A.I.S.S.C.

E 2022
BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
STUDY ON CANCER
 REGISTRATION NUMBER-

 ROLL NUMBER-
CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT KANKANA DEY OF
CLASS XII HAS SUCESSFULLY COMPLETED
THE PROJECT ON THEN TOPIC ‘STUDY ON
CANCER’ UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF HER
TEACHERS
MRS.SARKAR,MRS.ROY,MRS.GHOSH IN THE
YEAR 2021-2022 IN THE PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
EXAMINATION OF AISSCE CONDUCTED BY
CBSE.

SIGNATURE OF SIGNATURE OF

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL:
SCHOOL SEAL-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my intense gratitude
and deep regards to my teachers in charge
Mrs.Sarkar,Mrs .Roy,and Mrs.Ghosh for their exemplary
guidance ,monitoring and inspiration throughout the
making of the biology project. Their timely guidance
shall take me a long way in my life .I also sense a deep
sense of gratitude towards my parents , lab assistant for
their cordial support, valuable information and guidance
which help me in completing this project.
INDEX
TOPIC AND

INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------- 5
Cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the
potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These
contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and
symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough,
unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While
these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other
causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.Tobacco use is the
cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. Another 10% are due to
obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity or excessive drinking of
alcohol. Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing
radiation, and environmental pollutants. In the developing world,
15% of cancers are due to infections such as Helicobacter pylori,
hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human papillomavirus infection, Epstein–Barr
virus and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). These factors act, at
least partly, by changing the genes of a cell. Typically, many genetic
changes are required before cancer develops. Approximately 5–10%
of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects. Cancer can be
detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests. It is then
typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by
biopsy.
The risk of developing certain cancers can be reduced by not
smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, limiting alcohol intake,
eating plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, vaccination
against certain infectious diseases, limiting consumption of
processed meat and red meat, and limiting exposure to direct
sunlight. Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and
colorectal cancer. The benefits of screening in breast cancer are
controversial. Cancer is often treated with some combination of
radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy. Pain
and symptom management are an important part of care. Palliative
care is particularly important in people with advanced disease. The
chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of
disease at the start of treatment. In children under 15 at diagnosis,
the five-year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80%.
For cancer in the United States, the average five-year survival rate is
66%.
In 2015, about 90.5 million people had cancer. As of 2019, about 18
million new cases occur annually. Annually, it caused about 8.8
million deaths (15.7% of deaths). The most common types of cancer
in males are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and
stomach cancer. In females, the most common types are breast
cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and cervical cancer. If skin
cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancer cases
each year, it would account for around 40% of cases. In children,
acute lymphoblastic leukemia and brain tumors are most common,
except in Africa, where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often. In
2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed
with cancer. The risk of cancer increases significantly with age, and
many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries. Rates
are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle
changes occur in the developing world. The financial costs of cancer
were estimated at 1.16 trillion USD per year as of 2010.
Etymology and definitions:The word comes from the ancient
Greek καρκίνος, meaning crab and tumor. Greek physicians
Hippocrates and Galen, among others, noted the similarity of crabs
to some tumors with swollen veins. The word was introduced in
English in the modern medical sense around 1600.
Cancers comprise a large family of diseases that involve abnormal
cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of
the body. They form a subset of neoplasms. A neoplasm or tumor is a
group of cells that have undergone unregulated growth and will
often form a mass or lump, but may be distributed diffusely.
All tumor cells show the six hallmarks of cancer. These characteristics
are required to produce a malignant tumor. They include:
 Cell growth and division absent the proper signals
 Continuous growth and division even given contrary signals
 Avoidance of programmed cell death
 Limitless number of cell divisions
 Promoting blood vessel construction
 Invasion of tissue and formation of metastases.
 The progression from normal cells to cells that can form a
detectable mass to outright cancer involves multiple steps
known as malignant progression.
Signs and symptoms:When cancer begins, it produces no
symptoms. Signs and symptoms appear as the mass grows or
ulcerates. The findings that result depend on the cancer's type and
location. Few symptoms are specific. Many frequently occur in
individuals who have other conditions. Cancer can be difficult to
diagnose and can be considered a "great imitator. "People may
become anxious or depressed post-diagnosis. The risk of suicide in
people with cancer is approximately double.
Local symptoms-
Local symptoms may occur due to the mass of the tumor or its
ulceration. For example, mass effects from lung cancer can block the
bronchus resulting in cough or pneumonia; esophageal cancer can
cause narrowing of the esophagus, making it difficult or painful to
swallow; and colorectal cancer may lead to narrowing or blockages
in the bowel, affecting bowel habits. Masses in breasts or testicles
may produce observable lumps. Ulceration can cause bleeding that
can lead to symptoms such as coughing up blood (lung cancer),
anemia or rectal bleeding (colon cancer), blood in the urine (bladder
cancer), or abnormal vaginal bleeding (endometrial or cervical
cancer). Although localized pain may occur in advanced cancer, the
initial tumor is usually painless. Some cancers can cause a build up of
fluid within the chest or abdomen.
Systemic symptoms
Systemic symptoms may occur due to the body's response to the
cancer. This may include fatigue, unintentional weight loss, or skin
changes. Some cancers can cause a systemic inflammatory state that
leads to ongoing muscle loss and weakness, known as cachexia.
Some types of cancer such as Hodgkin disease, leukemias and
cancers of the liver or kidney can cause a persistent fever.
Some systemic symptoms of cancer are caused by hormones or other
molecules produced by the tumor, known as paraneoplastic
syndromes. Common paraneoplastic syndromes include
hypercalcemia which can cause altered mental state, constipation
and dehydration, or hyponatremia that can also cause altered
mental status, vomiting, headache or seizures.
Metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of cancer to other locations in the body. The
dispersed tumors are called metastatic tumors, while the original is
called the primary tumor. Almost all cancers can metastasize. Most
cancer deaths are due to cancer that has metastasized.
Metastasis is common in the late stages of cancer and it can occur
via the blood or the lymphatic system or both. The typical steps in
metastasis are local invasion, intravasation into the blood or lymph,
circulation through the body, extravasation into the new tissue,
proliferation and angiogenesis. Different types of cancers tend to
metastasize to particular organs, but overall the most common
places for metastases to occur are the lungs, liver, brain and the
bones.
Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells
Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance,
cancer cells:
o grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal
cells only grow when they receive such signals.
o ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die
(a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis).
o invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body.
Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and
most normal cells do not move around the body.
o tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors. These blood vessels
supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste
products from tumors.
o hide from the immune system. The immune system normally
eliminates damaged or abnormal cells.
o trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and
grow. For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to
protect the tumor instead of attacking it.
o accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes, such as
duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer
cells have double the normal number of chromosomes.
Types of Genes that Cause Cancer
o The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect
three main types of genes—proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor
genes, and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes
called “drivers” of cancer.
o Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and
division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways
or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-
causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and
survive when they should not.
o Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell
growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor
suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.
o DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells
with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional
mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes,
such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts.
Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become
cancerous.
o As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes
that lead to cancer, they have found that certain mutations
commonly occur in many types of cancer. Now there are many
cancer treatments available that target gene mutations found
in cancer. A few of these treatments can be used by anyone
with a cancer that has the targeted mutation, no matter where
the cancer started growing.

Types of Cancer
o There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are
usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers
form. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and brain
cancer starts in the brain. Cancers also may be described by the
type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a
squamous cell.
 Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types
of cells:
Carcinoma:
Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed
by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and
outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial
cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a
microscope.Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types
have specific names:
o Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that
produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell
are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the
breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.
o Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or
basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer
layer of skin.
o Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous
cells, which are epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer
surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs,
including the stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys.
Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed under a
microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called
epidermoid carcinomas.
o Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of
epithelial tissue called transitional epithelium, or urothelium.
This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells
that can get bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the
bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis), and a
few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and
kidneys are transitional cell carcinomas.
o Sarcoma:Soft tissue sarcoma forms in soft tissues of the body,
including muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels,
nerves, and tissue around joints.Sarcomas are cancers that
form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood
vessels, lymph vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and
ligaments).
o Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most
common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma,
Kaposi sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma,
and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.

Leukemia:
Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow
are called leukemias. These cancers do not form solid tumors.
Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia
cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone
marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low level of normal
blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its
tissues, control bleeding, or fight infections. There are four
common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how
quickly the disease gets worse (acute or chronic) and on the type
of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid). Acute
forms of leukemia grow quickly and chronic forms grow more
slowly.
Lymphoma:Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T
cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white blood cells that
are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal
lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as well as
in other organs of the body.There are two main types of
lymphoma:
o Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal
lymphocytes that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells
 usually form from B cells.Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a
large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers
can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.
o Multiple Myeloma:
Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells, another
type of immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, called
myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in
bones all through the body. Multiple myeloma is also called
plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.
Melanoma:Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become
melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin. Most
melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also form in other
pigmented tissues, such as the eye.
Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors:There are different types of brain
and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type
of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the
central nervous system. For example, an astrocytic tumor begins in
star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, which help keep nerve cells
healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant
(cancer).Other Types of Tumors:Germ Cell Tumors:Germ cell
tumors are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to
sperm or eggs. These tumors can occur almost anywhere in the body
and can be either benign or malignant.
Case study
 A 63-year-old man presents to the hospital with a history of
recurrent infections that include cellulitis, pneumonias, and
upper respiratory tract infections. He reports subjective fevers
at home along with unintentional weight loss and occasional
night sweats. The patient has a remote history of arthritis,
which was diagnosed approximately 20 years ago and treated
intermittently with methotrexate (MTX) and prednisone. On
physical exam, he is found to be febrile at 102°F, rather
cachectic, pale, and have hepatosplenomegaly. Several swollen
joints that are tender to palpation and have decreased range of
motion are also present.
 A 52-year-old man who lives in the Midwest presents with a
lesion in his nose. He has an extensive history of sun exposure
and a 35 pack-year smoking history. The patient sought
attention from an otolaryngologist, who cultured the lesion in
the right upper medial nasal vestibule but noted “no lesion of
the nose.” He was treated with Bactroban ointment. During a
follow-up visit, the cultures were negative and the lesion had
not improved.Six months later, the patient returned to his
otolaryngologist because of reddening of the exterior tip of the
 nose. Cultures were again negative, and a course of
sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim was prescribed. When the
redness and swelling of the nose persisted, a tentative
diagnosis of relapsing polychondritis was rendered, and a trial
of Medrol Dosepak was undertaken. Within several weeks, the
patient noted progressive reddening of the nose and upper lip,
which became tender.The patient sought a second opinion. The
second otolaryngologist noted that the entire nasal tip was
swollen, with crusting in the bilateral nasal vestibules. The
patient was asked to continue Bactroban. Four subsequent
trials of oral antibiotics were completed without improvement.
A chest CT scan was normal.A further 6 months elapsed. The
nose was reddened and uncomfortable for the entire duration,
and the patient was maintained on hydrocodone and
acetominophen. Changes in the skin over the right nose were
noted, consistent with a blister. The surface of the nose
occasionally bled slightly.

 Patient is a 58 year old female who presents to the clinic with

complaints of right shoulder pain. Secondary to patients age,
family history, and subjective report this patient was advised to
return to their primary care provider for further medical
screening. With this patient being a 58 year old female she is
considered to be at risk for breast cancer. Another risk factor
this pt possesses is a primary relative who has recently lost the
battle to breast cancer. A significant concern with this pt is her
complaints of night pain so severe it wakes her from sleep. This
is a red flag that could indicate presence of tumor due to
changes in hormone levels at nighttime that accompany
neoplasms. The unexplained weight loss also gives reason to
suspespect more systematic involvement.
 BIBLOGRAPHY
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.webmd.com