally, there is a large proportion of mismatch. There is a large proportion of

mismatch between preparation and real practice. It is a big concern at the tertiary

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

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level. It is also the source of the continuing presence of a significant number of

educated and unemployed or underemployed citizens.

Mandatory School Uniforms

School Uniforms – must they be considered compulsory? As is familiar to any

dispute, this one also has two sides to it. Arguments in favor of imposing
standards note the absence of a standardized dress code done to school
campuses across the country – immodest piercings, suggestive or too casual
clothing, inappropriate hair colors, and styles.

Advocates against enforcing school uniforms contend that attire has little effect
on schooling. What one wears at home has no impact on what is learned at
school. Also, say the former, all students don't need to afford a uniform – should
they be refused education for lack of a uniform?

A happy halfway between these two school uniform controversies may be

introducing a stringent dress code, specifying what is NOT to be done at school.
Refusing to comply it would allow for a fine or suspension. It is safer than either
enforcing a full mandate in school uniforms in public schools or taking a too
radical approach to school.

Discipline Issues

To say it briefly, it is the age-old strategy of zero tolerance vs. giving-em-another

policy of chance. Both strategies are expected to work side-by-side in all
educational or other institutions. Zero tolerance laws would be placed on violent
and anti-social and physical in-disciplinary acts, such as abuse and the transfer
of weapons to institutes.

Second-chance programs may encourage higher student success and instill a

culture of working harder the next time. The incentives, however, should not be
left unregulated by the same person for the same default.

Giving second chances does not turn into a spare-the-rod-and-spoil-the-child

mentality!

Addressing Diversity

With students from historically and ethnically diverse backgrounds pursuing

school admissions today, whether or not to discuss diversity is a critical one.
Racial inequalities and ethnic differences have been at risk in public schools
since the establishment of public schools. The most critical step in tackling
diversity in schools will come from the program itself. The presence of various
ethnic sports and multicultural festivals in schools will mark the beginning of an
effort to incorporate students from varied cultures into a bond of social solidarity.

Moreover, using influential historical annals originating from diverse ethnicities

as part of a comprehensive analysis of world history will allow students to learn
about each other's social, cultural, and ethnic distinctions.

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Unbiased Grading

Rating – connecting parameters to its intention. Is this how it is going? What are
these ratings reflecting? Or rather, what are grades to reflect? Will they protect
the academics?

Then again, what, in the academic world, will they reflect? Will ratings be
considered for evaluating coping ability, knowledge-taking ability, diligence in
reaching academic deadlines, or both of these?

Again, should a student's inability to live up to such expectations be seen as

laxity on the student's part, or should he be blamed for the teacher's
incompetence? Will class participation be included in the overall ranking?

If so, wouldn't that kill the idea of honoring the autonomy of shier or quieter
students who might be just as lovely (maybe better) at academia as their more
outgoing counterparts? Unbiased standardization of the grading system would
entail close analysis of all the aspects of these questions and dilemmas to arrive
at an unbiased interpretation that leaves no room for uncertainty.

In addition to the above-mentioned ethical concerns in education, there are other

critical issues – assessment of teachers, reproductive education, merit
education, tracking, and random drug testing at campuses – that reign in
controversy.

Any of these things needs close analysis and thorough comprehension.

However, even then, there will still be a "depending on the case" aspect that will
determine whether the decision would be delivered.

Access to the Internet

Adequate access to the Internet is key to a better vision for the future. The quality
of education can be improved in many ways. It opens doors to different content,
skills, and educational tools through opportunities for learning in and outside the
classroom.

Teachers use multimedia tools to schedule courses and students to expand their
experience of learning. Interactive teaching approaches, enabled by the Internet,
allow teachers to pay more attention to students' needs and promote
collaborative learning. It will help to correct the gaps in education faced by girls
and women.

Access to the Internet helps educational leaders minimize costs and improve the
efficiency of schools and colleges. Educationalists are willing to discuss
possibilities and find innovative ways to use the Internet to improve educational
outcomes. As the Broadband Committee for Sustainable Development put it, the
goal is to help teachers and students use technology.

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Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum creation is a problem-solving process that includes considering the

needs and concerns of developing services and introducing approaches and
options for learners and their contexts.

The curriculum is a representation and consequence of culture and may lead to

the development of culture. It is essential to focus on decision-making aspects in
a diverse and sensitive curriculum planning environment to recognize key
curricular concerns and connect them to common sense inclusively and
constructively.

A brain mapping project needs to define these concerns to identify core problems
in the primary education system.

