Bioethics and its Application Research and development of new effective

reversible contraceptives for women and men are

in Various Health Care needed. Dissemination of information about the
safety and effectiveness of contraceptive methods is
Situations of great importance. Female genital mutilation is still
practiced worldwide due to customs and traditions
among various ethnic groups. The procedure is
Sexuality and Human Reproduction considered to be medically detrimental to the
physical and mental health of women and girls and is
considered by many as oppression of women. The
practice has to be stopped.
Issues on Contraception, its Morality, and
Ethico-moral Responsibility of Nurses
Women’s health can be enhanced if women Recognition of the fetus as a ‘patient’ has a potential
are given the opportunity to make their own effect on women’s right to autonomy, they have no
reproductive choices about sex, contraception, legal obligation to undergo invasive procedures and
abortion, and the application of reproductive to risk their health for the sake of their fetuses. The
technologies. The main issues that raise ethical woman carries ethical obligations toward her fetus.
dilemmas following he development of assisted This obligation should not be enforced by the law. At
reproduction techniques are the right to procreate present women bear most of the burden of
or reproduce; the process of in-vitro-fertilization reproductive health. All of them have a right to
itself is it morally acceptable to interfere in the access fertility regulation. Government and society
reproduction process? must ensure women’s equal rights to health care just
as men have in the regulation of their fertility.
The moral status of the embryo; the involvement of
a third party in the reproductive process by genetic
material donation, the practice of surrogacy, The Morality of Abortion, Rape and other
cryopreservation of pre-embryos, genetic
Problems Related to Destruction of Life
manipulation, experiments on pre-embryos, etc.
Induced abortion raises ethical issues related to the Is Rape a Moral Justification for Abortion?
rights of the woman versus the rights of the fetus.
1. Dignity in Death and Dying
2. Euthanasia and Prolongation of Life
3. Inviolability of Human Life
For those who consider life to begin at conception
4. Euthanasia and Suicide
abortion always equal to murder and is therefore
5. Dysthanasia
forbidden. Those who believe in the absolute
6. Orthithanasia
autonomy of the woman over her body take the
7. Administration of Drugs to the Dying
other extreme approach. The discussion surrounding
8. Advance Directives
abortion usually centers on whether it should be
9. DNR or End of Life Care Plan
legal or illegal. Access to safe abortion is critical to
the health of women and to their autonomy. The
development of new effective contraceptives
methods has a profound impact on women’s lives.
By the use of contraception, it is possible to lessen
maternal, infant, and child mortality and to reduce
the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases.
Ethical Decision-Making Process the good of the society that are unprocurable
by other methods or means of study. All
The eight steps of the model include: agree, however, that certain basic principles
1. Identify the problem; must be observed in order to satisfy moral,
2. Consideration of context and setting; ethical and legal concepts:
3. Identification and use of ethical and legal
resources; a. The voluntary consent of the human
4. Consideration of personal beliefs and values; subject is absolutely essential. This means
5. Consider possible solutions for the problem; that the person involved should have
6. Consideration of potential consequences of legal capacity to give consent; should be
all possible decisions; situated as to be able to exercise free
7. Choice and implementation of course of power of choice, without the intervention
action; of any element of force, fraud, deceit,
8. Outcome assessment and implementation of duress, overreaching, or other ulterior
necessary changes. form of constraint or coercion; and should
have sufficient knowledge and
comprehension of the element of the
subject matter involved as to enable him
Bioethics and Research to make an understanding and
Principles of Ethics in Research enlightened decision.

1. Nuremberg Code b. The duty and responsibility for

- The judgement by the war crimes tribunal at ascertaining the quality of the consent
Nuremberg laid down 10 standards to which rest upon each individual who initiates,
physicians must conform when carrying out directs, or engages in the experiment. It is
experiments on human subjects in a new code a personal duty and responsibility which
that is now accepted worldwide. Amongst may bot be delegated to another with
other requirements, this document enunciates impunity.
the requirement of voluntary informed
consent of the human subject. The principle of c. The experiment should be such as to yield
voluntary informed consent protects the right fruitful results for the good of society,
of the individual to control his own body. unprocurable by other methods or means
of study, and not random and
unnecessary in nature.
This code also recognizes that the risk must be
weighed against the expected benefit, and
d. The experiment should be so designed
that unnecessary pain and suffering must be
and based on the results of animal
avoided. This code recognizes that doctors
experimentation and a knowledge of the
should avoid actions that injure human
natural history of the disease or other
patients.
problem under study that the anticipated
results justify the performance of the
experiment.
Permissible Medical Experiments
- The protagonists of the practice of human e. The experiment should be so conducted
experimentation justify their views on the as to avoid all unnecessary physical and
basis that such experiments yield results for mental suffering and injury.
f. No experiment should be conducted 2. Declaration of Helsinki
where there is a priori reason to believe - The World Medical Association has developed
that death or disabling injury will occur, the Declaration of Helsinki as a statement of
except, perhaps in those experiments ethical principles to provide guidance to
where the experimental physicians also physicians and other participants in medical
serve as subjects. research involving human subjects.

g. The degree of risk to be taken should

never exceed that determined by the Basic Principles for all Medical Research:
humanitarian importance of the problem
a. Medical research involving human subjects
to be solved by the experiment.
must conform to generally accepted scientific
principles, be based on a thorough
h. Proper preparation should made and
knowledge of the scientific literature, other
adequate facilities provided to protect the
relevant sources of information, and on
experimental subject against even remote
adequate laboratory and, where appropriate,
possibilities of injury, disability, or death.
animal experimentation.
i. The experiment should be conducted only
b. Medical research involving human subjects
by scientifically qualified persons. The
should be conducted only by scientifically
highest degree of skill and care should be
qualified persons and under the supervision
required through all stages of the
of a clinically competent medical person. The
experiment of those who conduct or
responsibility for the human subject must
engage in the experiment.
always rest with a medically qualified person
and never rest on the subject of the research,
j. During the course of the experiment, the
even though the subject has given consent.
human subject should be at liberty to
bring the experiment to an end if he has
c. Every medical research project involving
reached the physical or mental state
human subjects should be preceded by
where continuation of the experiment
careful assessment of predictable risks and
seems to him to be impossible.
burdens in comparison with foreseeable
benefits to the subject or to others. This does
k. During the course of the experiment, the
not preclude the participation of healthy
scientist in charge must be prepared to
volunteers in medical research. The design of
terminate the experiment at any stage, if
all studies should be publicly available.
he has probable cause to believe, in the
d. Medical research involving human subjects
exercise of the good faith, superior skill,
should only be conducted if the importance
and careful judgement required of him,
of the objective outweighs the inherent risks
that a continuation of the experiment is
and burdens to the subject. This is especially
likely to result in injury, disability, or
important when the human subjects are
death to the experimental subject.
healthy volunteers.
e. The subject must be volunteers and informed
participants in the research projects.
f. For a research subject who is legally
incompetent, physically or mentally incapable
of giving consent or is legally incompetent
minor, the investigator must obtain informed
 consent from the legally authorized
representative in accordance with applicable
law.

Guidelines and Protocol in

Documentation and Health Care
Records
Ethical Consideration in Leadership and
Management
Moral Decision Making
1. Principle of Moral Discernment
o The Principle of Moral Discrimination
suggests that being morally
discriminating is a way of life that we
must adapt and utilize in all aspects of
our lives as a commitment to God and
to the dignity of other human beings.

2. Principle of Well-Formed Conscience

o The Principle of Well-Formed
Conscience indicates that people are
obligated to inform themselves about
ethical norm, incorporate that
knowledge into their daily lives, act
according to that knowledge, and take
responsibility for those actions.