ACTIVITY

Form a group of six to seven members and come up with a two-minute jingle about
the top three concerns that school administrators should prioritize to improve the
quality of education. Have the output video-recorded with subscript for the lyrics and
consider the rubrics below:

Creative Innovation - 30%

Clarity of the Voice/Blending - 30%
Significance of the Content - 40%
Total - 100%

ANALYSIS

Make an executive summary of why the "Philippine education system that has
historically been a model for other Southeast Asian countries is no longer so in recent
years." Ensure that facts from reliable sources/references should back up your
statements.

ABSTRACTION

As a future educator, how can you help address the different language education
issues in your classroom? Cite some examples.

APPLICATION

Find a partner as you choose one among the issues mentioned above in the Philippine
education system and make a spiel about it wherein the two of you would "act" as
personalities who are involved with the said concern. Present the dialogue in a radio-
drama format as you ensure that the "problem" and the possible "solution" would be
highlighted.

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Insights

Provide a comic script portraying the education system in the Philippines ten (10)
years from now. Show yourself as one of the critical characters in affecting the said
scenario.

Post-test

Using your own set of words, explain in two to three sentences how the following
factors become significant issues/concerns in the Philippines' educational system.

1. Quality of Education
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. Budget
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3. Affordability of Education
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

4. Drop-out Rate
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

5. Mismatch
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

 80

6. Brain Drain
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

7. Social Divide
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

8. Lack of Facilities and Teacher Shortage

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

9. Discipline Issues
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

10. Unbiased Grading

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

References:

https://opinionfront.com/ethical-issues-in-education

https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2017/internet-access-and-education/

Issues and Challenges from a 21st Century Learning Perspective, Journal of

Language, Identity & Education, DOI: 10.1080/15348458.2018.1528547

https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2018.1528547

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LESSON 9
LANGUAGE POLICY CHOICES IN
MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

We see and hear and otherwise experience very primarily as we

do because our community's language habits predispose certain
choices of interpretation. -Edward Sapir-

Globalization has pushed societies into becoming more and more multilingual.
Multilingual societies use various languages to serve purposes. Languages
have become more valuable more than ever, and the way we view it changed
drastically. From being a communication tool, languages have become an asset
and primary instrument in human comprehension and societal understanding.
However, language can also become a barrier to communication and a
problem, which necessitates language planning.

In language policy choices, certain conditions must be met. At the same time,
we also want to question these conditions regarding whose standards we are
following and its implementation processes. Who is the one choosing what
language to use? How do we choose our languages?

In this lesson, we will explore these conditions and also the processes of
language planning and language policy choices.

Lesson Objectives

Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Be familiar with the language planning and language policy processes;
2. Reflect on the linguistic choices considered when crafting policies;
3. Examine existing language policies in multilingual societies.

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Before You Proceed…

Answer these: What is your idea of ‘language policies’? What concepts can you relate
to? Write your answers on the semantic map below.

Language
Policies

Lesson Proper

ACTIVITY

Have you ever experienced paying a fine or receiving punishment from your teacher
because you speak Tagalog or your native language instead of English? How do you
feel about it? What would you feel when you share your thoughts below.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS

Language Planning is defined as all conscious efforts that aim to change a speech
community's linguistic behavior. It usually occurs in most countries where they have
more than one language within the community. Language planning is usually done by
respective governments to shape linguistic behaviors and patterns to make the
community more developed and productive.

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Similar to Language Planning, Language Policy refers to the more general linguistic,
political, and social goals underlying the actual language planning process. Language
policy is the expression of ideological views and orientations. Language planning is
the actual proposal that makes up its implementation.

Language Planning is a deliberate language change (Ruben and Jernudd, 1971). It is

an organized activity to solve language problems within a community (Jahr, 1992, cf
McKay & Hornberger, 1996) and the proposal to express language ideologies within
the community. (Bakmand, 2000)

Stages of Language Planning (Haugen, 1966)

1. Selection (of Norm)– refers to the choice of a language variety to fulfill specific
functions in a given society. It is also considered as political planning as it
involves decision procedures. To choose any one vernacular as a norm means
to favor the group of people who speak that variety over others. In time, this
phenomenon will result in advantaged and disadvantaged groups.

2. Codification (of the form)– refers to creating a linguistic standard or norm for
a selected linguistic code. It involves developing the form of language,
establishing principles regarding its operation in phonology, grammar, and
lexicon.
3 Stages of Codification
1) Graphization– developing a writing system
2) Grammaticalization – determining on rules/ norms of grammar
3) Lexicalization – identifying the vocabulary
Ideally, the form of a standard language would result in minimal variation in
form. The goal of codification is stability, which means the halting or slowing
down of linguistic change.

3. Elaboration (of function)– denotes the stylistic development and terminology

of a codified language to provide modern life and technology's communicative
demands. Its main area is the dissemination and production of new terms. A
developed language must answer to the needs of various communities,
classes, occupations, and interest groups.

Elaboration of function may lead to complexity of form, and, contrariwise, unity

of form may lead to rigidity in function (Haugen, 1997). Haugen (1997) further
adds that a complete language has its formal and informal styles and regional
accents. It's a class or occupational `jargon, which does not destroy its unity so
long as it is diversified in function and shows a reasonable degree of solidarity.

4. Implementation or acceptance (by the community) promotes the decisions

made in the stages of selection and codification, including marketing strategy,
production of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and textbooks using the new
codified standard. If it is not to be terminated as dead, a standard language
must have a body of users (Haugen, 1997).

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One and four are the responsibilities of society, while 2 and 3 are taken care of
by linguists and authors (Haugen, 1990)

There are also two significant levels of Language Planning.

1. Status Planning – refers to the social and political position a language will
be assigned.
2. Corpus Planning–refers to changes or standardizing of some aspects of
the language, e.g., lexicon and orthography.

A framework to analyze language policies and practices in multilingual contexts can

be used to recognize the strengths and weaknesses of current approaches or to
identify issues that need to be addressed to make changes successfully. Da Galbert
(2019) proposed a framework that includes six factors: (i) the sociolinguistic context;
(ii) community support and engagement; (iii) orthographies; (iv) curriculum and
materials; (v) teacher recruitment, training and deployment; and (vi) assessment and
examination.

Various approaches to language policy choices are still being developed. But the
factors cited above are the most significant.

ABSTRACTION

1. In the Philippines, experts, society, and the government have done language
planning and language policies. How do you choose your language to use in
everyday contexts?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. What can you say about the government’s policy of promoting Baybayin as a
language to be used in commercial establishments?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. How does a nation's language policy effect on other nation's language policy?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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APPLICATION

Read this article: Ansah, M.A. (2016). Language Choice in Multilingual Communities:
The Case of Larteh, Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 25, 37-57.
Link:
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Language+Choice+in+
Multilingual+Communities%3A+The+Case+of+Larteh%2C+Ghana&btnG=

What are your insights about this? Do you think the framework and method used are
the plausible representation of language policy choices?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Insights

In reality, language policies are deemed to be a political process. But ideally, our
language policy choices are guided by logical principles or functions and societal
tendencies. A balance between these two should be met and continue to protect all
our languages. As a multilingual society, the value that we give to our languages
should also be reflected in the policies we are making.

Post-test

Based on the discussion, determine whether the following statements are TRUE or
FALSE. On the space provided before the number, write the letter T if you think that
the statement is true to the topic discussed above and F if it is not.

__________ 1. Codification is also known as Corpus Planning, which is a step needed

to develop a language.
__________ 2. The Language Planning activity is trying to establish a nation’s
language autonomy and to include concern for minority and endangered languages.
__________ 3. In the past, the teachers were probably the main influence on the
written form of previously written languages.
__________ 4. Community involvement is the most widespread method of
encouraging the acquisition of a language.
__________ 5. Government and people’s acceptance are both necessary for
language acceptance.

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References:

Ansah, M.A. (2016). Language Choice in Multilingual Communities: The Case of

Larteh, Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 25, 37-57.

BobCharley. (2014). Language Planning and Policy. Accessed from

www.slidehare.net on August 20, 2020

Haugen E. (1997) Language Standardization. In: Coupland N., Jaworski A. (eds)

Sociolinguistics. Modern Linguistics Series. Palgrave, London.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_27

de Galbert, Pierre Gaspard. (2019). Learning in Multilingual Contexts: Language

Policies, Cross-Linguistic Transfer, and Reading Interventions. Doctoral
dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education.

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ABOUT THE WRITERS

Emmanuel Garcia Morata, MAE, LPT., is a faculty member of the Bulacan State
University- San Jose Del Monte Campus. He finished his Master’s Degree major in
English at the La Consolacion University of the Philippines and his Bachelor in
Secondary Education major in English at Sta. Rosa Sapang Palay College. He
presented a paper in an international conference held in Malaysia and later on
considered for SCOPUS indexing.

Christina Dionisio- Vicencio, MAE, LPT., is a faculty member of the Bulacan State
University- Meneses Campus. The writer is a candidate for a Doctor of Philosophy
major in English Language Studies. She also finished her Master of Arts in Education
major in Language Education and Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English
at Bulacan State University. She authored books and presented researches at
international conferences. She has published research papers in the Asian EFL
Journal, an international refereed journal.

Mira Gorgonia Villapaña, LPT, is a faculty member of the Bulacan State University
– Hagonoy Campus and finishing her Master of Arts in English Language and
Literature Teaching from the Ateneo de Manila University. She graduated Cum Laude
with a Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English at the Philippine Normal
University-Manila. She is actively involved in international presentations and doing
various research projects.

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES