FLUID MECHANICS

For
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 FLUID MECHANICS
SYLLABUS
Fluid statics, Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, shell-balances including
differential form of Bernoulli equation and energy balance, Macroscopic friction factors,
dimensional analysis and similitude, flow through pipeline systems, flow meters, pumps
and compressors, elementary boundary layer theory, flow past immersed bodies
including packed and fluidized beds, Turbulent flow: fluctuating velocity, universal
velocity profile and pressure drop.

ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

Exam Year Total

2001 05
2002 07
2003 05
2004 07
2005 09
2006 04
2007 05
2008 06
2009 07
2010 08
2011 09
2012 05
2013 05
2014 11
2015 07
2016 06
2017 03
2018 06

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 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. BASICS OF FLUID MECHANICS

1.1 Definition of Fluid 1

1.2 Basic Equations 1
1.3 System and Control Volume 1

2. PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

2.1 Density 2
2.2 Specific Gravity/Relative Density 2
2.3 Viscosity 2
2.4 Surface Tension 5
2.5 Capillarity 6
2.6 Thermodynamic Properties 7
2.7 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus 7
2.8 Vapor Pressure 8
2.9 Cavitations 8
Gate Questions 9

3. PRESSURE & FLUID STATICS

3.1 Pressure 14
3.2 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure 15
3.3 Principles of Fluid Statics 15
3.4 Pressure Measurement 16
3.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 23
3.6 Buoyancy & Floatation 35
Gate Questions 42

4. KINEMATICS

4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Methods of Describing Fluid Motion 49
4.3 Types of Fluid Flow 49
4.4 Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions 51
4.5 Continuity Equation in One Dimension 52
4.6 Motion of Fluid Element 52
4.7 Flow Patterns 53
4.8 Stream Function 54
4.9 Velocity Potential Function 54
4.10 Equipotential Line 55
Gate Questions 60

5. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION & ITS APPLICATIONS

5.1 Introduction 65

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 5.2 Euler’s Equation 65
5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation 65
5.4 Application Of Bernoulli’s Equation 66
5.5 Bernoulli’s Equation For Real Fluids 68
5.6 Free Liquid Jets 68
Gate Questions 73
6. FLOW THROUGH CONDUITS/PIPES

6.1 Internal Flow 83

6.2 Laminar Flow/Viscous Flow 83
6.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes 85
6.4 Loss of Energy in Fluid Flow 87
6.5 Flow through Pipes in Series or Flow through Compound Pipes 89
6.6 Flows through Nozzles 89
Gate Questions 98
7. EXTERNAL FLOW

7.1 Boundary Layer Formation 107

7.2 Regions of Boundary Layer 107
7.3 Boundary Layer Thickness 107
7.4 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due To Boundary Layer 108
7.5 Boundary Condition for the Velocity Profile 108
7.6 Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer 110
7.7 Lift 110
7.8 Boundary Layer Separation 110
Gate Questions 115

8. FLOW PAST IMMERSED BODIES

8.1 Lift 118

8.2 Stoke’s Law 118
8.3 Terminal Velocity 118
8.4 Stagnation Point 119
Gate Questions 120
9. FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM

9.1 Description of Porous Medium 123

9.2 Hydraulic Diameter 123
9.3 Friction in flow through beds of solids 123
9.4 Fluidization 124
Gate Questions 127

10. TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS

10.1 Flow Meters 132
10.2 Cavitation and Suction Lift In Pump 133
10.3 NPSH 133
10.4 Power Consumption 133
Gate Questions 134
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 1 BASICS OF FLUID MECHANICS

1.1 DEFINITION OF FLUID 1.3 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME

Fluid mechanics deals with the behaviour A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable
of fluids at rest and in motion. A fluid is a quantity of mass. The system boundaries
substance that deforms continuously under separate the system from the surroundings.
the application of a shear (tangential)
stress no matter how small the shear stress The boundaries of the system may be fixed
may be. or movable; however, there is no mass
Fluids comprise the liquid and gas (or transfer across the system boundaries. In
vapour) phases of the physical forms in the familiar piston–cylinder assembly the
which matter exists. The distinction gas in the cylinder is the system. Heat and
between a fluid and the solid state of work may cross the boundaries of the
matter is clear if you compare fluid and system, but the quantity of the matter
solid behaviour. A solid deforms when a within the system boundaries remains
shear stress is applied, but its deformation fixed. There is no mass transfer across the
does not continue to increase with time. system boundaries.
A control volume is an arbitrary volume in
1.2 BASIC EQUATIONS the space through which fluid flows. The
geometric boundary of the control volume
Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics is called the control surface. The control
necessarily begins, either directly or surface may be real or imaginary; it may be
indirectly, with statements of the basic at rest or in motion.
laws governing the fluid motion. The basic
laws, which are applicable to any fluid, are:

1. The conservation of mass

2. Newton’s second law of motion
3. The principle of angular momentum
4. The first law of thermodynamics
5. The second law of thermodynamics

Clearly, not all basic laws always are

required to solve any one problem. On the
other hand, in many problems it is
necessary to bring into the analysis
additional relations, in the form of
equations of state or conservation
equations, that describe the behaviour of
physical properties of fluid under given
conditions.

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 2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

2.1 DENSITY
internal resistance of a fluid to
Density is defined as mass per unit volume motion is called viscosity. The force,
and denoted by ρ. SI unit of density is a flowing fluid exerts on a body in
Kg/m3 the flow direction is called the drag
mass of fluid force, and the magnitude of this
Density(ρ) =
volume of fluid force depends, in part, on viscosity.
The reciprocal of density is the specific
volume ( ), which is defined as volume per 2.3.1 VISCOUS FORCE IN LIQUIDS AND
GASES
unit mass.
SI unit of density is m3/Kg 1) Molecular momentum transfer:
1 In the flow of liquids and gases,
v=
ρ molecules are free to move from one
The density of a substance, in general, layer to another. When the velocity in
depends on temperature and pressure. The the layers are different as in viscous
density of most gases is proportional to flow, the molecules moving from the
pressure and inversely proportional to layer at lower speed to the layer at
temperature. Liquids and solids, on the higher speed have to be accelerated.
other hand, are essentially incompressible Similarly, the molecules moving from
substances, and the variation of their the layer at higher velocity to a layer at
density with pressure is usually negligible. lower velocity, carry with them a higher
value of momentum and these are to be
2.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY/RELATIVE DENSITY slowed down. Thus, the molecules
diffusing across layers transport a net
Specific gravity or relative density of a momentum, introducing a shear stress
substance is defined as the ratio of the between the layers. The force will be
density of a substance to the density of zero if both layers move at the same
standard substance at a specified speed or if the fluid is at rest.
temperature (usually water at 4°C, for
which water is 1000 kg/m3). 2) Cohesive force:
Density of liquid When cohesive forces exist between
Specific Gravity =
Density of water atoms or molecules these forces have to
be overcome, for relative motion
2.3 VISCOSITY between layers. A shear force is to be
exerted to cause fluids to flow.
When two solid bodies in contact move
relative to each other, a friction force 2.3.2 TYPES OF FLUID
develops at the contact surface in the
direction opposite to motion. Fluid is a Ideal fluid: Consider a fluid layer between
substance that deforms continuously under two very large parallel plates (or
the action of shear stress. The situation is equivalently, two parallel plates immersed
similar when a fluid moves relative to a in a large body of a fluid) separated by a
solid or when two fluids move relative to small distance (dy). Now a constant
each other. A property that represents the tangential force F is applied to the upper

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 plate while the lower plate is held fixed. μ is constant of proportionality and is
After some time upper plate moves known as Dynamic viscosity. SI unit is
continuously under the influence of this kg/m-s, N. s/m2 or Pa / s
force at a constant velocity V. The fluid in
contact with the upper plate sticks to the Note:
plate surface and moves with same velocity 1) Pa is the pressure unit Pascal.
as that of the surface. This condition is 2) A common viscosity unit is poise
known as no slip condition. 10 Poise = 1Ns / m 2
−2
= 10
1centipoise = Poise 10−3 Ns / m 2
3) The viscosity of water at 20°C is 1
centipoise, and thus the unit centipoise
serves as a useful reference.

2) Non Newtonian Fluids: Fluids in which

shear stress is not directly proportional
to deformation rate are known as non-
The shear stress τ yx acting on this fluid Newtonian fluids. Non Newtonian fluids
commonly are classified as having time
layer is independent or time dependent
τ yx = F / A behavior. Numerous equations have
Deformation or shear stain is denoted by dα been proposed to model the observed
Rate of shear stain or deformation is given relations between τ and du/dy for time-
dα  du 
n
by independent fluids. τ =K  
dt  dy 
dl Where,
tan(dα) = dα =
dy n is called the flow behavior index
 dl  k the consistency index.
dα  dt  du  du 
n −1
du du
= = τ =k   = η
dt dy dy  dy  dy dy
Where, n −1

u is the velocity is x direction.  du 

The term η = k   is referred to as
du  dy 
is known as velocity gradient. the apparent viscosity.
dy
Fluids in which the apparent viscosity
decreases with increasing deformation
1) Newtonian fluid: Fluids for which the
rate (n<1) are called pseudo plastic (or
rate of deformation is proportional to
shear thinning) fluids. Most non-
the shear stress are called Newtonian
Newtonian fluids fall into this group;
fluids.
Examples include polymer solutions,
τ yx ∝ rate of deformation or rate of
colloidal suspensions, and paper pulp in
shear strain. water. If the apparent viscosity
τ =μ
d increases with increasing deformation
dt rate (n>1) the fluid is termed dilatants
du (or shear thickening).Suspension of
τ =μ starch and of sand are examples of
dy
dilatants fluids.
Where,

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 A “fluid” that behaves as a solid until a 2.3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
minimum yield stress,τ, is exceeded and VISCOSITY
subsequently exhibits a linear relation
between stress and rte of deformation 1) Liquids: In case of liquids the viscosity
is referred to as an ideal or Bingham force is mainly due to cohesive force.
plastic. The cohesive force decreases. So,
Thixotropic fluids show a decrease in η viscosity of liquids decreases when
with time under a constant applied temperature increases. The relation of
shear stress. Rheopectic fluids show an viscosity with temperature is given by
increase in η with time. After  1 
µ = µ0  
deformation some fluids partially  1 + αT + 7βT 
return to their original shape when the
2) Gases: In the case of gases, the
applied stress is released; such fluids
contribution to viscosity is more due to
are called viscoelastic.
momentum transfer. As temperature
increases, more molecules cross over
with higher momentum differences.
Hence, in the case of gases, viscosity
increases with temperature.
µ = µ 0 + αT + β T 2
where,
μ = Viscosity atT 0in poise
μ 0 = Viscosity at00 in poise
α, β = are constants for liquid and gas

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example:
2.3.3 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
‘An infinite plate is moved with a velocity of
0.3m/s over a second plate on a layer of
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio
liquid for small gap width d=0.3mm,
between dynamic viscosity and density
assume a linear velocity distribution the
denoted by ‘ν’
ν = μ/ρ liquid viscosity is 0.65 ×10−3 kg / ms and S.G
The unit in SI system is m2/s. Stoke is CGS is 0.88.
unit of kinematic viscosity given by a) Calculate kinematic viscosity
1 (cm2/s) = 10–4 m2/s. b) The shear stress on the lower plate
1 centistoke = 10–6 m2/s.
Solution:
Kinematic viscosity gives the rate of a)
momentum flux or momentum diffusivity. µ
V=
For liquids and gases absolute (dynamic) ρ
viscosity is not influenced significantly by kg m3
pressure. But kinematic viscosity of gases is = 0.65 ×10−3 ×
influenced by pressure due to change in m.s ( 0.88 ×1000 ) kg
density. = 7.39 ×10−7 m 2 / s
b)
u
τlower =µ 
d

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 kg m 1 resulting compression effect causes the
=0.65 ×10−3 × 0.3 ×
m.s s 0.3 ×10−3 m liquid to minimize its surface area. This is
=0.65Pa the reason for the tendency of the liquid
Direction of shear stress on lower plate droplets to attain a spherical shape, which
r has the minimum surface area for a given
is τlower
volume.
The surface of the liquid acts like a
Example:
stretched elastic membrane under tension.
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil,
The pulling force that causes this tension
which is used for lubrication b/w a square
acts parallel to the surface and is due to the
of size 0.8 × 0.8 m2 and an inclined plane
attractive forces between the molecules of
with angle of inclination30° , wt = 300 N,
the liquid. The magnitude of this force per
slides down the inclined plane with a
unit length is called surface tension and is
uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. the thickness usually expressed in the unit N/m.
of oil film is 1.5 mm. Surface tension is also defined as the
Solution:
surface energy per unit surface area or
W sin θ =Foil work that needs to be done to increase the
Foil ∆u surface area of the liquid by a unit amount.
= µ
Fcontact ∆y Surface tension is a binary property of the
Foil u liquid & gas or two liquids. The surface
= µ tension of air and water at 20° c is about
A y
0.73 N/m.
F u
µ = oil .
A y
W sin θ.y
µ=
A.u
300.sin 30 ×1.5 ×10−3
=µ = 0.117 ×10Poise
0.64 × 0.3
=1.17Poise

2.4 SURFACE TENSION If F is the tensile force on the surface, L is

the length of the surface. Surface tension is
Consider two liquid molecules, one at the given by
surface and one deep within the liquid F
body. The attractive forces applied on the σ= or
L
interior molecule by the surrounding E surface
molecules balance each other because of σ=
surface Area
symmetry. But the attractive forces acting
on the surface molecule are not symmetric,
and the attractive forces applied by the gas 2.4.1 SURFACE TENSION ON LIQUID
molecules above are usually very small. DROPLET
Therefore, there is net attractive force
acting on the molecule at the surface of the
liquid, which tends to pull the molecules on
the surface toward the interior of the
liquid. This force is balanced by the
repulsive forces from the molecules below
the surface that are being compressed. The Let σ is surface tension
R is radius of droplet

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 Ap is area of projection 2.4.3SURFACE TENSION ON A LIGHT JET

1) Force due to difference in pressure

inside & outside the liquid drop
= ∆PA p
=∆PπR 2 … (i)
2) Tensile force due to surface tension
= σ× circumference
= σ× 2πR … (ii)
Under equilibrium condition, these 2
forces will be equal
1) Force due to pressure inside & outside
2σ the liquid jet
∴ ∆P =
R = ∆p.L ( 2R ) … (i)
2.4.2 SURFACE TENSION ON A SOAP 2) Tensile force due to surface tension
BUBBLE = 2L.σ … (ii)
Equating the forces, we get
σ
∆P =
R

2.5 CAPILLARITY

Another consequence of surface tension is

the capillary effect, which is the rise or fall
1) Force due to pressure inside the liquid of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted
drop into the liquid. Such narrow tubes or
= ∆PA p confined flow channels are called
=∆PπR 2 … (i) capillaries. The curved free surface of a
2) Tensile force due to surface tension liquid in a capillary tube is called the
meniscus. It is commonly observed that
Fsurface = 2πR.σ
water in a glass container curves up slightly
Fsurface2 =2π ( R + t ) σ … (ii) at the edges where it touches the glass
Equating the forces, we have surface; but the opposite occurs for
∆Pπr2 =σ2π ( R + t ) + σ2πR mercury: it curves down at the edges.. The
strength of the capillary effect is quantified
Assuming thickness is very small by the contact (or wetting) angleβ, defined
T << R as the angle that the tangent to the liquid
4σ surface makes with the solid surface at the
∆P =
R point of contact. The surface tension force
acts along this tangent line toward the solid
surface.

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 Where,
R' is characteristic gas constant & for air
J
R ' = 287
kg − K
Mw is molecular wt of gas
ρ is density of gas

1) Force due to surface tension 2.6.2 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

=σ.2πr
a) Isothermal: Constant Temperature
Fy = σπr.cos β
PV=mRT
Fx = 0 T = const
2) Vertical force is responsible for lifting PV = const
the liquid in capillary b) Adiabatic Process: No heat transfer
Fy = mg = ρπr2h.g takes place
P
Equating the vertical forces, we get = const
ργ
2πrσ cos β = ρπr2h.g
γ is ratio of specific heat
2σ cos β Cp
⇒h= γ=
ρgr Cv
Note: γ = 1.4 for air
Same expression is used for capillary fall. c) Isobaric process: Constant pressure
Angle, β = 0 for glass tube & water. process
β = 128o for glass tube & mercury. P = const
V
= const
2.6 THERMO DYNAMIC PROPERTIES T
d) Isochoric process: Constant volume
2.6.1 IDEAL GAS EQUATION process
V = const
PV = nRT P
Where, = const
T
P is pressure in Pa
V is volume in m3
2.7 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK
n is moles of gas
MODULUS
R is universal gas constant (8.314 KJ/mole
K)
It is the measure of volume change under
 M  the action of external force.
PV =   RT
 Mw 
 R 
⇒ PV = m   T
 Mw 
⇒ PV = m ( R') T
m
⇒P=  R''T
V
⇒P=ρR''T

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 Let the volume of gas decrease from V to Likewise, at a given temperature, the
(v-dv), the pressure is increased from P to pressure at which a pure substance
P+dP changes phase is called the saturation
Increase in pressure pressure Psat . The vapour pressure Pv of a
= dp kgf / m2 pure substance is defined as the pressure
Decrease in volume = dv exerted by its vapour in phase equilibrium
−dv with its liquid at a given temperature.
Volumetric strain =
v Pv is a property of the pure substance, and
Bulk Modulus (k) =
dp turns out to be identical to the saturation
−dv / v pressure Psat of the liquid ( Pv ” Psat ).
Compressibility = 1/k
2.9 CAVITATIONS
Relationship b/w bulk modulus and
pressure (p) for a gas undergoing The liquid pressure in liquid-flow systems
compression process drops below the vapour pressure at some
locations, results in vaporization of liquid.
a) For Isothermal process: For example, water at10°C will convert into
P vapour and form bubbles at locations (such
= const
ρ as the tip regions of impellers or suction
for closed system. sides of pumps) where the pressure drops
Pv = const below 1.23 kPa. The vapour bubbles (called
by taking log cavitation bubbles since they form
ln P+ ln V = ln(const) “cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they are
By differentiating swept away from the low pressure regions,
dp dV generating highly destructive, extremely
+ = 0
p V high-pressure waves. This phenomenon,
dp which is a common cause for drop in
=P performance and even the erosion of
−dv / v
impeller blades, is called cavitation, and it
k=p
is an important consideration in the design
of hydraulic turbines and pumps.
b) Adiabatic Process:
PV y = const
by taking log both side
In P + γ ln v = ln const
by differentiating
dp ydV
+ = 0
p V
dp
= γP
−dv / v
k = γP

2.8 VAPOR PRESSURE

At a given pressure, the temperature at

which a pure substance changes phase is
called the saturation temperature Tsat .

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 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 A Bingham fluid of viscosity μ = 10  kg 

(A) 1×10−3 − 2 ×10−3  
Pa s, and yield stress τ 0 = 10 k Pa, is ms
sheared between flat parallel plates
 kg 
separated by a distance 10-3 m. The (B) 0.5 ×10−3 − 1×10−3  
ms
top plate is moving with a velocity
of 1 m/s. The shear stress on the  kg 
(C) 1 − 2  
plate is ms
[GATE–2001]
 kg 
(D) 0.5 − 1 
(A) 10 kPa (B) 20 kpa ms

(C) 30 Kpa (D) 40 kPa

Q.5 Match the following types of fluid
(in group l) with their respective
Q.2 A lubricant 1000 times more constitutive relations (in group II),
viscous than water would have a where, τ is the stress and γ is the
viscosity (in Pa-s) strain rate,
[GATE–2003]
(A) 0.01 (B) 0.1 GROUP-I GROUP-II
(P) Pseudo (1) τ = µ γ
(C) 1 (D) 10 plastic Head proportional to n2
(Q) Bingham τ τ0 + K γ
(2) =
Q.3 The velocity profile for a Bingham Plastic proportional to n3
plastic fluid flowing (under laminar
conditions) in a pipe (3) τ K γ
=
n
n <1
[GATE–2003]
(4) τ K γ
= n >1
n
(A) Parabolic
(B) Flat [GATE –2005]
(C) Flat near the wall and parabolic (A) P-1, Q-4 (B) P-4, Q-1
in the middle
(D) Parabolic near the wall and flat (C) P-2, Q-3 (D) P-3, Q-2

in the middle
Q.6 The apparent viscosity of a fluid is
0.3
Q.4 Viscosity if water at 400 C lies in dV  dV 
range given by 0.007 where  
dy  dy 
[GATE –2004]
is the velocity gradient. The fluid is
[GATE–2013]
 (A) ML-1T-1 (B) ML-1T-2
(A) Bingham plastic (C) MT-1 (D) ML-1
(B) Dilatant
(C) Pseudo plastic Q. 9 At a shear rate of 10 s-1, the
(D) Thixotropic apparent viscosity of a non-
Newtonian liquid was found to be 1
Pa s. At a shear rate of 100 s-1, the
Q.7 Which of the following statements apparent viscosity of the same
are CORRECT? liquid was found to be 0.5 Pa s. If
(P) For a Rheopectic fluid, the the liquid follows power law
apparent viscosity increases with behavior, the apparent viscosity (in
time under a constant applied Pa s) at a shear stress of 10 N m-2
shear stress is______
(Q) For a pseudo plastic fluid, the [GATE–2018]
apparent viscosity decreases with
time under a constant applied
shear stress
(R) For a Bingham plastic, the
apparent viscosity increases
exponentially with the deformation
rate
(S) For a dilatant fluid, the apparent
viscosity increases with increasing
deformation rate
[GATE–2014]
(A) P and Q only
(B) Q and R only
(C) R and S only
(D) P and S only

Q.8 The relation between the stress τ

and the strain rate ( du x / dy ) for
the rapid flow of granular material
2
 du 
is given by τ = B  x  , where B is
 dy 
a constant. If M, L and T are the
mass, length and time dimension
respectively, what is the dimension
of the constant B?
[GATE –2015]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B C D B D B D D 0.997
 EXPLANATIONS
n −1
 dV  dV
Q.1 (B) τ = −µ  
For Bingham fluids  dy  dy
 du  where
τ = τ0 + μ   n −1
 dy   dV 
µ  = Apparent Viscosity
 1   dy 
=(10 ×103 ) + 10  −3 
 10  So By comparing
= 20, 000 Pa n − 1=0.3
τ = 20 kPa So n = 1.3 > 1
So given fluid is Dilatant
Q.2 (C) So Option (b) is correct
μ water = 1 cp = 0.01 poise
= 0.001 Pa s Q.7 (D)

μ Lubricant =1000×0.001
Q.8 (D)
m a kg ( m / s )
= 1 Pa s 2
F
τ=
= =
Q.3 (D) A A m2
kg
= = 2
M L−1 T −2
Q.4 (B) ms
2
 du   m/s 
2 2
1 1 −2
μ water = 1 cp = poise   =  =   =T
100  dy   m  s
=
1 g M L−1 T −2 = B T −2
100 cm s
B = M L−1
1  g  100  cm  1  kg  So Option (d) is correct.
=  ×  ×  
100  cm s  1  m  1000  g 
 kg  Q.9 (0.497)
= 1 × 10−3  
ms  dθ 
n

τ = µ   ........(1)
So, Option (b) is correct  dt 
n −1
 dθ  dθ
Q.5 (D) τ = µ 
 dt  dt
n −1
Q.6 (B)  dθ 
where, µapp. = µ  .....(2)
The Ostwal-de-weele Model  dt 
 n −1
 dθ 
(µ )
app . 1

=
dt

1
(µ )
n −1
 dθ 
app . 2
 
 dt 2
1 10n −1
=
0.5 100n −1
2 = ( 0.1)
n −1

n = 0.7

By Eq. (2)
n −1
 dθ 
(µ )
app . 1 = µ 
 dt 
1 = µ (10 )
0.7 −1

µ = 1.99

By Eq (1)
 dθ 
0.7

τ = 1.99  
 dt 
dθ
= 10
dt
By Eq. (2)
µapp. = 1.99 (10 )
0.7 −1

µapp. = 0.997 Pa. s

 3 PRESSURE & FLUID STATICS

3.1 PRESSURE 3.1.2 PRESSURE AT A POINT

Pressure is defined as the normal force Pressure is the compressive force per unit
exerted by fluid per unit area. We speak of area, and it gives the impression of being a
pressure only when we deal with a gas or a vector. However, in fluids under static
liquid. The counterpart of pressure in conditions, pressure is found to be
solids is normal stress. independent of the orientation of the area.
F This concept is explained by Pascal’s law
P=
A which states that the pressure at a point
Since pressure is defined as force per unit in a fluid at rest is equal in magnitude in
area, it has the unit of Newtons per square all directions. Pressure has magnitude but
meter (N/m2), which is called Pascal (Pa) not a specific direction, and thus it is a
1bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa scalar quantity.
P= P= Pz
3.1.1 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC & x y

VACUUM PRESSURE
3.1.3 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A STATIC
1) The pressure values must be stated FLUID (HYDROSTATIC LAW):
with respect to a reference level. If the
reference level is vacuum (i.e. absolute For fluids at rest or moving on a straight
zero pressure), pressures are termed path at constant velocity, all components of
absolute pressure. acceleration are zero. In fluids at rest, the
2) Most pressure gauges indicate a pressure remains constant in any
pressure difference—the difference horizontal direction (P is independent of x
between the measured pressure and the and y) and varies only in the vertical
ambient level (usually atmospheric direction.
pressure). Pressure levels measured As a result of gravity, these relations are
with respect to atmospheric pressure applicable for both compressible and
are termed gauge pressures incompressible fluids.
3) Pressures below atmospheric pressure dp dp dp
= −ρ(g), = 0, = 0
are called vacuum pressures. dz dx dy
Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures The negative sign is taken because dz is
are all positive quantities and are taken positive in upward direction and
related to each other by pressure decrease in upward direction.
=Pabsolute Patmospheric + Pgauge For incompressible fluid ρ is constant.
p z
=
Pvacuum Patmospheric + Pabsolute
∫ dp =
po
−ρg ∫ dz
zo

P − Po = −ρg(z − z o )
P − Po = ρgh
For compressible fluid, ρ varies with
pressure, i.e. ρ =f (P)
For gases, variation of density with
pressure can be expressed by ideal gas
equation

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 P vapour above point C and the pressure is
ρ=
RT very low relative to Patm and can be
Where , neglected for an excellent approximation.
P is pressure Writing a force balance in the vertical
T is temperature direction gives
Patm = ρgh
3.1.4 FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION
Where,
When fluid is in stationary container, the ρ is the density of mercury,
pressure remains constant along horizontal g is the local gravitational acceleration,
direction. The pressure varies only along h is the height of the mercury column
vertical direction. When a fluid is placed in above the free surface.
an accelerated container, initially fluid Note that the length and the cross-sectional
splashes and there is a relative motion area of the tube have no effect on the height
between fluid & container boundary. After of the fluid column of a barometer. A
some time, the liquid comes to rest and frequently used pressure unit is the
attains fixed shape relative to container. standard atmosphere, which is defined as
The pressure varies in the direction of the pressure produced by a column of
acceleration. mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C
1) When container accelerates in
vertical direction
( ρHg is13,595 kg / m3 ) . If water instead of
Case1: Downward acceleration of az mercury were used to measure the
dp dp dp standard atmospheric pressure, a water
= −ρ ( g − a z ) , = 0, = 0 column of about 10.3m would be needed.
dz dx dy
Case 2: upward acceleration of az
dp dp dp
= −ρ ( g + a z ) , = 0, = 0
dz dx dy
2) When container accelerates in
horizontal direction
Case1: Acceleration in positive x
direction
dp dp dp
= -ρ ( g ) , = -ρa x , =0
dz dx dy
3.3 PRINCIPLES OF FLUID STATICS
Case 2: Acceleration in negative x
direction
1) When fluid is at rest, in a continuous
dp dp dp
= −ρ ( g ) , = −ρ ( −a x ) , = 0 fluid, fluid at the same elevation has the
dz dx dy same pressure.
2) The pressure at the bottom of a column
3.2 THE BAROMETER & ATMOSPHERIC
of fluid is equal to the pressure at the
PRESSURE top, plus density multiplied by gravity
multiplied by the height of the column of
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a fluid.
device called barometer; thus, the A consequence of the second principle
atmospheric pressure is often referred to is that when different columns of fluid
as the barometric pressure. The pressure at stack on top of one another, the
point B is equal to the atmospheric pressures due to each column simply
pressure, and the pressure at C can be add up.
taken to be zero since there is only mercury

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 3.3.1 HYDRAULIC LIFT the point where pressure is to be
measured. The liquid rises in tube to
A consequence of the pressure in a fluid balance the pressure at ‘A’.
remaining constant in the horizontal The gauge pressure PA is given by
direction is that the pressure applied to a PA = ρgh
confined fluid increases the pressure Where
throughout by the same amount. This is ρ is the density of liquid inside
called Pascal’s law. The application of vessel/pipe
Pascal’s law in hydraulic lift is shown in fig
P1= P2
F1 / A1 = F2 / A 2

Piezometer is used to measure low

pressures. The height of column
increases if pressure is high. E.g. height
of water column is 10.3 m if gauge
pressure at ‘A’ is 1atm (105N/m2).
Fig.: Schematic of a hydraulic lift
2) U-tube manometer: It has a glass U-
3.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT tube with liquid having density higher
than the density of fluid in the
Hydrostatic law indicates the pressure container.
difference b/w two points in a static fluid. A
device based on this principle is called
manometer, and it is commonly used to
measure small and moderate pressure
differences. A manometer mainly consists
of a glass or plastic U tube containing one
or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil. The pressure of a fluid is The atmospheric pressure exists and
measured by the following. should be taken into account for
1) Manometers evaluation of absolute pressure, but
a. Simple while evaluating gauge pressure it is
not accounted in equations.
• Piezometer
The gauge pressure at ‘A’ is given by
• U-tube manometer
P= PA + ρc gh1
• Single column manometer 1

b. Differential P2 = ρm gh 2
• U-tube differential manometer Where,
• Inverted U-tube manometer ρC is the density of fluid in container, it
2) Mechanical gauge can be water or oil
ρm is the density of manometric fluid.
3.4.1 SIMPLE MANOMETER
Usually mercury is chosen as
1) Piezometer: It is the simplest kind of manometric fluid
manometer. It does not have any high h2 is difference in mercury level
density liquid. The tube is connected to

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 PA is pressure in vessel/pipe in gauge
From principle of fluid statics, when
fluid is at rest, fluid at the same
elevation has the same pressure.
PA = ρm gh 2 − ρw gh1

3) Single Column Manometers: In this

manometer a large cross-sectional area =
h 2 L sin θ
reservoir is placed in one of the limbs. ah 2
When pressure is applied, the fluid =
PA . ( ρ2 g − ρ1g ) + ( ρ2 gh 2 − ρ1gh1 )
A
lowers slightly in the reservoir as PA = ρ2 g 2 h 2 − ρ1g1h1
compared to the fluid rise in the other
limb. PA = ρ2 g 2 L sin θ − ρ1gh1

3.4.2 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

Differential Manometers are devices used

for measuring the difference of pressure
between two points in a pipe or two
different pipes. It contains of a U-tube with
manometric liquid. The manometric liquid
can be of higher density or lower density
Gauge Pressure at point A is given as than pipe liquid.
ah 2
=PA . ( ρm g − ρc g ) + ( ρm gh 2 − ρc gh1 )
A
Since A>>α 1) U-tube differential manometer:
PA = ρm gh 2 − ρc gh1

Salient features of Single column

manometer:
i) modified form of U-tube manometer
ii) large cross-sectional area (100
times)
iii) due to large area of cross section
and small change of pressure, the
change in level of reservoir will be
Pressure above a-a
very small and can be neglected.
ρ1g ( h + x ) + PA
• In the left limb =
4) Inclined Single Column Manometer: • In the right limb= PB + ρ2 gy + ρHg gh
This manometer is more sensitive than By equating
straight column. The liquid rises more PA + ρ1g(h + x)= PB + ρ2 gy + ρHg g.H
in the column due to inclination.
PA − PB = ρ2 gy + ρHg .g.H − ρ1g ( h + x )

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 A & B are at same level :

ρ2 gx + ρHg gh − ρ1g ( h + x )
PA − PB =
If liquid is same, then ρ1gx =
ρ2 gx Solution:
∴ PA − P=
B gh ( ρHg − ρ1 ) Given:
Constant acceleration a = 2.4m/ s2
2) Inverted U-tube differential Length = 6m; Width = 2.5m and depth =
Manometer: 2m,
Depth of water in tank, h = 1m

i) The angle of the water surface to the

horizontal
Let θ = the angle of water surface to
the horizontal
Using equation, we get
a 2.4
tan θ = − = − = −0.2446
g 9.81
(the –ve sign shows that the free
surface of water is sloping downward
PA − ρ1gh= PB − ρ2 gh 2 − ρs gh
1
as shown in Fig)
∴ tan θ = −0.2446 (slope downward)
PA − PB = ρ1gh1 − ρ2 gh 2 − ρs gh −1
=
∴ θ tan
= 0.2446 13.7446o or 13o 44.6 '
It is used for measuring difference of
low pressures ii) The maximum and minimum
pressure intensities at the bottom of
SOLVED EXAMPLES
the tank
From the figure, depth of water at the
Example: front end,
A rectangular tank is moving horizontally
= h1 1 - 3tanθ = 1 - 3 × 0.2446 = 0.2662m
in the direction of its length with a constant
acceleration of 2.4m/ s2 . The length, width Depth of water at the rear end :
= h2 1 + 3tanθ = 1 + 3 × 0.2446 = 1.7338m
and depth of the tank are 6m, 2.5m and 2m
respectively. If the depth of water in the The pressure intensity will be
tank is 1m and tank is open at the top then, maximum at the bottom, where depth
Calculate: of water is maximum.
I. angle of the water surface with the Now, the maximum pressure intensity
horizontal at the bottom will be at point A and it is
II. the maximum and minimum given by,
pressure intensities at the bottom Pmax = ρ ×g×h2
=1000×9.81×1.7338N/ m2 =17008.5N/ m2

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 The minimum pressure intensity at the Dia. Of plunger, d = 4.5cm = 0.045m
bottom will be at point B and it is given Force on plunger, F =500N
by Let the weight lifted = W
pmin = ρ × g× h1 π π
( 0.3) = 0.07068m2
2
Area of ram, A = D2 =
=1000×9.81×0.2662= 2611.4N/ m2 4 4
Area of plunger,
Example: π π
( )
2
a = d2 = 0.045 = .00159m2
A U-tube as shown in figure, filled with 4 4
water to mid level is used to measure the Pressure intensity due to plunger
acceleration when fixed on moving Force on plunger F 500
equipment. Determine the acceleration ax = = = N / m2
Area of plunger a .00159
as a function of the angle θ and the
distance A between legs.
Due to Pascal’s law, the intensity of
pressure will be equally transmitted in all
directions. Hence the pressure intensity at
the ram
500
= =314465.4N/ m2
.00159
But pressure intensity at ram
Solution: Weight W W
= = = N/ m2
This is similar to the formation of free Area of ram A .07068
surface with angle θ W
=
tan θ –a x / g + a y( ) .07068
=314465.4
As= =
a y 0, tan θ –a x / g ∴ Weigth
The acute angle θ will be given by, = 314465.4×0.7068 = 22222N = 22.222kN
θ =tan–1 ( a x / g )
Example:
ax =
g × tan θ
The diameters of a small piston and a large
As tan θ =2h / A piston of hydraulic jack are 3 cm and 10cm
h = A a x / 2g respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on
the small piston. Find the load lifted by the
Example: large piston when:
A hydraulic press has a ram of 30cm a) The pistons are at the same level.
diameter and a plunger of 4.5cm diameter. b) Small piston is 40cm above the large
Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic piston.
press when the force applied at the plunger The density of the liquid in the jack is given
is 500N. as 1000kg/ m3
Solution:
Given:
Dia. of small piston, d =3cm
∴ Area of small piston,
π π
A= × d2 = × 32 = 7.068cm2
Solution: 4 4
Given: Dia. of large piston, D=10cm
Dia. of ram D=30cm = 0.3m

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 ∴ Area of larger piston, = ρ × g× h = 1000×9.81×0.4N/ m2
π 1000×9.81×.40
A= × 102 = 78.54cm2 = N/ cm2 = 0.3924N/ cm2
4 104

Force on small piston, F = 80N ∴ Pressure intensity at section A-A

Let the load lifted = W 80
= +0.3924
7.068
a) When the pistons are at the same
11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 N/cm2
level
Pressure intensity on small piston ∴ Pressure intensity transmitted to the
large piston = 11.71N/ cm2
F 80
= N/ m2 ∴ Force on the large piston = Pressure ×
a 7.068
Area of the large piston
= 11.71× A = 11.71×78.54 = 919.7N

Example:
A U-tube manometer is used to measure
the pressure of water in a pipe line, which
is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The
This is transmitted equally to the large right limb of the manometer contains
piston. mercury and is open to water in the main
∴ Pressure intensity on the large piston line, if the difference in level of mercury is
in the left limb. Determine the pressure of
80
= water in the main line, if the difference in
7.068 level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10
∴ Force on the large piston cm and the free surface of mercury is in
= pressure x area level with the centre of the pipe. If the
80 pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to
= × 78.54N = 888.96N
7.068 9810N/m2 , calculate the new difference in
the level of mercury. Sketch the
b) When the small piston is 40cm above arrangements in both cases.
the large piston Solution:
Pressure intensity on the small piston Given:
F 80 Difference in mercury level =10 cm =0.1m
= N/ m2 The arrangement is shown in fig (a)
a 7.068

∴ Pressure intensity at section A-A

F
= + Pressure intensity due to height
a 1st Part
of 40cm of liquid. Let PA = (pressure of water in pipe line (i.e.,
Pressure intensity due to 40cm of liquid
at point A)

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 The points B and C lie on the same = Pressure at D* + Pressure due to (10-2x)
horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should cm of mercury
be equal to pressure at C. But pressure at B Or pA + ρ1 × g× h1 = pD *+ρ2 × g× h2
= Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10cm (or
0.1 m) of water  10 - x 
Or 1910+1000×9.81×  
= pA + ρ × g× h
 100 
Where ρ = 1000kg/ m3 and h = 0.1m  10 - 2x 
= pA +1000×9.81×0.1 = 0+ (13.6×1000 ) ×9.81×  
 100 
= pA + 981N/ m2 …………(i) Dividing by 9.81, we get
Pressure at C = pressure at D+ Pressure 1000 + 100 - 10x = 1360 - 272x
due to 10 cm of mercury Or
= 0+ ρ0 × g× h0 272x - 10x = 1360 - 1100
Where 𝜌𝜌0 for mercury = 13.6×1000kg/ m3 Or
262x = 260
And h0 =10cm = 0.1m
260
∴ Pressure at C ∴ x= = 0.992cm
=
0 + (13.6 × 1000) × 9.81 × .01 262
∴ New difference of mercury
= 13341.6N ………(ii)
=10 − 2xcm =10 − 2×0.992
But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C.
Hence equating the equations (i) and (ii),
= 8.016cm
we get,
Example:
pA + 981 = 13341.6
Fig. shows a conical vessel having its outlet
∴ pA = 13341.6 - 981 at A to which a U-tube monometer is
N connected. The reading of the manometer
= 12360.6 2
given in the figure shows when the vessel is
m empty. Find the reading of the manometer
when the vessel is completely filled with
2nd Part water.
Given, pA = 9810N/ m2
Find new difference of mercury level. The
arrangement is shown in following figure.
In this case, pressure at A is 9810𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
which is less than the 12360.6𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 . Hence
mercury in left limb will rise. The rise of
mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall
of mercury in right limb as the total volume
of mercury remains same.
Let x =Rise of mercury in left limb in cm.
Then fall of mercury in right limb = x cm
The points B, C and D shows the initial
conditions whereas points B*, C* and D*
show the final conditions. Solution:
pressure at B* = Pressure at C* Vessel is empty:
Or Given:
Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10-x)cm Difference of mercury level
of water h2 = 20cm
Let h1 = Height of water above X-X

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 S.G. of mercury, S2 =13.6 Example:
S.G. of water, S1 = 1.0 A single column manometer is connected to
a pipe containing a liquid of S.G. 0.9 as
Density of mercury, shown in Fig. Find the pressure in the
ρ2 = 13.6×1000 pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100
Density of water, times the area of the tube for the
ρ1 = 1000 manometer reading shown in Fig. The
Equating the pressure above datum line X- specific gravity of mercury is 13.6
X, we have,
ρ2 × g× h2 = ρ1 × g× h1
Or 13.6×1000×9.81×0.2=1000×9.81×h1
h1 = 2.72m of water.

Vessel is full of water:

When vessel is full of water, the pressure in
the right limb will increase and mercury
level in the right limb will go down. Let the Solution:
distance through which mercury goes Given:
down in the right limb be, y cm as shown in Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, S1 = 0.9
following figure. The mercury will rise in ∴ Density ρ1 = 900kg/ m3
the left by a distance of y cm. Now the Sp. gr. of heavy liquid, S2 =13.6
datum line is Z-Z. Equating the pressure
above the datum line Z-Z, ∴ Density, ρ2 =13.6×1000
Pressure in left limb =Pressure in right Area of reservoir A
limb =
= 100
Area of right limb a
 2y  Height of liquid, h1 = 20cm = 0.2m
13.6×1000×9.81×  0.2+ 
 100  Rise of mercury in right limb,
= 1000×9.81× (3+ h1 + y/ 100 ) h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
13.6 × ( 0.2 + 2y /100 ) =( 3 + 2.72 + y /100 ) Let pA = Pressure in pipe
Using equation,
Or a
pA = h2 ρ2 g − ρ1 g  + h2 ρ2 g − h1 ρ1 g,
2.72+27.2y/ 100 = 3+2.72+ y/ 100 A
Or we get,
( )
27.2y- y / 100 = 3.0 =
1
×0.4 13.6×1000×9.81- 900×9.81
Or 100
+0.4×13.6×1000×9.81 − 0.2×900×9.81
26.2y = 3×100 = 300 0.4
= 133416 - 8829 +53366.4 -1765.8
∴ y=
300
=11.45cm 100 
26.2 = 533.664 + 53366.4 − 1765.8N / m 2
The difference of mercury level in two = 52134N / m 2
limbs = 5.21N / cm 2
= ( 20+2y ) cm of mercury
= 20+2×11.45= 20+22.90 Example:
= 42.90cm of mecury A differential manometer is connected at
∴ Reading of monometer = 42.90 cm the two points A and B of two pipes as
shown in fig. The pipe A contains a liquid of

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 S.G. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of 13.6h+17.5 = 0.9h+1.8 +18 = 0.9h+19.8
S.G. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are Or
1kgf/cm2 and 1.80kgf/cm2 respectively.
Find the difference in mercury level in the
( )
13.6 - 0.9 h =19.8 -17.5or12.5h = 2.3
differential manometer. 2.3
∴h= = 0.181m =18.1cm
12.7

3.5 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers, and thus
there are no shear (tangential) stresses in
the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress
we deal with in fluid statics is the normal
stress, which is the pressure, and the
variation of pressure is only due to the
weight of the fluid. The force exerted on a
surface by a fluid at rest is normal to the
surface at the point of contact since there is
Solutions:
no relative motion between the fluid and
Given:
the solid surface, and thus no shear forces
S.G. of liquid at A, =
S1 1.5 ∴ =
ρ1 1500
can act parallel to the surface.
S.G. of liquid at B, =
S2 1.5 ∴ =
ρ2 1500 Fluid statics is used to determine the forces
Pressure at A, acting on floating or submerged bodies and
PA =1kgf/ cm2 =1×104 kgf/ m2 the forces developed by devices like
hydraulic presses and car jacks. The design
= 104 × 9.81N / m2 (Q 1kgf =
9.81N) of many engineering systems such as water
Pressure at B, dams and liquid storage tanks requires the
PB =1.8kgf/ cm2 determination of the forces acting on the
surfaces using fluid statics.
=1.8×104 kgf/ m2
=1.8 × 104 × 9.81N / m2(Q 1kgf =9.81N) 3.5.1 TOTAL PRESSURE
Density of mercury = 13.6×1000kg/ m3 Force is exerted by a static fluid on a
Taking X-X as datum line surface, either plane or curved when fluid
Pressure above X-X in the left limb comes in contact with the surfaces. This
=13.6×1000×9.81×h+1500×9.81× ( 2+3) + pA force always acts normal to the surface.
= 13.6×1000×9.81× h+7500×9.81+ 9.81×104
Pressure above X-X in the right limb 3.5.2 CENTRE OF PRESSURE
= 900×9.81× ( h+2) + pB
It is defined as the point of application of
= 900×9.81× ( h+2) +1.8×10 ×9.81 4
the total pressure on the surface. The
submerged surfaces may be
Equating the two pressures, we get
1) Vertical plane submerged
13.6 × 1000 × 9.81h + 7500 × 9.81 + 9.81 × 104 2) Horizontal plane surface
= 900×9.81× ( h+2) +1.8×104 ×9.81 3) Inclined plane
Dividing by 1000×9.81 , we get 4) Curved surface
13.6h+7.5+10 = ( h+2.0 ) ×.9+18
Or

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 3.5.3 VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE = ρg ∫ bh2dh
SUBMERGED IN
= ρgb∫ h2dh
LIQUID Where,
∫dA.h = Io is the moment of Inertia of
2
Consider a plane vertical surface of
arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid as
surface about free surface of liquid.
shown
A = Total area of surface ∑ moments = ρgI0 …(2)
h = Distance of C. G. of the area from free ∴ Ft .h* = ρgIo
surface of liquid ρgIo
G = Centre of Gravity of plane surface h* =
P = Centre of Pressure ρgh.A
h∗ = Distance of centre of pressure from I0
h* =
free surface of liquid. hA
Where,
h is the distance of C.G. from free
surface
A is the area.
From II axis theorem
=
Io IC.G. + Ah2
a) Total Pressure * IC.G. +Ah2
Pressure Intensity at strip = ρgh h=
h.A
Area of strip dA = b. dh 1) h∗ lies below the C.G. of the surface
Force on strip dF = ρ. g. h. b. dh 2) It is independent of the density of
Total pressure force on the whole liquid & depends only on surface
surface is area.
∫ dF = ∫ρghbdh
s
3.5.4 HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE
∫ dF = ρg ∫ h.dA
s
SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
F = ρ.g.h.A
As every point of the surface is at the same
∫h.dA is moment of surface area about depth from free surface of the liquid, the
free surface of liquid is equal moment of pressure intensity will be equal on the
C.G. about free surface. entire surface and equal to P = ρgh where
h is depth of surface
∫h.dA = A.h =
F1 ρg h × Area
h= h= h*
b) Centre of Pressure: (𝐡𝐡∗ )
Principle of Moments: Moment of the
resultant force about an axis is equal to
the sum of moments of the components
about the same axis.
Ft . h∗ = ∑moments about free surface of
liquid. …(1)
∑ moments
= ∫ dA.h.ρgh

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3.5.5 INCLINED PLANE SUBMERGED IN = ρgy sinθdA.y
LIQUID Sum of moments of all such forces
about O − O = ∫ρgsinθy 2dA

= ρgsinθ∫y 2dA
Where,
∫y dA = Moment of Inertia of the
2

surface about O − O = Io
∴ Sum of moments of all force
= ρg sinθIo
Let
A = Total area of surface F × y* =
ρg sinθIo
h = Distance of C. G. of the area from free ρgsinθIo
surface of liquid y* =
ρg Ah
G = Centre of Gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of Pressure I sinθ
y* = o
h∗ = Distance of centre of pressure from Ah
free surface of liquid. I0 sin 2 θ
h* =
Ah
a) Total Pressure sin 2
θ
Pressure intensity on the strip P = ρgh = h* (IG + Ay 2 )
Ah
Pressure force dF on the strip
dF = P × dA = ρghdA sin2 θ  Ah2 
= h*  IG + 
Total pressure force on the whole area, Ah  sin 2 
θ
 
F= ∫ dF= ∫ ρghdA
a) Rectangle
h h h*
From fig. sinθ= = = *
y y y
∴ h = y sinθ
∴ F = ∫ρg y sinθdA

But ∫y dA = Ay is the moment of

surface at distance ‘y’
∴ F = ρg sinθAy ab3
A=ab, I xx,C =
∴ F = ρg A h (Q h = y sin θ) 12
Note: the above expression of force is b) Circle
for fluid with no pressure acting on the
surface. If pressure acts on the surface
=
F P0 A + ρg Ah

b) Centre of Pressure
Pressure force on the strip,
dF = ρgh dA = ρgy sin θdA
Moment of the force, dF, about axis O-O πR 4
A=
πR 2 , I xx,C =
= dF × y 4

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 c) Triangle
3.5.6 CURVED SURFACE SUB-MERGED IN
LIQUID

For a submerged curved surface, the

determination of the resultant hydrostatic
force is more involved since it typically
requires the integration of the pressure
forces that change direction along the
curved surface. The way to determine the
πab3 resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on a
A=
πab, I xx,C =
4 two-dimensional curved surface is to
d) Triangle determine the horizontal and vertical
components Fx and Fy separately. This is
done by considering the free-body diagram
of the liquid block enclosed by the curved
surface and the two plane surfaces (one
horizontal and one vertical) passing
through the two ends of the curved surface.
Note that the vertical surface of the liquid
block considered is simply the projection of
the curved surface on a vertical plane, and
the horizontal surface is the projection of
ab ab3 the curved surface on a horizontal plane.
=A = , I xx,C
2 36
e) Semicircle

πR 2
=A = , I xx,C 0.109757R 4 The resultant force acting on the curved
2
f) Semi ellipse surface is given by
=
FR Fx 2 + Fy 2
Inclination of resultant with horizontal is
given by
F
tan θ = y
Fx
1) The horizontal component of the
hydrostatic force acting on a curved
surface is equal (in both magnitude and
πab 2 the line of action) to the hydrostatic
=A = , I xx,C 0.109757ab3
2

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 force acting on the vertical projection of Where,
the curved surface. IG = M.O.I. about C.G. of the area of
2) The vertical component of the surface
hydrostatic force acting on a curved
bd 3 2 × 33
surface is equal to the weight of liquid = = = 4.5m 4
supported by the curved surface. 12 12
4.5
∴=
h* + 1.5
= 0.5+1.5 = 2.0m
Example: 6 ×1.5
A rectangular plane surface is 2m wide and
3m deep. It lies in vertical plane in water. b) Upper edge is 2.5, below water
Determine the total pressure and position surface
of centre of pressure on the plane surface
when it’s upper edge is horizontal and (a)
coincides with water surface, (b) 2.5m
below the free water surface.

Solution:
Given:
Width of plane surface, b=2m
Depth of plane surface, d=3m

a) Upper edge coincides with water

surface
Total pressure is given by equation as Total pressure (F) is given by
F = ρ gAh F = ρ gAh
Where,
h =Distance of C.G. from free surface of
water
3
= 2.5+ = 4.0m
2
∴ F =1000×9.81×6×4.0
= 235440N
Center of pressure is given by
I
h* = G + h
Ah
Where
Where,
IG = 4.5, A = 6.0,h = 4.0
=ρ 1000kg
= / m3 , g 9.81m / s 2
1 4.5
A = 3 × 2 = 6m 2 , h = × 3 = 1.5m h* = + 4.0
2 6.0×4.0
∴=F 1000 × 9.81× 6 ×1.5 = 0.1875+ 4.0 = 4.1875= 4.1875m.
= 88290N Example:
A circular opening, 3m diameter, in a
Depth of centre of pressure is given by vertical side of a tank is closed by disc of
equation as 3m diameter which can rotate a horizontal
IG diameter.
=
h* +h
Ah Calculate:

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 i) The force on the disc, and
ii) The torque required to maintain the Example:
disc in equilibrium in the vertical A pipe line which is 4m in diameter
position when the head of water above contains a gate valve. The pressure at the
the horizontal diameter is 4m. centre of the pipe is 19.6N/ cm2 . If the pipe
Solution: is filled with oil of S.G. 0.87; find the force
Given: exerted by the oil upon the gate and
Dia. of opening d =3m position of centre of pressure.
π 2 2 Solution:
Area, A = ×3 =7.0685m
4
Depth of C.G. h = 4m

i) Force on the disc is given by equation as

F = ρ gAh =1000×9.81×7.0685×4.0
= 277368N = 277.368kN Given:
Dia. of pipe, d = 4m
ii) To find the torque required to maintain
the disc in equilibrium, first calculate ∴ Area,
the point application of force acting on π
A = ×42 = 4pm2
the disc, i.e., center of pressure of the 4
force F. The depth of centre of pressure ∴Density of oil ρ= 0.87 × 1000
= 870kg / m3
0
(h*) is given by equation as
∴ Weight density of oil,
π 4 w 0 = ρ0 × g = 870×9.81N/ m3
IG d
h* = +h= + 4.0 64 Pressure at the centre of pipe,
Ah π 2
d × 4.0 p = 19.6N/ cm2 = 19.6×104 N/ m3
4 ∴ Pressure head at the centre
 π 4 p 19.6×104
Q IG = d  = = = 22.988m
 64  w 0 870×9.81
d2 32 ∴ The height of equivalent free oil surface
= +4.0= +4.0=0.14+4.0= 4.14m
16×4.0 16×4.0 from the centre of pipe =22.988m
The depth of C.G. of the gate valve from free
oil surface h = 22.988m
F = ρ gAh
Where ρ = density of oil = 870kg/ m3
F = 870×9.81×4π ×22.988 =2465500N =2.465MN
(ii)Position of centre of pressure (h*) is
given as
π 4
IG d
The force F is acting at a distance of 64 d2 42
h*= +h = +h = +h = +22.988
4.14 m from free surface. Ah π 2 16h 16×22.988
Moment of this force about horizontal d ×h
4
diameter X-X
= 0.043+22.988 = 23.031m
= F ( h* -h ) = 277368 ( 4.14 - 4.0) =38831Nm Or, centre of pressure is below the centre of
Hence a torque of 38831 Nm must be the pipe by a distance of 0.043m
applied on the disc in the clockwise
direction.

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 Example: h2 = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface
A vertical sluice gate is used to cover an of water
opening in a dam. The opening is 2m wide 1
and 1.2 m high. On the upstream of the = ×1.2= 0.6m
2
gate, the liquid of S.G. 1.45 lies upto a
height of 1.5m above the top of the gate. ∴ F2 = 1000×9.81×2.4×0.6 = 14126N
Find the resultant force acting on the gate
and position of centre of pressure. Find (i)Resultant force on the gate
also the force acting horizontally at the top = F1 − F2 = 71691 − 14126 = 57565N
of the gate which is capable of opening it. (ii) Position of centre of pressure of
Assume that the gate is hinged at the resultant force.
bottom. The force F1 will be acting at a depth of
h1 * from free surface of liquid, given by the
relation
IG
h* = + h1
Ah
where
bd3 2×1.23
IG = = = 0.288m4
12 12
∴
Solution: .288
Given: h1 * = +2.1= 0.0571+2.1= 2.1571m
Width of gate, b= 2m 2.4×2.1
Depth of gate, d =1.2m
∴ Area, ∴ Distance of F1 from hinge
A = b×d = 2×1.2= 2.4m2 = (1.5+1.2) − h1 * = 2.7 − 2.1571= 0.5429m
Sp. gr. of liquid =1.45 The force F2 will be acting at a depth of h2 *
∴ Density of liquid, from free surface of water and is given by
ρ1 =1.45×1000 =1450kg/ m3 I
h2 * = G + h2
Let F1 = Force exerted by the fluid of sp. gr Ah2
1.45 on gate Where
F2 = Force exerted by water on the gate. IG = 0.288m4 ,h2 = 0.6m, A = 2.4m2
The force
.288
F1 = is given by F1 = ρ1 g× A× h1 h2 * = +0.6 = 0.2+0.6 = 0.8m
2.4×0.6
Where
Distance of F2 from hinge
ρ1 =1.45×1000 =1450kg/ m2
=1.2 − 0.8 = 0.4m
h1 = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface The resultant force 57565N will be acting
of liquid at a distance given by
1.2 71691×.5429 − 14126×0.4
=1.5+ = 2.1m =
2 57565
∴ F1 = 1450×9.81×2.4×2.1 = 71691N 38921-5650.4
= m above hinge
Similarly, F2 = ρ2 g .Ah2 57565
= 0.578m above the hinge
Where ρ2 =1000kg/ m3

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 (iii)Force at the top of gate which is Intensity of pressure on base (or BC),
capable of opening the gate. pB = ρ1 gh1 + ρ2 g×0.5
Let F is the force required on the top of the 12753N
gate to open it as shown in fig. =7848+1000×9.81×0.5=7848+ 4905=
m2
Taking the moments of F, F1andF2 about
Now Force,
the hinge, we get F1 = Area of ∆ ADE × Width of tank
F×1.2+ F2 × 0.4 =F1 × .5429
1 1
Or = × AD×DE×2.0= ×1×7848×2.0=7848N
2 2
F ×.5429 − F2×0.4 Force,
F= 1
1.2 F2 = Areaof rectangle DBFE× Width of tank
71691×.5429-14126×0.4 38921-5650.4 = 0.5×7848×2=7848N
= =
1.2 1.2 F3 = Area of ∆ EFC × Width of tank
= 27725.5N.
1 1
= ×EF×FC×2.0= ×0.5×4905×2.0= 2452.5N
Example: 2 2
A tank contains water up to a height of ∴ Total force F = F1 + F2 + F3
0.5m above the base. An immiscible liquid =7848+7848+2452.5=18148.5N
of sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of water up
to 1m height. Calculate: (ii) Centre of pressure (h*). Taking the
i) total pressure on one side of the tank, moments of all forces about A, we get
ii) the position of centre of pressure from 2  1   2 
one side of the tank, which is 2m wide F×h* = F1 × AD+F2  AD+ BD  +F3  AD+ BD
3  2   3 
Solution:
2  0.5   2 
Given: 18148.5×h* =7848× ×1+7848  1.0+  +2452.5 1.0+ ×.5 
3  2   3 
Depth of water = 0.5m
Depth of liquid = 1m =5232+9810+3270=18312
Sp. gr of liquid =0.8 ∴ h* =
18312
= 1.009m from top
Density of liquid, 18148.5
ρ1 = 0.8×1000 = 800kg/ m3
Density of water, Example:
A circular plate 3.0m diameter is immersed
ρ2 =1000kg/ m3
in water in such a way that their greatest
Width of tank = 2m and least depths below the free surface are
(i) Total pressure on one side is 4m and 1.5m respectively. Determine the
calculated by drawing pressure diagram, total pressure on one face of the plate and
which is shown in fig . position of the centre of pressure.
Intensity of pressure on top, pA = 0 Solution:
Intensity of pressure on D (or DE), Given
pD = ρ1 g .h1 Dia. of plate, d =3.0m
= 800×9.81×1.0 = 7848N/ m2
∴ Area,
π π
( )
2
A = d2 = 3.0 = 7.0685m2
4 4
Distance DC =1.5m,BE = 4m

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 π π 2
= d2 = (3) =7.0685m2
4 4

Distance of C.G. from free surface

= h = CD+GC sin θ = 1.5+1.5sin θ
But
AB BE- AE 4.0- DC 4.0-1.5 Dia. of hole in the plate, d0 = 1.5m
sin θ = = = =
BC BC 3.0 3.0 π π
∴ Area of hole = d20 = (1.5) =1.7671m2
2

2.5 4 4
= = 0.8333
3.0 ∴ Area of the given plate A
∴ h =1.5+1.5×.8333=1.5+1.249= 2.749m = Area of solid plate − Area of hole
=7.0685-1.7671=5.3014m2
i) Total Pressure (F) Distance of CD=1.5,BE = 4m
F = ρ gAh Distance of C.G. from the free surface,
=1000×9.81×7.0685×2.749=190621N h = CD+GCsin θ
ii) Centre of pressure (h*) =1.5+1.5sinθ
Using equation, we have But
IGsin θ2
AB BE- AE 4 -1.5 2.5
h* = +h sin θ = = = =
Ah BC BC 3 3
Where 2.5
∴ h =1.5+1.5× =1.5+1.25= 2.75m
π π 3
() ()
4 4
IG = d = 3 =3.976m4
64 64 i) Total pressure force (F)
3.976× ( .8333) ×.8333 F = ρ gAh
h* = +2.749=0.1420+2.749 =1000×9.81×5.3014×2.75
7.0685×2.749
= 2.891m. =143018N =143.018kN
ii) Position of centre of pressure (h*)
Example: Using equation, we have
If in the above problem, the given circular IGsin2 θ
h* = +h
plate is having a concentric circular hole of Ah
diameter 1.5m, then calculate the total where
pressure and position of the centre of π π
pressure on one face of the plate. IG = d4 - d04  = 34 -1.54  m4
64 64
Solution:
Given: [referring to given figure] π π
A = d2 - d02  = 32 -1.52  m2
Dia. of plate, d =3.0m 4 4
∴ Area of solid plate 2.5
sin θ = and h = 2.75
3

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 2
π 4  2.5  0.72×sin2 45°
3 − 1.54  ×   h* = +4.576 = .013+4.576 = 4.589m
∴ 64  3  +2.75 6×4.576
h* =
π 2 h*
3 − 1.52  ×2.75 But from fig, = sin45°
4
OH
= 0.177+2.75= 2.927m ∴
h* 4.589
Example: OH = = = 4.589× 2 = 6.489m
sin45° 1
An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB,
1.2m x 5m size as shown in fig is installed 2
to control the discharge of water. The end A 5
Distance, BO = =5× 2 =7.071m
is hinged. Determine the force normal to sin45°
the gate applied at B to open it. Distance, BH = BO− OH = 0.071 − 6.489= 0.582m

∴ Distance,
AH = AB− BH =1.2 − 0.582= 0.618m
Taking the moments about the hinge A
P× AB = F× ( AH )
Where P is the force normal to the gate
applied at B
∴ P×1.2= 269343×0.618
269343×0.618
Solution: ∴ P= =138708N
1.2
Given:
A = Area of gate =1.2×5.0 = 6.0m2 Example:
Depth of C.G. of the gate from free surface Fig shows a quadrant shaped gate of radius
of the water = h 2m. Find the resultant force due to water
= DG = BC- BE per meter length of the gate. Find also the
=5.0 − BG sin45° angle at which the total force will act.
1
5.0 − 0.6 × =
4.576m
2
The total pressure force (F) acting on the
gate,
F = ρgAh
= 1000 × 9.81 × 6.0 × 4.576 Solution:
Given:
= 269343N
Radius of gate =2m
This force is acting at H, where the depth of
Width of gate =1m
h from free surface is given by
Horizontal Force,
IGsin2 θ Fx = Force on the projected area of the
h* = +h
Ah curved surface on vertical plane
Where, IG = M.O.I. of gate = Force on BO = ρ gAh
bd3 5.0×1.23 Where,
= = = 0.72m
12 12 1
A = Area of BO = 2×1= 2m2 ,h = ×2=1m
∴ Depth of centre of pressure 2
Fx = 1000×9.81×2×1 = 19620N

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 This will act at depth of
2 4
×2= m from
= 2× AD×1 (Q AB = 2AD)
3 3 = 2×4×sin45° = 8×.707 =5.656m2
free surface of liquid, {Q AD = 4sin 45°}
Vertical Force,
Fy = Weight of water (imagined) supported AB 5.656
h= = = 2.828m
2 2
by AB
= ρ g× Areaof AOB×1.0 ∴ Fx =1000×9.81×5.656×2.828N =156911N
Vertical component
π 4
=1000×9.81× ( 2) ×1.0 =30819N Fy = Weight of water supported or
4
This will act a distance of enclosed by the curved surface
4R 4 × 0.2 = Weight of water in portion ACBDA
= = 0.848m from OB. = ρ g× Area of ACBDA× Width of gate
3π 3π
= 1000 × 9.81 ×  Area of sector ACBOA − Area of ∆ABO  × 1
∴ Resultant force, F is given by
π AO×BO 
F = Fx2 +Fy2 = 9810×  R 2 −  Q ∆ AOB is a right angled 
4 2 
= 196202 + 308192 π 4×4 
=36534.4N. = 9810×  42 −  = 44796N
4 2 
The angle made by the resultant with
horizontal is given by
Example:
F 30819 A cylindrical gate of 4m diameter & 2m
tan θ = y = =1.5708
Fx 19620 long has water on its both sides as shown
in Fig. Determine the magnitude, location
∴ θ = tan-1 1.5708 =57°31'
and direction of the resultant force exerted
by the water on the gate. Find also the least
Example:
weight of the cylinder so that it may not be
Find the horizontal and vertical component
lifted away from the floor.
of water pressure acting on the face of a
sector gate of 90° with radius 4m as shown
in fig. Take width of gate as unity.

Solution:
Given:
Dia. of gate =4m
Solution: Radius =2m
Given: (i) The force acting on the left sides of the
Radius of gate, R=4m cylinder are
Horizontal component of force acting on The horizontal component, Fx
the gate is 1

Where Fx = Force of water on area

Fx = Force on area of gate projected on 1

vertical plane projected on vertical plane

= Force on area ADB = Force on area AOC
= ρ gAh =ρgA h
Where A = AB× Width of gate Where A = AC × width = 4×2= 8cm2

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 1 Fx × y = Fx 4 − 2.67  − Fx 2 − 1.33
h= × 4 = 2m 1 2
2 Or
Fx = 1000×9.81×8×2 117720=
× y 156960 ×1.33 − 39240 × .67
1

=156960N = 208756.8 − 26290.8 = 182466

Fy = Weight of water enclosed by ABCOA 182466
1 ∴ y= =1.55m from the bottom
117720
π  π
=1000×9.81×  R 2  ×2.0= 9810× ×22 ×2.0=123276N
2  2 Force Fy acts at a distance 4R from
1
3π
4 × 2.0
Right Side of the Cylinder AOC or at a distance = 0.8488m
3π
from AOC towards left of AOC.
Fx = ρ gA 2h2 = Force on vertical area CO
2
Also Fy acts at a distance 4R = 0.8488m
2
= 1000 × 9.81× (2 × 2) × =39240N
2
3π
2 from AOC towards the right of AOC. The
Fy = Weight of water enclosed by DOCD resultant force Fy will act at a distance
2

π  x from AOC which is given by

= ρ g×  R 2  × Width of gate
4  Fy × x = Fy ×.8488 − Fy ×.8488
1 2

π Or 184914× x =123276×.8488 − 61638×.8488

=1000×9.81× ×22 ×2= 61638N
4 = .8488 123276 − 61638
=  52318.4
∴ Resultant force in the direction of x,
Fx = Fx − Fx =156960 − 39240 =117720N ∴ x = 52318.4 = 0.2829m from AOC
1 2 184914
Resultant force in the direction of y,
Fy = Fy +Fy =123276+61638 =184914N
1 2
iv) Least weight of cylinder. The resultant
i) Resultant force, F is given as force in the upward direction is
Fy = 184914N
(117720) + (184914)
2 2
F = Fx2 +Fy2 = = 219206N
Thus the weight of cylinder should not
ii) Direction of resultant force is given be less than the upward force Fy
.
by Hence, weight of cylinder should be at
F 184914 least 184914N
tan θ = y = =1.5707
Fx 117720
Example:
∴ θ =57°31' 2
 x 
iii) Location of the resultant force A dam has a parabolic shape y = y 0  
Force, Fx acts at a distance of  x0 
1
as shown in fig. below having x 0 = 6m and
2×4
= 2.67m from the top surface of
3 y 0 = 9m. The fluid is water with density
water on left side, while Fx acts at a = 1000kg/ m3 . Compute the horizontal,
2

vertical and the resultant thrust exerted by

distance of 2 ×2=1.33m from free
3 water per meter length of the dam.
surface on the right side of the cylinder
.The resultant force Fx in the direction
of x will act at a distance of y from the
bottom as

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 9
 y 3/2  2
=19620×   =19620× 93/2 
 (3/ 2)  3 
0

2
=19620× ×27 =353160N
3

iii) Resultant thrust exerted by water

F= FX 2 + F Y2 = 3973052 + 3531602 = 531574N

iv) Direction of resultant is given by

Solution:
Fy 353160
Given: θ =
tan= = 0.888
Equation of the curve OA is Fx 397305
2 2
x x x2 x2 =θ tan
= −1
0.888 41.63o
y = y 0   = 9   = 9× =
 x0  6 36 4
3.6 BUOYANCY & FLOATATION
Or x 2 = 4y
∴ x = 4y = 2y 1/2 When a body is immersed in a fluid, an
Width of dam, b=1m upward force is exerted on the body; this
upward force is known as the buoyant
i) Horizontal thrust exerted by water force. This force is because of difference in
Fx = Force exerted by water on vertical
pressure.
surface OB, i.e., the surface obtained by
projecting the curved surface on
vertical plane
= ρ gAh
9
=1000×9.81× ( 9×1) × =397305N
2

ii) Vertical thrust exerted by water Force acting on the element because of
Fy = Weight of water supported by difference in pressure on the top and
bottom.
curved surface OA upto free surface of
dF = ρg ( h2 − h1 ) dA
water
= Weight of water in the portion ABO =
= ρ g × Area of OAB × Width of dam
FB ∫ρg h2 − h1 dA ( )
9  FB = ρgV
=1000×9.81×  ∫ x×dy  ×1.0 Where,
 0  ρ is the density of fluid
 9 1/2  V is the volume of body immersed in fluid
=1000×9.81×  ∫ 2y ×dy  ×1.0 or volume of fluid displaced by that body.
 0  The relation ρgV is simply the weight of the
(
Q x = 2y 1/2 ) liquid whose volume is equal to the
immersed volume of the body. Thus the
buoyant force acting on the body is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced by the

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 body. Note that the buoyant force is clock wise direction. The body oscillates
independent of the distance of the body about its metacenter. The time period of
from the free surface. It is also independent oscillation is given by
of the density of the solid body k2
T = 2π
GM.g
3.6.1 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
Where,
The buoyant force acting on a body GM is Meta centric ht
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of K is radius of gyration
the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts
upward through the centroid of the 3.6.4 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF
displaced volume. The centroid of SUBMERGED & FLOATING BODIES
displaced fluid is known as centre of
buoyancy. There are 3 types of equilibrium conditions
i) Stable Equilibrium
ii) Neutral equilibrium
iii) Unstable equilibrium

3.6.2 META CENTRE

It is defined as the point about which a
body starts oscillating when the body is i) Stable equilibrium:
tilled by a small angle. The Meta centre may Any small disturbance (someone moves the
also be defined as the intersection point of ball to the right or left) generates a
line of action of buoyant force and normal restoring force (due to gravity) that returns
to the body when the body is tilted by an it to its initial position.
angle.
ii) Neutral equilibrium:
If someone moves the ball to the right or
left, it will stay at its new location. It has no
tendency to move back to its original
location, nor does it continue to move.

iii) Unstable Equilibrium:

It is a situation, in which the ball may be at
rest at the moment, but any disturbance,
Meta centric height = GM even an infinitesimal one, causes the ball to
roll off the hill—it does not return to its
I ( Moment of Inertia about yy of the plan )
− BG original position; rather it moves away
Volume of fluid displaced from it.
B.G is the distance between CG & CB points.

3.6.3 OSCILLATION OF A FLOATING 3.6.4.1 STABILITY IN SUBMERGED BODIES

BODY
1) Stable Equilibrium: When W = FB and
When body floats in the fluid and it is given point B is above G. A small displacement
a disturbance in clockwise direction or anti in clockwise direction, gives couple due

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 to FB & weight in anticlockwise
direction. Thus, the body will return to
its original position. Hence, equilibrium
is stable.
2) Unstable Equilibrium: If W = FB and
point B is below point ‘G’. A small
displacement to the body, in the clock
wise direction, gives couple due to Stable equilibrium
W & FB also in the clockwise direction.
Thus, body will move away from its
original position. Hence, equilibrium is
unstable
3) Neutral Equilibrium: If FB = W and B
& G are at the same point, the
displacement of body does not result in
any couple of Wt & FB. Body remains at
its displaced position Unstable equilibrium

Example:
Find the volume of the water displaced and
position of centre of buoyancy for a
wooden block of width 2.5 m and of depth
1.5m, when it floats horizontally in water.
Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium The density of wooden block is 650kg/ m3
and its length is 6.0m.
3.6.42 STABILITY IN FLOATING BODY Solution:
Given:
The stability of floating body is determined Width = 2.5m
from position of metacentre(M). In case of Depth = 1.5m
floating body, the weight of body is equal to Length = 6.0m
the buoyant force. Volume of the block
1) Stable Equilibrium: When M is above = 2.5×1.5×6.0= 22.50m3
G, because of a small displacement to Density of wood, ρ = 65kg/ m3
the body in the clock wise direction, the
couple between Wt & FB causes rotation
in anti-clockwise direction.
2) Unstable Equilibrium: When M is
below G, because of small displacement
to the body in the clock wise direction,
the couple between Wt & FB causes
rotation in clockwise direction.
∴ Weight of block = ρ ×g× Volume
3) Neutral: If M lies at the C.G. of body, the = 650×9.81×22.50N = 143471N
displacement of body does not result in For equilibrium, the weight of water
any couple of Wt & FB. Body remains at displaced = Weight of wooden block
its displaced position. = 143471N
∴ Volume of water displaced

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 =
Weight of water displaced
=
143471
=14.625m3 = 1000 × g ×Volume of body in water
Weight density of water 1000×9.81 = 1000×g ×0.6× VN
And, force of buoyancy due to mercury
Position of center of Buoyancy: = Weight of mercury displaced by body
Volume of wooden block in water = g × Density of water× Volume of mercury
= Volume of water displaced displaced
Or =g ×13.6×1000× volume of body in
2.5×h×6.0=14.625m3 , mercury
Where, = g ×13.6×1000×0.4VN
h is depth of wooden block in water Weight of the body
14.625 =Density x g x Volume of body
∴ h= = 0.975m ∴ For equilibrium, we have
2.5×6.0 Total buoyant force =Weight of the body
∴ Centre of Buoyancy
1000×g×0.6×V+13.6×1000×g×.4V = ρ ×g×V
0.975
= = 0.4875m from base Or
2 ρ =600+13600×.4 =600+54400=6040.00kg/ m3
Example: ∴ Density of the body = 6040.00kg/ m3
Find the density of a metallic body which
floats at the interface of mercury of S.G. Example:
13.6 and water such that 40% of its volume A float valve regulates the flow of oil of S.G.
is sub-merged in mercury and 60% in 0.8 into a cistern. The spherical float is 15
water. cm in diameter. AOB is a weightless link
Solution: carrying the float at one end, and a valve at
the other end which closes the pipe
Let the volume of the body = Vm3
through which oil flows into the cistern.
Then volume of body sub-merged in
The link is mounted on a frictionless hinge
mercury
at O and the angle AOB is 135°. The length
40 of OA is 20cm, and the distance between
= V = 0.4Vm3
100 the centre of the float and the hinge 50 cm.
Volume of body sub-merged in water When of the flow is stopped AO will be
60 vertical. The valve is to be pressed on to the
= V = 0.6Vm3 seat with a force of 9.81 N to completely
100
stop the flow of oil into the cistern. It was
observed that the flow of oil is stopped
when the free surface of oil in the cistern is
35 cm below the hinge. Determine the
weight of the float.

For the equilibrium of the body

Total buoyant force (upward force)
=Weight of the body
But total buoyant force= Force of buoyancy
due to water + Force of buoyancy due to
mercury
Solution:
Force of buoyancy due to water = Weight of
Given:
water displaced by body
Sp. gr. of oil =0.8
= Density of water × Volume of mercury
∴ Density of oil
displaced

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 = ρ0 = 0.8×1000 = 800kg/ m3
Example:
Dia. of float, D=15cm
A rectangular pontoon is 5m long, 3m wide
∠ AOB=135° and 1.20m high. The depth of immersion of
OA = 20cm the pontoon is 0.80m in sea water. If the
Force, P=9.81N centre of gravity is 0.6m above the bottom
OB=50 cm of the pontoon, determine the Meta –
Let the weight be W. centric height. The density for sea water
= 1025kg/ m3
When the flow of oil is stopped, the centre
of float is shown in Fig. The level of oil is Solution:
also shown. The centre of float is below the Given:
level of oil, by a depth ‘h’ Dimension of pontoon = 5m × 3m × 1.20m
From ∆ BOD, Depth of immersion =0.8m
Distance AG=0.6m
OD OC+CD 35+ h
sin45° = = =
OB OB 50
50×sin45° =35+ h Or
1
h =50× − 35=35.355 − 35=0.355cm = .00355m
2
The weight of float is acting through B, but
the upward buoyant force is acting through
the centre of weight of oil displaced
Volume of oil displaced :
2  D 15 
= π r3 + h× π r2 r = = =7.5cm 
3  2 2 
2
= × π × ( 0.75) +.00355× π × ( 0.75) =0.000945m3
3 2

3 1
Distance AB = ×Depth of immersion
=Weight of oil displaced 2
= ρ0 × g× Volume of oil 1
= ×.8 = 0.4m
= 800×9.81×0.00945=7.416N 2
The buoyant force and weight of the float Density for sea water = 1025kg/ m3
passes through the same vertical line, Meta-centre height GM, given by equation
passing through B. as
Let the weight of float is W. Then net
I
vertical force on float GM = − BG
=Buoyant force –Weight of float = (7.416- ∀
W) Where I = Moment of Inertia of the plan of
Taking moments about the hinges O, we get the pontoon about Y-Y axis
( ) (
P×20= 7.416 − W ×BD= 7.416 − W ×50×cos45° ) 1
= ×5×33 m4 = m4
45
12 4
(
Or 9.81×20 = 7.416 − W ×35.355 ) ∀ = Volume of the body sub- merged in
∴ water
20×9.81 =3×0.8×5.0=12.0m3
W =7.416 − =7.416 − 5.55=1.866N
35.355 BG = AG = AB = 0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2m

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 45 1 45
GM = × − 0.2=
− 0.2= 0.9375 − 0.2= 0.7375m Example:
4 12.0 48 A wooden cylinder of S.G. 0.6 and circular
cross–section is required to float in oil (S.G.
Example: 0.90). Find the L/D ratio for the cylinder to
A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a float with its longitudinal axis vertical in
height of 4.0m. Find the meta-centric height oil, where L is the height of cylinder and D
of the cylinder if the specific gravity of the is its diameter.
material of cylinder = 0.6 and it is floating Solution:
in water with its axis vertical. State Given:
whether the equilibrium is stable or Dia of cylinder =D
unstable. Height of cylinder =L
Solution: Sp. Gr. Of cylinder S1 = 0.6
Given: D=4m
Height, h=4m Sp. Gr of oil S2 = 0.9
S.G. = 0.6 Let the depth of cylinder immersed in oil=h
Depth of cylinder in water = S.G x h
= 0.6×4.0= 2.4m
∴ Distance of centre of buoyancy (B) from
A
2.4
AB = =1.2m
2
Distance of centre of gravity (G) from A
h 4.0
AG = = = 2.0m
2 2
∴ BG = AG− AB = 2.0 − 1.2= 0.8m For the principle of buoyancy
Now the meta–centric height GM is given Weight of cylinder = wt. of oil displaced
by π 2 π
×D ×L×0.6×1000×9.81= ×D2×h×0.9×1000×9.81
I 4 4
GM = − BG Or L×0.6 = h×0.9
∀
Where 0.6×L 2
∴ h= = L
I=M. O. I. of the plan of the body about Y-Y 0.9 3
axis The distance of centre of gravity G from A,
π 4 π
= D = × ( 4.0) L
4
AG =
64 64 2
∀ = Volume of cylinder in water The distance of centre of buoyancy B from
π 2 π 2 3 A
= ×D ×Depth of cylinder in water = ×4 ×2.4m
4.0 4 h 1 2  L
π AB = =  L  =
×4 4
2 2 3  3
1 42
∴ 1 = 64 = × =
1
= 0.4167m
∀ π 2 16 2.4 2.4 L L 3L− 2L L
×4 ×2.4 ∴ BG = AG− AB = − = =
4 2 3 6 6
1 The meta–centric height GM is given by
GM = − BG = 0.4167 − 0.8 = −0.3833m
∀ I
GM = − BG
-ve sign means that the meta–centre (M) is ∀
below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the
cylinder is in unstable equilibrium.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 π 4 First calculating the meta–centric height,
Where I = D and ∀ = Volume of which is given as
64
I
π 2 GM = BM− BG = − BG
cylinder in oil = D ×h ∀
4
Where I= Moment of Inertia
I  π π  1 D2 D2 3D2 And ∀ = Volume of water displaced
∴ =  D4 / D2h  = = =
∀  64 4  16 h 16× 2 L 32L Weight of ship 29430×1000
= = = 2912.6m3
3 Sp.weight of sea water 10104
 2  10000
Q h = L  ∴GM = − 1.5=3.433 − 1.5=1.933m
 3  2912.6
3D2 L K2
∴ GM = − Using equation, T = 2π
32L 6 GM× g
For stable equilibrium, GM should be +ve We get
or, K2 2π K
10 = 2π =
3D2 L 1.933×9.81 1.933×9.81
GM > 0 or − >0
32L 6 Or
Or
10× 1.933×9.81
3D2 L 3×6 L2 K= = 6.93m
> or > 2π
32L 6 32 D2
Or
L2 18 9
< or
D 32
2
16
L 9 3
∴ < =
D 16 4
L
∴ <3/ 4
D

Example:
The time period of rolling of a ship of
weight 29430kN in sea water is 10seconds.
The centre of buoyancy of the ship is 1.5 m
below the centre of gravity. Find the radius
of gyration of the ship if the moment of
inertia of the ship at the water line about
fore and aft axis is1000m4 . The specific
weight of sea water as 10100N/ m3
Solution:
Given:
Time period T=10sec
Distance between centre of buoyancy and
centre of gravity, BG=1.5m
Moment of Inertia, I =10000m4
Weight W = 29430kN = 29430×1000N
Let the radius of gyration =K

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is the force required (in Q.3 A conical tank with a bottom
Newton) to hold a spherical balloon opening of cross-sectional area A is
stationary in water at a depth of H filled with water and is mounted on
from the air-water interface? The supports, as shown in the figure.
balloon is of radius 0.1 m and is What is the force F with which plate
filled with air. X must be pushed up to prevent
[GATE –2004] water from leaking? Assume that
4πg 0.1 π g h the density of air is negligible as
(A) (B)
3 4 compared to the density of water
ρL
0.1 π g h 0.04 π g h
(C) (D) [GATE –2004]
8 3

Q.2 For the manometer setup shown in

the figure, the pressure difference
PA − PB is given by
[GATE –2004]

(A) ρ L V g

(B) ( ρ L g H ) A

ρL V g
(C)
2
ρL V g
(D)
3

(A) ( ρ H − ρ air ) g H Q.4 A dam of width 50 m is used to hold

water in a reservoir. If the water
(B) ( ρ H − ρ L ) g H
height is 10 m from the bottom of
the dam, what is the total force F
(C) ( ρ H − ρ L ) g H − ( ρ L − ρ air ) g (L − H)
acting on the dam due to the water?
(D) ( ρ H − ρ L ) g L+ ( ρ L − ρ air ) g H Assume g = 10 m/s2, and the fluid
density is 1000 kg/m3
[GATE –2005]
 (A) F = 12.5 × 106 N
Q.7 The magnitude of the force (in N)
(B) F = 25 × 106 N required to hold a body of volume
(C) F = 50 × 106 N 0.05 m3 and mass 40 kg in water
(density 1000 kg/m3) at a depth of
(D) F = 5 × 106 N
0.1 m is (g : 9.81 m/s2 )
(A) zero (B) 98.1
Common Data for Q.5 and Q.6 (C) 490.5 (D) 882.9
[GATE –2006]
A balloon of mass 0.01 kg is charged with
hydrogen to a pressure of 102kPa and
Q.8 The figure shows the idealized
released from the ground level. During its
view of a return elbow or U bend,
rise the hydrogen is permitted to escape
which is connected to two pipes by
from the balloon in order to maintain a
flexible hoses that transmit no
constant differential pressure of 2 kPa
force. Water with density 1000
under which condition the diameter of the
kg/m3 flows at velocity of 10 m/s
balloon remains at 0.4 m. As this balloon
through the pipe, which has a
rises it is assumed that the temperature in
uniform ID of 0.1m. The gauge
and around the balloon remains constant
pressure at points 1 and 2 are 304
at 273 K. Further, the inertia of the balloon
kPa and 253 kPa respectively. The
and the air resistance due to the rising
horizontal force F required to keep
balloon may be neglected. Assume that the
the elbow in position is
density of air at 273 K is 1.2733 kg/m3, the
[GATE –2007]
average molecular weight of air is 28.9, the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa and the
acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2

Q.5 Select the correct value of the

upward thrust (in N) expressed in
terms of the outside pressure P
which is expressed in Pa.
[GATE –2005]
(A) 10.06 ×10−7 P − 0.0122 (A) 1574 N (B) 1970 N
(B) 3.97 ×10−6 P − 0.01006 (C) 5942 N (D) 7533 N
(C) 15.03 ×10−7 P − 0.0534
(D) 8.08 ×10−6 P − 0.1362 Q.9 The figure shows a series-parallel
configuration of three identical
Q.6 Select the value of the outside centrifugal pumps. The head
pressure P in Pa for which there increase ∆H across a single such
will be no force on the balloon? pump varies with flowrate Q
according to ∆H = a − bQ 2 . The
[GATE –2005] expression for the total head
(A)25340 (B)35530 increase ΔH = H 2 − H1 in terms of a
(C)12130 (D)16860 and b and the total flowrate Q1 for
this configuration is given by
 specific gravity 1.5 if the length of
the stem above the liquid surface
is Ll , then the difference Ll − L w is
[GATE –2010]

[GATE –2007]

5
(A) 2a − bQ1 2 (B) 2a − bQ1 2
4
(A) -177 mm (B) 177 mm
(C) 2a − 2bQ1 2 (D) a − bQ1 2
(C) -266 mm (D) 266 mm

Q.10 Three containers are filled with

water up to the same height as Q.12 A vertical cylindrical vessel has a
shown. The pressures at the layer of kerosene (of density 800
bottom of the containers are kg/m3) over a layer of water (of
denoted as P1, P2 and P3. Which density 1000 kg/m3). L-shaped
ONE of the following relationships glass tubes are connected to the
is true? column 30 cm apart. The interface
[GATE –2008] between the two layers lies
between the two points at which
the L-tubes are connected. The
levels (in cm) to which the liquids
rise in the respective tubes are
(A) P3 > P1 > P2 shown in the figure below.
(B) P2 > P1 > P3
(C) P1 > P2 = P3
(D) P1 = P2 = P3

Q.11 A hydrometer, with stem cross-

sectional area of 2.82×10-5 m2, is
immersed in a very large vessel
containing water as shown in the
The distance (x in cm, rounded off
figure. The immersed volume is
to the first decimal place) of the
15×10-6 mg and the length of the
interface from the point at which
stem about water surface is L w . If the lower L-tube is connected is
the entire volume of water is ______
replaced by a liquid with [GATE–2016]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A A B B B A B B A D B 10
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (A)
Force Required = Buoyancy Force Q.4 (B)
F = ρ f Vfd g 10

4 
F= ∫ ( h g ρ )( 50 × dh )
= (1000)  π r 3  g 0

3  10

4 
= (1000)  π (0.1)3  g
= 50 × ρ g ∫ h dh
3 
0
10
4  h2 
= πg = 50 × 1000 ×10  
3  2 0
So Option (a) is correct = 25 × 106 N

Q.2 (A)
Q.5 (B)
Let outside pressure = P Pa
Pressure inside balloon = P + 2000 Pa
4 
Upward thrust =  π(0.2)3ρ air g  −
3 
4 
 3 π (0.2) ρ H2 g  − [ 0.01 g ]
3

4  28.9 ×10−3 P 
= π(0.2)3   10 −
3  8.314 × 273 
Balancing pressure at 1' and 2' 4  2 ×10−3 (P+2000) 
π(0.2)3   10
PA + ρ air g H + ρ L g L = PB + ρ L g L + ρ H g H 3  8.314 × 273 
PA − PB = (ρ H − ρ air ) g H − (0.01)(10)
= 3.97 × 10−6 P − 0.1006 N
So Option (a) is correct
So Option (b) is correct
Q.3 (B)
 Force acting in   Hydrostatic  Q.6 (A)
 =  × Area
 upward direction   Force  3.97 × 10−6 P − 0.1006 = 0
F= ( ρ L g H ) A P = 25340 Pa
So Option (b) is correct So Option (a) is correct
 Q.7 (B) H − H1 =a − bQ1 2
H = H1 + a − bQ1 2
2
Q 
H 2 − H =a − b  1 
 2 
2
Q 
H 2 − ( H1 + a − bQ1 ) = a − b  1 
2

 2 
 1
H 2 − H1 =2a − bQ1 2 1 + 
 4
5
Force Balance on Body H 2 − H1 =2a − bQ1 2
4
F + Fg = FB So, Option (a) is correct
F + m g = ρ F Vfd g
F = (1000 × 0.05 × 9.8 ) − ( 40 × 9.81) Q.10 (D)
F = 98.1 N
Q.11 (B)
So Option (b) Is correct Given

Q.8 (B) Case I

Volume = 15×10−6
P1 A1 − P2 A 2 − F = Change in Momentum
P1 A1 − P2 A 2 − F = ρ Q ( ( − V2 ) − (V1 ) ) ( L − L ) A = 15×10
w
−6

15×10−6
P1 A1 − P2 A 2 + ρ Q 2 V = F ( L − Lw ) = 2.82×10−5 =0.532...........(1)
A ( P1 − P2 + ρ V 2 V ) =
F Wt = Weight of fluid displaced
π = ( L − L w ) A×1000
=F (0.1) 2 ( 304 ×103 − 253 ×103 + 2 ×1000 ×102
4
F = 1970 N = 15×10−6 ×1000 = 15×10−3
Similarly in Case II
So Option (b) is correct
W= ( L − L L ) A×1500

Q.9 (A) 15 × 10−3

=( L − L L ) =0.345............(2)
1500 × 2.82 × 10−2
Now,
Eq(1) − Eq(2)
( L − L ) − ( L − L =)
W L 0.532 − 0.345
LL − LW =
178 mm

So Option (b) is correct

Q.12 (10)
Balancing Pressure at point 1 and 2
P2 = P1 +(30 − x)ρ1 g + x ρ 2 g
( 0.42×100×9.8) = ( 0.2×800×9.8) +
( ( 30 − x ) ×800×9.8) =
( x×1000×9.8)
420 = 160 + 240 − 800 x + 1000 x
x = 0.1 m = 10 cm
 4 KINEMATICS

4.1 INTRODUCTION fluid may vary with position but remains

constant w.r.t time.
Fluid kinematics deals with describing the
motion of fluids without necessarily
considering the forces and moments that
cause the motion. The velocity at any point
in a flow field at any time is studied in this
branch of fluid mechanics. Once the
velocity is known, then the pressure
distribution & hence forces acting on the
fluid can be determined. Unsteady flow is that type of flow in which
the velocity, pressure, density at a point
4.2 METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID changes with respect to time.
MOTION  dP 
  ≠0
 dt ( x ,y ,z )
1) Lagrangian Method: A single fluid o o o

particle is followed during its motion (

P = f x,y,z,t )
and its velocity, acceleration, density
etc. are described. Example:
Fluid flowing in pipe of uniform cross
2) Eulerian Method: The velocity, acc, section or varying cross section with
density etc. are described as a point in variable mass flow rate
flow field. It is commonly used in fluid
mechanics. 4.3.2 UNIFORM FLOW & NON UNIFORM
FLOW
4.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow
4.3.1 STEADY & UNSTEADY FLOW in which the velocity at any given time does
not change w.r.t. space.
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in
 dP 
which the fluid characteristics like velocity   =0
etc. at a point do not change with time.  ds t
 dP 
  =0
 dt ( xo ,y o ,zo ) Example:
Fluid flowing through uniform cross
(
P = f x,y,z ) section. The velocity remains constant
Where, w.r.t. space. The mass flow rate can vary
P is flow parameter (velocity, acceleration, w.r.t. time.
density etc)

Example:
Fluid flowing in pipe of uniform cross
section or varying cross section with
constant mass flow rate. The velocity of V1 = V2

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 Non Uniform flow is that type of flow in Velocity is along ‘x’ direction
which velocity changes with respect to U = f (y)
space at given instant.
ii) Velocity flow field given by
Example: V axˆi + bxjˆ
=
Fluid flowing through non uniform cross Here velocity has two components but
section. The velocity varies w.r.t space. The depends only on one dimension.
mass flow rate can vary Therefore one dimensional flow

2) Two dimensional: Two dimensional

flows is that type of flow in which the
flow parameter such as velocity is a
function of time and two space
coordinates.
Velocity flow field given by
V1 ≠ V2 =V ax ˆi − byjˆ

1) Steady Uniform flow: Flow at constant 3) Three dimensional: Three

rate through a duct of uniform cross- dimensional flows is that type of flow in
section. which the flow parameter such as
2) Steady non-uniform flow: Flow at velocity is a function of time and three
constant rate through a duct of non- spaces coordinate.
uniform cross-section (tapering pipe). Velocity flow field given by
3) Unsteady Uniform flow: Flow at
varying rates through a long straight V = ax ˆi + byˆj + czk̂
pipe of uniform cross-section. (Again V axyˆi − byzjˆ
=
the region close to the walls is ignored.
4) Unsteady non-uniform flow: Flow at 4.3.4 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
varying rates through a duct of non-
uniform cross-section Viscous flow regimes are classified as
laminar or turbulent on the basis of flow
4.3.3 ONE-, TWO- AND THREE- structure. In the laminar regime, flow
DIMENSIONAL FLOWS structure is characterized by smooth
motion in lamina or layers. Flow structure
1) One dimensional: One dimensional in the turbulent regime is characterized by
flow is that type of flow in which the random, three-dimensional motions of fluid
flow parameter such as velocity is a particles in addition to the mean motion.
function of time and one space In laminar flow there is no mixing between
coordinate only. adjacent fluid layers. A thin filament of dye
injected into a laminar flow appears as a
Example: single line; there is no dispersion of dye
throughout the flow. A dye filament
i) Fluid flowing between two parallel injected into turbulent flow disperses
plates quickly throughout the flow field; the line
of dye breaks up into entangled threads of
dye. This behaviour of turbulent flow is due
to the velocity fluctuations present; the
mixing of fluid particles from adjacent
layers of fluid results in rapid dispersion of

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 the dye. If one measures the x component
of velocity at a fixed locations in a pipe for 4.3.6 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FLOWS
both laminar and turbulent steady flow, the Flows completely bounded by solid
traces of velocity versus time appears. In surfaces are called internal or duct flows.
the turbulent flow the flow velocity trace Flows over bodies immersed in an
indicates random fluctuations of the unbounded fluid are termed external flows.
instantaneous velocity, Both internal and external flows may be
u= u + u′ laminar or turbulent, compressible or
In one dimensional laminar flow, the shear incompressible.
stress is related to the velocity gradient by
the simple relation 4.4 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-
Tyx = µdu / dy DIMENSIONS
In turbulent flow there is no universal
relationship between the stress field and Continuity equation is based on mass
the mean velocity field. Thus in turbulent conservation principle.
flows we must rely heavily on semi (mass flow rate in) - (mass flow rate out) =
empirical theories and on experimental (rate of change of mass in control volume)
data. dm
The type of flow is determined by min − mout =
dt
Reynold’s No. In Cartesian coordinate system
ρVL ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ρ
Re =
µ ∂x
( )
ρu +
∂y
( )
ρv +
∂z
ρw + ( )
∂t
=0
Where, Where,
ρ =Density
u = f1 ( x,y,z )
L = Characterstic length
V = Velocity ( )
v = f2 x,y,z
μ = Dynamic Viscosity w = f ( x,y,z )
3

This equation is applicable to

4.3.5 COMPRESSIBLE & INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOWS
1. Steady & unsteady
Flows in which variations in density are 2. Compressible, incompressible.
negligible are termed incompressible; 3. Uniform, non-uniform
when density variations within a flow are ∂ρ
For steady flow =0
not negligible, the flow is called ∂t
compressible. Gas flowing with negligible ∂ ∂ ∂
heat transfer may also be considered ∂x
( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) =
∂y ∂z
0
incompressible provided that the flow
speed is small relative to the speed of For incompressible & steady flow
sound.
∂ ∂ ∂
The ratio of the flow speed V, to the local
∂x
( u) + ( v ) + ( w ) =
∂y ∂z
0
speed of sound C, in the gas is defined as
the Mach number. For two dimensional, incompressible &
V steady flow
M= ∂ ∂
C
∂x
( u) +
∂y
(v) =0
Thus gas flows with M<0.3 can be treated
as incompressible.

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 4.5 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN ONE du dv dw
DIMENSION =ax = , ay = , az
dt dt dt
For steady state condition du ∂u  ∂x  ∂u  ∂y  ∂u ∂z ∂u
ax = =   +   + . +
(mass ) = (mass ) dt ∂x  ∂t  ∂y  ∂t  ∂z ∂t ∂t
in out
u.∂u v.∂u w.∂u ∂u
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 ax = + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
For incompressible fluid
u.∂v v.∂v w.∂v ∂v
ρ1 = ρ2 ay = + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
A1 V1 = A 2 V2 u.∂w v.∂w w.∂w ∂w
Continuity equation is valid for az = + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
incompressible steady state.
For steady state,
4.6 MOTION OF FLUID ELEMENT dv
=0
dt
a) linear motion ∂u ∂v ∂w
b) Rotation motion = 0,= 0,= 0
∂t ∂t ∂t
c) linear deformation Hence acceleration
d) angular deformation
u.∂u v.∂u w.∂u
ax = + +
4.6.1 LINEAR MOTION ∂x ∂y ∂z

In pure translation motion the fluid particle 4.6.3 LOCAL ACCELERATION &
retains its shape. It does not deform. CONVECTIVE ACCELERATION

Local acceleration is defined as the rate of

change of velocity with respect to time at a
given point in a flow field.
∂u ∂v ∂w
4.6.2 VELOCITY & ACCELERATION , ,
∂t ∂t ∂t
The velocity in flow field is given by
4.6.4 CONVECTIVE ACCELERATION
V = uˆi + vˆj + wkˆ
Where, Convective acceleration is defined as

(
u = f1 x,y,z ) change of velocity with change in position
of fluid particle in a fluid flow.
v = f ( x,y,z )  u.∂u u.∂u u.∂v 
+ +
2  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
w = f ( x,y,z )
3
The magnitude of resultant velocity is given 4.6.5 FLUID ROTATION
by
V= u2 + v 2 + w 2
The acceleration is given by
a = a xi + a yj + a z 
k Rotation of fluid particle is a vector
Where, quantity given by

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 ω = ωx ˆi + ωy ˆj + ωz kˆ 4.6.7 ANGULAR DEFORMATION/SHEAR
STRAIN

Where,
ωx is rotation about x axis,
ωyis rotation about y axis &
ωz is rotation about z axis
Rate of shear strain is given by
In vector notation
1  ∂u ∂v 
1  ε=  + 
xy
2  ∂y ∂x 
ω= (∇ × V)
2 4.7 FLOW PATTERNS

Rotational Components are given by Fluid Mechanics is a subject with

1  ∂v ∂u  visualizations. Patterns of flow can be
=
ωz  −  visualized in several ways. Basic types of
2  ∂x ∂y 
line patterns used to visualize flow are
1  ∂u ∂w  streamline, path line, streak line and time
=
ωy  − 
2  ∂z ∂x  line.

1  ∂w ∂v  4.7.1 STREAM LINE

=
ωx  − 
2  ∂y ∂z 
For irrotational fluid flow, Stream lines are lines drawn in the flow
field so that the tangent at any point gives
ωx =ωy =ωz =0 the direction of velocity of particle at that
point. Since the streamlines are tangent to
4.6.6 LINEAR STRAIN RATE the velocity vector at every point in the
flow field, there can be no flow across a
It is defined as the rate of increase in length streamline.
per unit length. Mathematically, the linear Differential equation of streamline
strain rate of a fluid element depends on ds
the initial orientation or direction of the =V
dt
line segment upon which we measure the
dx dy dz
linear strain =
dt = =
u v w
dx dy dz
= =
u v w

4.7.11 STREAM TUBE

Linear strain is given by
A bundle of neighboring streamlines may
∂u ∂v ∂w be imagined to form a passage through
ε xx= , ε yy= , εzz=
∂x ∂y ∂z which the fluid flows. This passage is
known as a stream-tube.

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 Properties of Stream tube: any direction gives the velocity
perpendicular to that direction. It is defined
1) The stream-tube is bounded on all sides for two dimensional flows.
by streamlines. ∂ψ ∂ψ
U= , V= −
2) Fluid velocity does not exist across a ∂y ∂x
streamline; no fluid may enter or leave
a stream-tube except through its ends.
Properties of stream function (Ψ ) :
3) The entire flow in a flow field may be
imagined to be composed of flows 1) If stream function exists, it is possible
through stream-tubes arranged in some case of continuous, incompressible
arbitrary positions steady flow.
2) If stream function (Ψ ) satisfies Laplace
4.7.2 PATH LINE Equation i.e.,
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
A path line means the path or line actually + =
0
∂y 2 ∂x 2
described by a single fluid particle as it
moves during a period of time. The path Then, it is possible case of irrotational
line indicates direction of the velocity of the flow.
same fluid particle at successive instant of
time.
4.8.1 CONSTANT STREAM FUNCTION
4.7.3 STREAK LINE
Let at any instant these particles arrive at Ψ = const
points Q, R and S.Q, R and S represent the dΨ = 0
end points of the trajectories of these three ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
=
dΨ dx + dy
particles at the instant. The curve joining ∂x ∂y
the points S, R, Q and the fixed point P will =
0 vdx − udy
define the streak line at that instant. The
fixed point P will also lie on the line, since dy v
=
at any instant; there will be always a dx u
particle of some identity at that point.
4.9 VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION
In the steady flow, the velocity at each
point in the flow field remains constant It is defined as a scalar function of space &
with time and, consequently, the time, such that its negative derivative with
streamlines do not vary from one instant to respect to any direction gives the fluid
the next. This implies that a particle located velocity in that direction.
on a given streamline will remain on the φ = f ( x, y, z ) for steady flow.
same streamline. Furthermore, consecutive
particles passing through a fixed point in dϕ dϕ dϕ
u=- , v= - , w= -
space will be in the same streamline and dx dy dz
subsequently, will remain on this
streamline. Thus in a steady flow, path Properties of Potential Function:
line, streak lines, and streamlines are 1. If velocity potential ( φ ) exists, the flow
identical lines in the flow field should be irrotational.
4.8 STREAM FUNCTION ( Ψ ) 2. If ( φ ) satisfy the Laplace equation, the
flow is continuous, incompressible, and
It is defined as scalar function of space & steady.
time, such that its partial derivative w.r.t. to

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 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ The continuity equation for incompressible
+ + =
0 fluid is given by equation as
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2
δu δv δw
+ + =0
4.10 EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE δx δy δz
Case 1:
It is defined as line along which the velocity
potential is constant. u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2   
φ = const δu
∴ = 2x
d φ=0 δx

( )
φ = f x,y for steady, 2D flow
v = xy 2 − yz 2 + xy
δv
dφ dφ ∴ = 2 xy – z 2 + x
=
dφ dx + dy δy
dx dy δv
δu
=
0 udx + vdy Substituting the values of and in
δx δy
dy u continuity equation
=−
dx v δw
2x + 2xy – z 2 + x + =
0
δz
4.10.1 RELATION B/W STREAM Or
FUNCTION & VELOCITY POTENTIAL δw
=
−3x – 2xy + z 2 or
FUNCTION δz

∂ψ ∂ϕ
( −3x – 2xy + z 2 ) δz
δw =
u= =− Integration of both sides gives,
∂x ∂y
∫ ( −3x – 2xy + z ) δz
∫δw =
2
∂ψ ∂ϕ
=v = z3
∂y ∂x w =
(−3xz – 2xyz + ) +C
Hence, 3
Where constant of integration cannot be
∂φ ∂Ψ
= − function of z, but can be a function of x and
∂x ∂y y that is f(x,y).
∂ϕ ∂ψ  z 
3
= w =  −3 xz – 2 xyz+  + f ( x, y )
∂y ∂x  3
Stream line and equipotential line are Case 2:
orthogonal to each other δv
 dy   dy  v = 2y 2 ∴ = 4y
.  = −1 δy
 
 dx equipotential  dx stream line δw
w = 2xyz ∴ = 2 xy
δz
Example:
δv δw
The following cases represents the two Substituting the values of and in
velocity components, determine the third δy δz
component of velocity such that they continuity equation, we get
satisfy the continuity equation: δu
+ 4y + 2xy = 0
i) u = x + y + z , v = xy − yz + xy δx
2 2 2 2 2

ii) v = 2 y 2 , w = 2 xyz or
Solution: δu
=
−4y − 2xy
δx
or

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 δu = ( −4y − 2xy ) δx = (22 × 1)i+ (12 × 3)j− (2 × 2 × 1 × 3 + 1 × 32 )k
Integrating we get,
= 4i + 3j
− 21k

x2
u=
−4 xy − 2 y + f ( y, z )
2
And resultant velocity
=
−4 xy − x 2 y+ f(y, z)
= 42 + 32 + ( −21)2
= 16 + 9 + 441 = 466 = 21.587 units
Example:
A fluid flow field is given by Acceleration (2, 1, 3)
V = x2yi + y 2zj
− (2xyz + yz2 )k
 The acceleration components
Prove that it is a case of possible steady a x ,a y ,and a z
incompressible fluid flow. Calculate the
for steady flow are
velocity and acceleration at the point (2,1,3).
Solution: ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = u + v + w
For the given fluid flow field ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v
u = x2y ∴ = 2xy ay = u +v +w
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂w ∂w ∂w
v = y 2z = ∴
2yz az = u +v +w
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w u = x2y
w = −2xyz − yz2 ∴ =−2xy − 2yz
∂z ∂u ∂u ∂u
steady = = x= 2
For a case of possible 2xy, , 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
incompressible fluid flow, the continuity
equation should be satisfied v = y 2z
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂v ∂v
= 0,= 2yz,= y 2
+ + =
0 ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂w w = −2xyz − yz2 ,
Substituting the value of , and ,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂w ∂w
we get,
=
−2xyz, =
−2xz − z2 ,
∂x ∂y
δu δv δw ∂w
+ + = −2xy − 2yz
δx δy δz ∂z
= 2 xy + 2 yz − 2 xy − 2 yz = 0 Substituting these values in acceleration
Hence, the velocity field components, we get acceleration at (2, 1, 3)
V = x yi + y zj – ( 2 xyz + yz 2 ) k
2 2
a= x2y(2xy) + y 2z(x2 ) − (2xyz + yz2 )(0)
x
is a possible case of fluid flow = 2x3y 2 + x2y 2z
= 2(23 )(12 ) + (2)2 (1)2 x 3
Velocity at (2, 1, 3)
= 2 × 8 + 12
Substituting the values x =2, y = 1 and z = 3 = 16 + 12
in velocity field, we get = 28 units
2  2  2  a y = x2y(0) + y 2z(2yz) − (2xyz + yz2 )(y 2 )
V = x yi + y zj − (2xyz + yz )k
= 2y 3z2 − 2xy 3z − y 3z2

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 = 18 − 12 − 9 Example:
= −3units The stream function for a two-dimensional
flow is given by ψ =2xy . Calculate the
a z = x 2 y(−2yz) + y 2 z(−2xz − z 2 ) velocity at the point P ( 2, 3) . Also, find the
− (2xyz + yz 2 )(−2xy − 2yz) velocity potential function φ
=
−2x 2 y 2 z − 2xy 2 z 2 − y 2 z3 Solution:
Given:
+[4x 2 y 2 z + 2xy 2 z 2 + 4xy 2 z 2 + 2y 2 z3 ]
ψ =2xy
=−
( 2 × 2 × 1 × 3) − (2 × 2 × 1 × 3 ) − 1 × 3
2 2 2 2 2 3
The velocity components u and v in terms
+ {(4 × 2 × 1 × 3) + (2 × 2 × 1 × 3 )
2 2 2 2 of ψ are

+ (4 × 2 × 12 × 32 ) + (2 × 12 × 33 )} δψ δ
u= − = − (2xy) = −2x
=
−24 − 36 − 27 + (48 + 36 + 72 + 54) δy δy
= 123 δψ δ
=
v = (2xy)= 2y
      δx δx
∴ Acceleration= a x i + a y j + az k = 28i − 3j + 123k
Or At the point P ( 2, 3) . , we get
magnitude of resultant acceleration u =−2 × 2 =−4units
282 + ( −3)2 + 123
= 2
784 + 9 + 15129
= 15922 v = 2× 3 = 6
= 126.18units ∴ Resultant velocity @P
= u2 + v 2 = 42 + 62 = 52 = 7.21units / sec
Example: Velocity potential function φ
The velocity potential function is given by We know
=
φ 5(x2 − y 2 ) . Calculate the velocity δφ
=−u =−( −2x) =2x ..... ( i )
component at the point ( 4, 5) . δx
Solution: δφ
=−v =−2y ..... ( ii )
=
φ 5(x 2 − y 2 ) δy
Integrating equation ( i ) , we get
δφ
= 10x
δx ∫ dφ =∫ 2xdx
δφ 2x2
= −10y φ= + C= x2 + C ..... ( iii )
δy 2
But the velocity components u and v are Where C is a constant which is independent
given by equation as of x but can be a function of y
δφ Differentiating equation (iii) w.r.t. ‘y’, we
u= − = −10x
δx δφ δC
get =
δφ δy δy
v =− =−( −10y) =10y
δy δφ
But from ( ii ) , = −2y
The velocity components at the point (4, 5), δy
i.e., at= = 5 are
x 4,y
δC
u =−10 × 4 =−40units ∴ = −2y
δy
v = 10 × 5 = 50units
Integrating this equation, we get
2y 2
C= ∫ −2y dy = −
2
=
−y 2

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 Substituting this value of C in equation ( iii ) , y2
=
C + C1
we get φ= x − y
2 2 2
Where C1 is a constant of integration,
Example: which is independent of x and y.
In a two dimensional incompressible flow, y2
the fluid velocity components are given by Taking it equal to zero, we get c =
2
u = x − 4y and v = − y − 4x . Show that Substituting the value of C in equation ( iii ) ,
velocity potential exists and determine its
form. Find also the stream function. we get
Solution: x2 y2
φ = − + 4xy +
Given: u =x − 4yandv =−y − 4x 2 2
∂u ∂v
∴ = 1 and = −1 Value of Stream functions
∂x ∂y Let ψ =stream function
∂u ∂v The velocity components in terms of
∴ + =1−1 = 0
∂x ∂y stream function are
Hence flow is continuous and velocity δψ
potential exists.
=v =−y − 4x ..... ( iv )
δx
Let φ =Velocity potential. and
Let velocity components in terms of δψ
velocity potential is given by =−u =−(x − 4y) =−x + 4y ...... ( v )
δy
δφ
δx
=−u =−(x − 4y) =−x + 4y....(i) Integrating equation ( iv ) w.r.t. x, we get

δφ 4x2
=−v =−(y − 4x) =y + 4x .......(ii) ψ = −yx − +k ....... ( vi )
δy 2
Where k is a constant of integration which
Integrating equation ( i ) , we get
is independent of x but can be function of y
x2 Differentiating equation ( vi ) w.r.t. y, we get
φ = − + 4xy + C .....(iii)
2 δψ δk
Where C is constant of integration, and is =−x − 0 +
independent of x. This constant can be a δy δy
function of y. But from equation (v) , we have
Differentiating the above equation, i.e.,
δψ
equation (iii) w.r.t. ‘y’, we get =−x + 4y
δy
δφ δC
=0 + 4x + δψ
δy δy Equating the two values of , we get
But from equation ( iii ) , we have δy
δk
δφ = 4y
= y + 4x δy
δy Integrating the above equation, we get
δφ 4y 2
Equating the two values of , we get =
k = 2y 2
δy 2
Substituting the values of k in equation ( vi )
δC
=y , we get
δy
Integrating the above equation, we get ψ = − yx − 2x 2 + 2y 2

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 i) For a two-dimensional flow, continuity
Example: δu δv
equation is + =0
V 8x3i − 10x 2 yj
A fluid flow is given by= 
δx δy
Find the shear strain rate and state δu δv
whether the flow is rotational or Substituting the value of and ,
irrotational. δx δy
we get
Solution: δu δv
+ = 2 − 2xy + 2xy − 2 = 0
Given: δx δy
V 8x3i − 10x 2 yj
=  ∴ It is a possible case of a fluid flow.
δu 2 δu ii) Rotation, ωz is given by
= =
u 8x 3
, =
24x , 0
δx δy 1  δv δu  1 2 2
=
ωz  − = [(y − x ) − (y 2 − x=
2
)] 0
δv δv 2  δx δy  2
v=
−10x2y, = −20xy, = −10x2
δx δy
( i ) Shear strain rate is given by equation as
1  δv δu  1
= +  =( −20xy + 0) = −10xy
2  δx δy  2
( ii ) Rotation in x-y plane is given by
equation or
1  δv δu  1
ωz =  −  = ( −20xy − 0) =−10xy
2  δx δy  2
As rotation ωz ≠ 0 . Hence flow is rotational.

Example:
The velocity components in a two-
dimensional flow are
y3 x3
u= + 2x − x 2 y and v=xy 2 − 2y −
3 3
Show that these components represent a
possible case of an irrotational flow.

Solution:
y3
Given u = + 2x − x 2y
3
δu
= 2 − 2xy
δx
δu 3y 2
= − x2 = y 2 − x2
δy 3
x3
Also v=xy 2 − 2y −
3
δv
∴ = 2xy − 2
δy

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS
3 2 2
Q.1 The inlet velocity of water (C) x y i + xy3 j
( ρ = 1000kg/m3) in a right-angled 2
bend- reducer is V1=1 m/s, as 3 2 2
(D) xy3 i + x y j
shown below. The inlet 2
diameter is D1=0.8 m and the
outlet diameter is D2=0.4 m. The Q.3 Two liquids (P and Q) having same
flow is turbulent and the viscosity are flowing through a
velocity profiles at the inlet double pipe heat exchanger as
and outlet are flat (plug flow). shown in the schematic below.
Gravitational forces are
negligible.

Densities of P and Q are 1000 and

(a) Find the pressure drop (P1-P2)
800 kg/m3 respectively. The
across the bend assuming
average velocities of the liquids P
negligible friction losses.
and Q are 1 and 2.5 m/s
(b) If the actual pressure drop is (P1-
respectively. The inner diameters
P2) = 8.25 kPa, find the friction loss
of the pipes are 0.31 and 0.1 m.
factor (Kf) based on the velocity V1
Both pipes are 5 mm thick. The
ratio of the Reynolds numbers Rep
[GATE–2001]
to Req is
[GATE–2011]
Q.2 The stream function in a xy-plane is
1 2 3
given below: ψ= x y The (A) 2.5 (B) 1.5
2
velocity vector for this stream (C) 1 (D) 4
function is:
[GATE –2010] Q.4 An open tank contains two
immiscible liquids of densities (800
3 2 2 
(A) xy3 i − x y j kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3) as shown
2 in the figure. If g 10 m/s2, under
3 2 2 static conditions, the gauge
(B) x y i − xy3 j pressure at the bottom of the tank
2 in Pa is_______
[GATE–2013]
 x3
(A) V=
x Va + q 2
LD
1 x3
(B) V=
x Va + q
3 L2
Q.5 Two packed towers are designed
for the same mass velocity of the
gas. The first has liquid and gas x3
(C) V=
x Va + 2q
flow rates of 30 kg/s and 1.2 kg/s, LD
respectively, while the 4 x3
corresponding flow rates in the (D) V=
x Va + q 2
3 LD
second tower are 67.5 kg/s and 1.8
kg/s. The ratio of the design
Q.7 An incompressible fluid is flowing
diameter of the wider tower to that
through a contraction section of
of the narrower tower
length L and has a 1-Dimentional
[GATE-2018]
Steady state velocity distribution,
(A) 2 (B) 1.8
(C) 1.5 (D) 1.225  2x 
u = u 0 1+  . If u 0 = 2 m/s and L
 L
= 3 m, the convective acceleration
Q.6 A pipe has a porous section of (in m/s2) of the fluid at L is
length L as shown in the figure. [GATE–2014]
Velocity at the start of this section (A) 2 (B) 5
is Vo. If fluid leaks into the pipe (C) 8 (D) 10
through the porous section at a
volumetric rate per unit area q
(x/L)2, what will be the axial
velocity in the pipe at any x?
Assume incompressible one-
dimensional flow i.e„ no gradients
in the radial direction.
[GATE–2003]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A B C 26000 D D C
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (A) Q.2 (B)

By Continuity Equation  = v i + v j
V x y
A1 V1 = A 2 V2
∂ψ  ∂ψ 
2 = i − j
D 
2
 0.8  ∂y ∂x
=V2  1  V1 ⇒  
 D2   0.4  1
ψ = x2 y3
V2 = 4 m / s 2
∂ψ 3 2 2
= x y
Applying Bernoulli Equation ∂y 2
P1 − P2 V2 2 − V1 2 ∂ψ
= = xy 3
ρ 2 ∂x
∆P 16 − 1 = 3 x 2 y 2 i − xy 3 j
V
= 2
1000 2
So Option (b) is correct
∆P = 7500 Pa=7.5 kPa

(B) Q.3 (C)

Given: ∆P = 8.25 kPa D P =DOp − Dq = 0.31 − 0.1
Applying Bernoulli Equation D P = 0.2 m
∆P V2 − V1 2 2
ρ p Vp D p
= +hf Re p
ρ 2 =
Re q ρ q Vq Dq
8.25 16 − 1
− =
hf 1000 ×1× 0.2
1000 2 = = 1
800 × 2.5 × 0.1
h f = 0.75
So Option (c) is correct
Now friction loss factor based on V1
V 2  Q.4 (26000 Pa)
hf = kf  1 
 Presure at 
 = ( Patm ) + ( P1 ) + ( P2 )
 2 

0.75 × 2  bottom 
=kf = 1.50
1 (P ) +(P ) = (P ) + (P ) + (P )
gauge atm atm 1 2

Pgauge ρ1 g h1 + ρ 2 g h 2
=
=
Pgauge (800 × 2 ×10 ) + (1000 ×1×10 )
 kg 
Pgauge = 26000 Pa or  2 
ms 
 4q  x 3 
Q.5 (D) V=
x V0 +  
D L2  3 
By continuity Equation
0
Q.7 (C)
m=ρAV Acceleration
du ∂u ∂x
0

m =V =
a =
ρA dt ∂x ∂t
∂ (u )
0 0
= (u )
m1 m 2 ∂x
= Q ρ1 =ρ 2    2x  
A1 A2 ∂  u0  1 +  
 2x   L 
0 =a u0  1 +  
 L  ∂x
= m2 =
d2 1.8 3
=
d1 0 1.2 2  2x   2 
= u0  1 +  u0  
m1  L  L
d2  2   2x 
=1.224 = u0 2    1 + 
d1  L  L 
So Option (d) is correct 2
= 22   (1 + 2 )
3
Q.6 (D) =8 m / s
For incompressible flow, mass balance
So Option (c) is correct
provide
π π 2
2
x
D Vx x + q   π D dx =
2
D Vx x + dx
4 L 4
π 2 π
D Vx x + dx − D 2Vx x 2
x
lim 4 4 = π qD   D
dx → 0 dx L
d π 2
2
 x
 D Vx  = π qD  
dx  4  L
dVx 4 q x 2
=
dx D L2
Integrate
4q  x 3 
=Vx  +c
D L2  3 
=
Substituting Vx V=
0 at x 0,
C = V0
 5 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION & ITS APPLICATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION P V2
+ + zg =const
ρ 2
Consider a small element of fluid in flow Multiplying the Bernoulli’s equation by the
field. The energy in the element as it moves density (ρ). Each term in this equation has
in the flow field is conserved. This principle units of pressure.
of conservation of energy is used in the
ρV 2
determination of flow parameters like P+ + ρzg =const
pressure, velocity and potential energy at 2
various locations in a flow. The concept is
used in the analysis of flow of ideal as well • P is the static pressure (it does not
as real fluids. Energy can neither be created incorporate any dynamic effects); it
nor destroyed. It is possible that one form represents the actual thermodynamic
of energy is converted to another form. pressure of the fluid. This is the same as
the pressure used in thermodynamics
5.2 EULER’S EQUATION and property tables.
P
Euler’s equation is obtained from the is known as pressure head
ρg
conservation of momentum for a fluid
particle moving along a streamline. The
forces due to gravity & pressure are taken ρV 2
• is the dynamic pressure; it
into consideration. 2
dP represents the pressure rise when the
+ VdV + gdz = 0
ρ fluid in motion is brought to stop
This equation is known as Euler’s equation isentropically.
of motion. The assumptions involved are: ρV 2
is known as dynamic head
1) Steady flow 2
2) Motion along a stream line
3) Ideal fluid (frictionless) • ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure,
In the case of incompressible flow, this which is not pressure in a real sense
equation can be integrated to obtain since its value depends on the reference
Bernoulli Equation. level selected. It accounts for the
elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on
5.3 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION pressure.
Z is gradient or datum head.
The Bernoulli’s equation states that the The sum of the static, dynamic, and
sum of the flow, kinetic, and potential hydrostatic pressures is called the total
energies of a fluid particle along a pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli’s
streamline is constant. Therefore, the equation states that the total pressure
kinetic and potential energies of the fluid along a streamline is constant. The sum
can be converted to flow energy (and vice of the static and dynamic pressures is
versa) during flow. called the stagnation pressure, and it
By integrating Euler’s equation for is expressed as
incompressible flow Stagnation pressure = static pressure +
dP dynamic pressure.
∫ ρ + ∫ VdV + ∫ gdz =∫0

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ρv 2 In case of ideal fluid, the above equation is
Stagnation pressure= P + valid. To modify the equation for real fluid,
2
coefficient of discharge (Cd) is multiplied to
5.4 APLLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S theoretical flow. It accounts for viscous
EQUATION loss, expansion loss & boundary roughness.
It is defined as
Venturimeter and Orifice meters are the
obstruction type meters commonly used actual discharge
cd =
for the measurement of flow through pipes. theoretical discharge
In each case the meter acts as an obstacle 2gh
placed in the path of the flowing fluid =
Q act c=a v cd a2
d 2 2 2
causing local changes in pressure and a 
velocity 1− 2 
i) Venturimeter  a1 
ii) Orifice plate PA − PB  ρm 
iii) Pitot tube
=h =  − 1 x
ρg  ρ 
5.4.1 VENTURIMETER Where,
x = the difference in mercury level
A venturimeter consist of a short
ρm = Density of heavy liquid
converging part, throat & diverging part.
ρ = Density of flowing fluid
The liquid undergoes gradual contraction &
expansion, therefore it has lesser losses. Case1:
Manometric fluid is lighter then liquid
By applying Bernoulli’s equations at 1 & 2
flowing in pipe (in case of inverted
P1 V12 P V2 manometer)
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g  ρ 
Points 1 & 2 are at same horizontal level, =h x1 − m 
 ρ 
∴ z1 = z 2
Case2:
 P1 P2  V22 − V12 Inclined/vertical venturimeter with
h= − + differential U-tube Manometer
 ρg ρg  2g
 P1  P   ρm 
=
Q a=v a2v 2
1 1 h =+  z1  −  2 + z 2  =
 − 1 x
 ρg   ρg   ρ 
5.4.2 ORIFICE METER OR ORIFICE PLATE
It is a device used for measuring the rate of
flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper
device as compared to venturimeter. The
2gh orifice diameter is kept generally 0.35
v2 = times the diameter of pipe. Due to sudden
2
a  expansion & contraction, loss is high in
1− 2  orificemeter.
 a1 
2gh
Q=
theo
a=v
2 2
a2
2
a 
1− 2 
 a1 

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 A differential Manometer is connected to The value of coefficient of contraction
measure the pressure difference at section varies from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on the
(1), which is at distance of about 1.5-2.0 shape and size of the orifice.
times the pipe diameter and section (2), 2gh
which is at a distance of about half Vact = c v
2 2
diameter of the orifice on the downstream a 
side. 1− 0 
By applying Bernoulli’s equations at 1 & 2  a1 

P1 V12 P2 V22 2gh

+ + z1 = + + z2 =
Q act a=v
2 act
c c a 0c v
2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
2
a 
1− 0 
 a1 
Points 1 & 2 are at same horizontal level,
∴ z1 = z2 2gh
Q act = cda0
 P1 P2  V22 − V12 a 
2

h= − + 1− 0 
 ρg ρg  2g
 a1 
=
Q a=v a2v 2
1 1
Where,
As the liquid comes out of orifice it Cd = Cc C v
contracts further and the area just outside Average value of Cd for orifices is 0.62.
the orifice is lower compared to the area of
the orifice. This section is called as vena-
5.4.3 PITOT TUBE
contracta. Area of jet at the vena-contracta
is less than the area of the orifice itself due
It is a device used for measuring flow
to convergence of stream lines. The
velocity at any point in a pipe.
coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as
follows. Principle: If velocity of flow at any point
area of jet at vena contracta(a2 ) becomes zero, the pressure is increased
cc =
area of orifice(a o ) due to conversion of kinetic energy to
pressure energy.
The value of coefficient of contraction
varies from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on the
shape and size of the orifice
a2 = cc .a0
=
Q a=v a=
1 1
v cc .a0 v 2
2 2

2gh
v2 = By applying Bernoulli’s equations at 1 & 2
2
a  Stagnation pressure = static pressure +
1 −  2  cc2
 a1  Dynamic pressure
Due to the viscous effects, the actual flow P1 V12 P2
velocity through the orifice will always be + =
ρg 2g ρg
less than the theoretical possible velocity.
V12 P2 P1
The velocity coefficient Cv is defined as = − =h
2g ρg ρg
follows.
Actual of jet at venna contacta Vact = c v 2gh
Cv =
Therotcial veocity of jet at orifice

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 P2 − P1  ρm 
=h =  − 1 x 4. Value of 𝜃𝜃 for max range
ρg  ρ 
U2 sin2θ
Where, R=
Cv is velocity coefficient g
sin2θ = 1
5.5 BERNOULIS EQUATION FOR REAL 2θ =90o Or θ =45o
FLUIDS
Example:
P1 V 2
P V 2 Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm
+ + z1 = 2 +
1
+ z2 + h f 2
diameter under a pressure of
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2
29.43N / cm (gauge) and with mean
Where,
hf is head loss due to viscous force & velocity of 2m / s . Find the total head or
minor losses. total energy per unit weight of the water at
a cross–section, which is 5m above the
5.6 FREE LIQUID JETS datum line.

Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water Solution:

coming out from the nozzle in atmosphere. Given:
The path travelled by the free jet is Diameter of pipe= 5 cm = 0.05m
parabolic, given by equation of parabola Pressure,
1 2 =P 29.43N /= cm2 29.43 × 104 N / m2
=y x tan θ − gx sec θ 2
Velocity, V = 2.0m / s
2
1. Max height Datum head, Z = 5m
Total head
( Usin θ) − (0) =
2 2
2gy max
=Pressure head+kinetic head+datum head
U sin θ
2 2
P 29.43 × 104
y max = Pressure head= = = 30m
2g ρg 1000 × 9.81
V2 2× 2
2. Time of flight Kinetic head
= = = 0.204m
2g 2 × 9.81
1
=
y Usin θgt − gt 2 P V2
2 ∴ Total head = + + z = 30 + 0.204 + 5
ρg 2g
For full flight, y = 0
=35.204m
1
Usin θgt − gt 2 = 0
2 Example:
2Usin θ An oil of S.G. 0.8 is flowing through a
t=
g venturimeter having inlet diameter 20 cm
3. Max Distance (Range) and throat diameter 10cm. The oil–
mercury differential manometer shows a
=R Ucos θgt reading of 25 cm. Calculate the discharge of
2Ucos θgUsin θ oil through the horizontal venturimeter.
= Take Cd = 0.98
g
Solution:
U2 sin2θ Given:
=
g S.G. Of oil, S0 = 0.8

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 S.G. Of mercury, Sh =13.6 Cd = 0.98
Reading of differential manometer, a 1a 2
x =25cm Discharge,
= Q cd × 2gh
∴ Difference of pressure head, a12 −a22
S   13.6  706.85×176.7
h= x  h − 1= − 1  cm of oil = 0.98× × 2×981×252
 25
(706.85) − (176.7)
2 2
 So   0.8 
=25(17-1) =400 cm of oil. 86067593.36 86067593.36
= =
Dia at inlet, d1 = 20cm 499636.3-31222.9 684.4
π π = 125756cm3 / s = 125.756lit/ s
∴ a1 = × d12 = × 202 =314.16cm2
4 4
d2 =10cm Example:
In a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific
π gravity 0.8, two pressure gauges have been
∴ a2 = × 102 =78.54cm2
4 installed at A and B where the diameters
Cd = 0.98 are 16cm and 8cm respectively. A is 2
meters above B. The pressure gauge
∴ The discharge Q is given by equation
readings have shown that the pressure at B
a 1a 2 is greater than at A by 0.981N/ cm2 .
=Or Q cd × 2gh
a1 −a2
2 2
Neglecting all losses, calculate the flow rate.
If the gauges at A and B are replaced by
314.16 × 78.54 tubes filled with the same liquid and
0.98 × 2 × 981 × 400
(314.16)2 − (78.54)2 connected to a U-tube containing mercury,
calculate the difference of level of mercury
21421375.7
= 70422.4cm3 / s in the two limbs of the U-tube.
98696 − 6168
= 70.422litres / sec Solution:
Given:
Example: S.G. of oil, S0 = 0.8
A 30cm ×15cm venturimeter is inserted in
vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in the kg
∴ Density, ρ = 0.8×1000 = 800 3
upward direction. A differential mercury m
manometer connected to the inlet and Dia. at =
A, da 16cm
= 0.16m
throat gives a reading of 20cm. Find the ∴ Area at A,
discharge. Take Cd = 0.98 π
( 0.16 ) 0.0201m2
2
= a1 =
Solution: 4
Given: Dia at B,= db 8cm= 0.08m
Dia at inlet, d1 = 30cm
∴ Area at B,
π
( ) π
2
( 0.08 ) 0.005026m2
2
∴=a1 =
30 706.85cm 2
= a2 =
4 4
Dia at throat, d2 =15cm
π
( )
2
∴
= a2 =
15 176.7cm2
4
S   13.6 
h= x  h − 1=
 20  − 1
 So   1 
=20 × 12.6 =252cm of water

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 ∴ Rate of flow, Q= V × A
=
0.99 × 0.0201 =
0.01989m3 / s

ii) Difference of level of mercury in the U-

tube.
Let h=Difference of mercury level.
Where
S 
Then= h x  h − 1 
 So 
Where
PA PB
i) Difference of pressure, h= − +z −z
ρg ρg A B
pB − pA =0.981N / cm2
 P −P 
=
0.981 × 104 N / m2 =
9810N / m2 = −1.25+2.0 − 0 Q B A =1.25 
Difference of pressure head  ρg 
pB − pA
∴= 9810 = 0.75
= 1.25
ρg 800 × 9.81  
∴ 0.75 =x  13.6 − 1  =x × 16
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at A and  0.8 
B and taking the reference as line
0.75
passing through section B, we get, ∴=
x = 0.04687m
16
PA VA 2 PB VB2
+ + zA = + + zB
ρg 2g ρg 2g = 4.687cm
2 2
PA PB V V
Or − + z A − zB = B − A Example:
ρg ρg 2g 2g A pitot- static tube placed in the centre of a
 P −P  V2 V2 300mm pipe line has one orifice pointing
Or  A B  + 2.0 − 0.0 = B − A upstream and other perpendicular to it.
 ρg  2g 2g
The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the
Or central velocity. Find the discharge through
V2 V2  P −P  the pipe if pressure difference between the
−1.25 + 2.0 = B − A Q A B = 1.25
2g 2g 
 ρg  two orifices is 60 mm of water .Take the
coefficient of pitot tube as Cv = 0.98
=
0.75
VB2 VA 2
−
2g 2g
----- i () Solution:
Given:
Now applying continuity equation at A
Dia of pipe, d=300mm=0.30m
and B, we get
Diff of pressure head,
VA × A1 = VB × A 2
h = 60mm of water = 0.06m of water
V ×A Cv = 0.98
Or VB = A 1
A2
=
Mean velocity, V 0.80 × centre line velocity
Substituting the value of VB in equation
Centre line velocity is given by equation
(i), we get
16VA 2 VA 2 15VA 2 = Cv 2gh = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.06 = 1.063m / s
0.7=
5 − =
2g 2g 2g ∴ V= 0.80 × 1.063= 0.8504m / s
0.75 × 2 × 9.81
=∴ VA = 0.99m / s
15

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 =
Discharge, Q area of pipe × V 22.263 N/cm2 , while the datum head at A
and B are 28m and 30m. Find the loss of
π
( 0.30) × 0.8504= 0.06m3 / s
2
Q= head b/w A & B.
4 Solution:
D = 400 m = 0.4 m
Example: VA= V= 25m / s
A pitot–tube is inserted in a pipe of 300mm
Total energy at A
diameter. The static pressure in pipe is
100mm of mercury (vacuum). The PA VA 2
+ + zA
stagnation pressure at the centre of the ρg 2g
pipe, recorded by the pitot–tube is Total energy at B
0.981N/ cm2 . Calculate the rate of flow of PB VB2
water through pipe, if the mean velocity of = + + zB
flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take ρg 2g
Cv = 0.98. H=
2 EA − EB
Solution:  PA VA 2   PB VB2 
Given:  + + zA  −  + + zB 
  ρg 2g 
Dia of pipe d=300mm = 0.30m  ρg 2g   
2
π PA 29.43 × 10 VA 4

(0.3) 0.07068m2
2
∴ Area,
= A = = = 30, = 31.85
4 ρg 1000 × 9.81 2g
Static pressure head = 100mm of mercury PB 22.563 × 104 VB2
(vacuum) = = 23, = 31.85
100 ρg 1000 × 9.81 2g
=− × 13.6 = −1.36m of water EA − EA = (30 + 28) − (23 + 30) = 5m
1000
Stagnation pressure
= .981N / cm = 2
981 × 104 N / m2 Example:
A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter
∴ Stagnation pressure head
nozzle is directed vertically upwards.
.981 × 103 0.981 × 103 Assuming that the jet remains circular and
= = = 1m
ρg 1000 × 9.81 neglecting any loss of energy, what will be
h = Stagnation pressure head –static the diameter of the jet at a point 4.5 m
pressure head above the nozzle, if the velocity with which
= 1.0 − ( −1.36)= 1.0 + 1.36= 2.36m of water the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s.
Solution:
∴ Velocity at centre V = Cv 2gh Given:
= 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 2.36 = 6.668m / s Diameter of nozzle,
= d1 25mm= 0.025m
Mean velocity, Velocity of jet at nozzle V1 = 12m / s
V =0.85 × 6.668 =5.6678m / s Height of point A h = 4.5m
Let the velocity of the jet at a height of
∴ Flow rate ofwater= V × area of pipe
4.5 m = V2
=5.6678 × 0.07068 =0.4006m3 / s

Example:
A pipe of dia 400 mm carries water at
velocity 25 m/s. The pressure at the points
A & B are given as 29.43 N/cm2 and

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Considering the vertical motion of the jet
from the outlet of the nozzle to the point A
(neglecting any loss of energy.)
Initial velocity,
=
u V=
1
12m / s
Final velocity,
V = V2
Value of g = 9.81m / s2 and h=4.5m
Using, V 2 − U2 =
2gh, we get
V22 − 122 = 2 × ( −9.81) × 4.5
∴ V=
2
122 − (2 × 9.81 × 4.5)

= 144 − 88.29 =7.46m / s

Now, applying continuity equation to the
outlet of nozzle and at point A, we get
a1 v 1 = a 2 v 2
Or
π 2
A1 V1 4 D1 × V1
=
A2 =
V2 V2
π× 0.0252 × 12
= 0.0007896
4 × 7.46
Let D2 = Diameter of jet at point A
Then,
π 2
=
A2 = D 0.0007896
4 2
0.0007896 × 4
=D2 = 0.0317m= 31.7mm
π

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Consider the flow in a liquid film of
constant thickness (Q) along a The pipe is smooth with an I.D. of
vertical wall as shown in the figure 50 mm. What head (m of water)
below. must the pump generate at its exit
(E) to deliver water at a flow rate of
0.001 m3 is? The Fanning friction
factor, f is 0.0062
[GATE–2003]

Assuming laminar, one- (A) 10 m (B) 11 m

dimensional, fully-developed flow,
(C) 12 m (D) 20 m
the y-direction Navier Stokes
equation reduces to
2
d Vy Q.3 The pressure differential across a
µ + ρg = 0 Where Vy is the
dx 2 vertical venturimeter (shown in
velocity in y direction, µ is the Figure) is measured with the help
viscosity and ρ is the density of the of a mercury manometer to
liquid. estimate flow rate of water flowing
[GATE–2002] through it. The expression for the
(a) State the boundary conditions velocity of water at the throat is
to be used for the solution of [GATE–2003]
velocity profile?
(b) Solve for the velocity profile
(c) If Q is the volumetric flow rate
per unit width of the wall, how is it
related to the film thickness ( δ )

Q.2 A centrifugal pump is used to pump

water through a horizontal
distance of 150 m and then raised
to an overhead tank 10 m above.
 V2 2 − V1 2 ρ it. If the density of the flowing fluid
(A) =h m is ρ and the density of the
2g ρf
manometer fluid is ρ m , the velocity

(B)
V2 2 − V1 2
=h
( ρm − ρw ) of the fluid at the throat can be
2g ρf obtained from the expression
[GATE –2007]

(C)
V2 2 − V1 2
= H +h
( ρm − ρw )
2g ρf

(D)
V2 2
= H +h
( ρm − ρw )
2g ρf

Q. 4 A pipeline system carries crude oil

of density 800 kg/m3. The
volumetric flow rate at point 1 is V2 2 − V2 2 h(ρ m − ρ)
(A) = +Hsin450
0.28 m3/s. The cross sectional 2g ρ
areas of the branches 1, 2 and 3 are
0.012, 0.008 and 0.004 m2 V2 2 − V2 2 h ρ m
(B) = +Hsin450
respectively. All the three branches 2g ρ
are in a horizontal plane and the
friction is negligible. If the V2 2 − V2 2 h ρ m
(C) =
pressures at the points 1 and 3 are 2g ρ
270 kPa and 240 kPa respectively,
then the pressure at point 2 is V2 2 − V2 2 h(ρ m − ρ)
(D) =
[GATE –2007] 2g ρ

Common Data for Q.6 and Q.7

A siphon tube having a diameter of 2 cm
draws water from a large open reservoir
and discharges into the open atmosphere
as shown in the figure.
(A) 202 kPa (B) 240 kPa Assume incompressible fluid and neglect
frictional losses. (g = 9.8 m/s2)
(C) 284 kPa (D) 355 kPa [GATE –2008]

Q.5 The pressure differential across a

venturimeter, inclined at 450 to the
vertical (as shown in the figure) is
measured with the help of a
manometer to estimate the
flowrate of a fluid flowing through
Q.6 The velocity (in m/s) at the (C) 239.3 (D) 367.6
discharge point is
[GATE –2008]
Q.10 Water (density 1000 kg/m3) is
(A) 9.9 (B) 11.7 flowing through a nozzle, as shown
below and exiting to the
(C) 98 (D) 136.9
atmosphere. The relationship
Q.7 The Volumetric Flow rate (in L/s)
between the diameters of the
of water at the discharge is
nozzle at locations 1 and 2 is D1 = 4
[GATE –2008]
D2. The average velocity of the
(A) 3.11 (B) 3.67
stream at location 2 is 16 m/s and
(C) 30.77 (D) 42.99 the frictional loss between location
1 and location 2 is 10000 Pa.
Assuming steady state and
Common Data for Q.8 and Q.9
turbulent flow, the gauge pressure
A free jet of water is emerging from a
nozzle (diameter =75 mm) attached to a in Pa, at location 1 is_______.
pipe (diameter 225 mm) as shown below. [GATE–2013]

Q.11 In a steady and incompressible

The velocity of water at point A is 18 m/s.
Neglect friction in the pipe and nozzle. Use flow of a fluid (density 1.25 kg m-3),
g = 9.81 m/s2 and density of water-1000 the difference between stagnation
kg/m3. and static pressures at the same
location in the flow is 30 mm of
Q.8 The velocity of water at the tip of mercury (density 13600 kg m-3).
nozzle (in m/s) is Considering gravitational
[GATE –2009] acceleration as 10 m s-2, the fluid
(A) 13.4 (B) 18 speed (in m s-1) is_____
(C) 23.2 (D) 27.1 [GATE–2014]
(A) 70.8 (B) 80.8
(C) 90.8 (D) 100.8
Q.9 The gauge pressure in (kPa) at
point B is
[GATE –2009] Q.12 A centrifugal pump delivers water
(A) 80 (B) 100 at the rate of 0.22 m3/s from a
reservoir at ground level to another
 reservoir at a height H, through a Where k = 0.6m s-3/2. The level
vertical pipe of 0.2 m diameter. of water (in m) in the tank at time
Both the reservoirs are open to 0.5 s after opening the valve is_____
atmosphere. The power input to (rounded off to second decimal
the pump is 90 kW and it operates place).
with an efficiency of 75%. [GATE–2018]
Data:
Fanning friction factor for pipe now
is
f = 0.004. Neglect other head losses.
Take gravitational acceleration g =
9.8 m/s2 and density of water is
1000 kg/m3.
The height H, in meters, to which
the water can be delivered (up to
one decimal place) is ______
[GATE–2015]

Q.13 Water (density 1000 kg m-3) is

pumped at a rate of 36 m3/h, from
a tank 2 m below the pump, to an
overhead pressurized vessel 10 m
above the pump. The pressure
values at the point of suction from
the bottom tank and at the
discharge point to the overhead
vessel are 120 kPa and 240 kPa,
respectively. All pipes in the system
have the same diameter. Take
acceleration due to gravity, g = 10
m s-2. Neglecting frictional losses,
what is the power (in kW) required
to deliver the fluid?
[GATE–2016]
(A) 1.2 (B) 2.4
(C) 3.6 (D) 4.8

Q.14 The initial water level in a tank is 4

m. When the valve located at the
bottom is opened, the rate of
change of water level (L) with
dL
respect to time (t) is, = −k t
dt
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
-
CH-1 B B C D A A D D 137500 B 26.07
13 14
B 3.82
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (A) dv y ρ g
Navier-Stoke Equation = (δ − x )
dx µ
Dν ρg
ρ = −∇P + ρ g + µ ∇ 2ν
Dt ∫ dv=y ∫ (δ − x ) dx + c2
µ
∂ 2Vy
For steady state =0 ρ g x2 
∂x 2 v=  δ −  + c2
y
µ  2
 ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v 
ρ  y + vx y + v y x + vz y  = =x 0,=
vy 0
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 
ρg
 ∂ 2 v y ∂ 2 v y ∂ 2 v y  ∂P =
0 (δ − 0 ) + c2
µ 2 + 2 + 2 − + ρgy µ
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂y
c2 = 0
 ∂ vy  2
ρ g x2 
=0 µ  2  + ρg =vy  δ − 
 ∂x  µ  2
0 ( No slip )
at x = 0 ⇒ v y =
0 ( Free Liq. Surface )
at x = δ ⇒ τ yx = (C)
W δ
dv y
=0
=q ∫∫=
A
v dA ∫ ∫ v
y
0 0
y dx dz
dx δ
= W ∫ v y dx
(B) 0
δ
 d vy  2
ρ g x2 
µ  = −ρ g = W∫  δ −  dx
2 
 µ  2 
 dx  0
δ
dv y − ρ g W ρ g  δ x 2 x3 
= − 
µ ∫
= dx + c1 
dx µ  2 3 0
dv y − ρ g Wρ g δ3 δ3 
= x + c1 =  − 
dx µ µ  2 3 
dv y Wρ g δ3
at x = δ , =0 q=
dx 3µ
ρgδ
0=
− + c1
µ
ρgδ
c1 =
µ
 Q.2 (B) Q.4 (C)
Q = AV
Given
π
0.001 = V ( 0.05)
2

4 P1 =270 kPa, P3 =240 kPa

V = 0.509 m / s A1 = 0.012 m 2 ,A 2 = 0.008 m 2
PA VA 2  Pump  A 3 = 0.004 m 2
+ + zA + =
ρg 2g  I/P  Q1 =0.28 m3 /s
PB VB 2 4 f L V2 P2 = ?
+ + zB +
ρg 2g 2D g
Q1 0.28
 Pump  V= = = 23.33 m /s
0+0+0+  = 0 + 0 + 10
1
A1 0.012
 I/P 
4 × 0.0062 × (150 + 10 ) × ( 0.509 )
2 Applying Bernoulli Equation between
+
2 × 9.8 × 0.05 points 1 and 3
 Pump  P1 V1 2 P3 V3 2
  = 11.05 m Head + +0= + + 0
 I/P  ρ 2 ρ 2
So Option (b) is correct Option (270 − 240)103 (23.33) 2 V3 2
+ =
800 2 2
V3 = 24.88 m / s
Q.3 (B)
Applying Bernoulli Equation Now Applying continuity equation
P1 V1 2 P V2 A=
1 V1 A 2 V2 + A 3 V3
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g =
0.28 (0.008)V2 + (0.004)24.88
V2 − V1
2
P − P2
2
= 1 + ( z1 − z 2 ) V2 = 22.55 m / s
2g ρg
Applying Bernoulli Equation between
P1 − P2
= −H
ρg points 1 and 2
P1 − P2 ρ wg H+ g h ( ρ m − ρ w )
= P1 V1 2 P V2
+ +0= 2 + 2 + 0
ρ 2 ρ 2
V2 2 − V1 2 ρ wg H+ g h ( ρ m − ρ w ) − ρ wg H
= (270)103 (23.33) 2 − (22.55) 2 P2
2g ρg + =
V2 2 − V1 2 h ( ρ m − ρ w )
800 2 800
= P2 = 284 kPa
2g ρw
So Option (c) is correct
So Option (b) is correct
Q.5 (D) So Option (a) is correct

Q.7 (A)
Q = AV
π 
Q =  D 2  V2
4 
π
Q = ( 0.02 ) × 9.9
2

4
Q = 3.1086 L/s
So Option (a) is correct

Q.8 (D)
Applying Bernoulli Equation at Point A and
P1 ' = P2 ' C
P1 + ρ g H sin 45 + ρ g h =
P2 + ρ m g h PA VA 2 PC VC 2
+ + ZA = + + ZC
P1 − P2 = ( ρ m − ρ ) g h − ρ g H sin 45 ρg 2g ρg 2g

Applying Bernoulli Equation at point 1 and 182 VC 2

+ + 21.5 = + 0.5
2g 2g
2
182 V2
P1 V1 2
P V 2 + 21 =C
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 2g 2g
ρg 2g ρg 2g
VC = 27.129 m / s
P1 − P2 V 2 − V1 2
= 2 + H sin 45 So Option (d) is correct
ρg 2g
( ρ m − ρ ) g h ρ g H sin 45 V2 2 − V1 2
− = + H sin 45
ρg ρg 2g Q.9 (D)
( ρ m − ρ )h V2 − V1
2 2
By Continuity Equation,
=
ρ 2g A B VB =A C VC
So Option (d) is correct VB =3 m / s
Q.6 (A)
Applying Bernoulli Equation a point 1 and Applying Bernoulli Equation at Point B and
point 2 Point C
2 2
P1 V1 P V
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
2 g ( Z1 − Z2 ) =
V2 2
V2 = 2 × 9.81× 5
V2 = 9.9 m/s
 PB V2 P V2
+ B + Z B = C + C + ZC
ρg 2g ρg 2g Q.12 (26.07 m)
Applying Bernoulli Equation
PB − PC 27.122 − 32
= + 0.5 P1 V1 2 P2 V2 2
ρg 2(9.81) + + g z1 + ( ηP ) = + + g z2 + hf s
ρ 2 ρ 2
PB − PC 725.349
= + 0.5 Now, Q = AV
1000 × 9.8 2(9.81)
PB − PC = π 
367.6 kPa 0.22=  D 2  V ⇒ V=7.002 m / s
4 
So Option (d) is correct
4 f H V 2 4 ( 0.004 )( H )( 7.0028 )
2

=hf s =
2D 2 ( 0.2 )
Q.10 (137500 Pa)
So from Bernoulli Equation
By Continuity Equation
4 ( 0.004 )( H )( 7.0028 )
2
A1 V1 = A2 V2  ηP 
  = gH +
(D1)2 V1 = (D2)2 V2 ρ Q 2 ( 0.2 )
V1 = 1 m / s  0.75 × 90 
Applying Bernoulli Equation at Point 1 and   = 9.8 H+1.96 H
 1000 × 0.22 
Point 2 H = 26.07 m
P1 V1 2 P V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Q.13 (B)
P1 − Patm 162 − 12 Applying Bernoulli Equation
= +10
1000 2 P1 V1 2
∆Pgauge = + + g z1 +
137500 Pa ρ 2
 Head Developed  P2 V2 2
Q.11 (B)   = + + g z2
 by pump (H)  ρ 2
Applying Bernoulli Equation
P2 − P1
P1 V1 2 P V2 =H + 12
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 ρ
ρg 2g ρg 2g
PStag. − P1 120 × 1000
V1 2 =H = + 12 24
1000
=
2 1000 × 10
kg Power = ρ g Q H
=
∆P (h =
ρ g ) ( 0.030 )(13600=
)10 4080
m s2 36
=1000 ×10 × × 24
(4080) ( 2 ) 3600
=V1 = 80.80 m / s
1.25 Power=2.4 kW
So Option (b) is correct So Option (b) is correct
Q.14 (3.82)
dL
given, =−k t
dt
L 0.5

∫ dL= − 0.6 ∫t
1/2
dt
0 0

3/2  2 
L − 4= − 0.6  t 3/2   
0
3
3/2
1  2 
L − 4= − 0.6    
 2 0  3 
L = 3.82 m
 6 FLOW THROUGH CONDUITS/PIPES

6.1 INTERNAL FLOW 6.1.2 ENTRY LENGTH

Fluids are conveyed (transported) through In internal flow, the boundary layer
closed conduits in numerous industrial develops all over the circumference. At
processes. It is found necessary to design some distance from the entrance, the
the pipe system to carry a specified boundary layers merge. The velocity profile
quantity of fluid between specified beyond this point remains unchanged. The
locations with minimum head loss. distance upto this point is known as entry
The flow may be laminar with fluid flowing length.
in an orderly way, with layers not mixing
macroscopically. The momentum transfer
and consequent shear induced is at the
molecular level by pure diffusion. Such flow
is encountered with every viscous fluids.
The flow turns turbulent under certain
conditions with macroscopic mixing of fluid 6.2 LAMINAR FLOW/VISCOUS FLOW
layers in the flow. At any location, the
velocity varies about a mean value. 6.2.1 ANALYSIS OF FULLY DEVELOPED
The flow is controlled by (i) pressure LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR DUCT
gradient (ii) the pipe diameter or hydraulic
mean diameter (iii) the fluid properties like i) Shear stress
viscosity and density and (iv) the pipe
roughness.

6.1.1 BOUNDARY LAYER

When fluid flows over surface, the

molecules near the surface are brought to
rest due to the viscosity of the fluid. The
adjacent layers also slow down, but to a
lower and lower extent. This slowing down
is found limited to a thin layer near the
surface. The fluid beyond this layer is not
affected by the presence of the surface. The
fluid layer near the surface in which
velocity of fluid is less than free stream At low velocity the fluid moves in
velocity is known as boundary layer. layers. The shear stress in laminar flow
is given by
du
τw =µ
dy
force balance on fluid element gives
Pgπr2 − τ× 2πrdx − (P + dP)πr2 = 0
dP 2
τw 2πr =− πr
dx

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 dP r π  −dP  4
τw =− ×  R
Q 8µ  dx  1  dP  2
dx 2 U= = =−  R
A πR 2 8µ  dx 

ii) Velocity distribution Umax

=2
du U
τw =µ
dy
y= R − r (y is measured from the pipe iv) Pressure drop for length (l)
Average velocity is given by
wall)
dy = −dr 1  dP  2
U=  R
8µ  dx 
du
∴τw = µ By rearranging above equation
dr P L
du dP r
1
8µU
∴−µ = − × − ∫ dP =
∫ 2
dr dx 2 P2 0 R
1  dP  r Pressure drop across length ‘L’ is
∴ ∫ du =
µ ∫  dx  2
  dr
32µUL
1  dP  1 P1 − P2 = 2
∴ U =   r2 + C D
µ  dx  4
P1 − P2 32µUL
On applying boundary conditions: =hf =
ρg ρgD2
The above equation is Hagen
1) For r = R, U = 0
Poiseuille equation
1  dP  2
0=  R + C 6.2.2 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID BETWEEN
4µ  dx 
TWO PARALLEL PLATES
1  dP  2
C= −  R i) U =1  dP 
4µ  dx  −    ty − y 2 
2µ  dx 
1  dP  Where,
−   R 2 − r2 
U=
4µ  dx  t is the distance between parallel plates
Velocity is max at y = t/2
1  dP  2
2) for, r = 0, U =Umax Umax = −  t
8µ  dx 
1  dP 
Umax = −   R 2  y y2 
4µ  dx  U= 4Umax ×  − 2 
t t 
  r 2  ii) Shear stress distribution
=U Umax 1 −   
  R   1  dP 
τ = −    t − 2y 
2  dx 
iii) Average velocity at centre, shear stress will be zero.
dQ = UgdA
iii) U = Avg. velocity= −1  dP  t 2
dA = 2πrdr 12µ  dx 
  r 2 
dQ = Umax 1 −    × dA Umax 3
  R   =
U 2
  r 2  iv) Pressure head for a given length
∫ ∫ max 1 −  R   × 2πrdr
d Q = U
12µUL
  P1 − P2 = 2
π  −dP  4 t
Q=  R
8µ  dx 

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 6.3 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Most flows encountered in engineering

practice are turbulent, and thus it is
important to understand how turbulence
affects the wall shear stress. Turbulent flow P1 A − P2 A − F =
0
is characterized by random and rapid (P1 − P2 )A = F
fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, F = force due to shear stress.
called eddy, throughout the flow. These
F= τO ( πdL )
fluctuations provide an additional
mechanism for momentum and energy (P1 − P2 )A =τO ( πdL )
transfer. In laminar flow, fluid particles
flow in an orderly manner along pathlines, P1 − P2 4fLV 2 τO πdL
= =
( )
and momentum and energy are transferred ρg 2gd ρg
across streamlines by molecular diffusion. π 2
A= d
In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies 4
transport mass, momentum, and energy to 2τo
other regions of flow much more rapidly f=
than molecular diffusion, thus greatly ρV 2
enhancing mass, momentum, and heat
transfer. As a result, turbulent flow is 6.3.2 SHEAR STRESS IN TURBULENT
associated with much higher values of FLOW
friction, heat transfer, and mass transfer
coefficients Shear stress in turbulent flow is sum of
In turbulent flow, instantaneous values of shear stress due to viscous flow &
the velocity fluctuate about an average turbulent flow
value, which suggests that the velocity can τ = τv + τt
be expressed as the sum of an average Viscous/laminar shear stress is given by
value u and a fluctuating component u’,
du
u= u + u' τV =µ
dy
When a liquid is flowing through a pipe, the
velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to wall J. Boussinesq expressed turbulent shear in
is zero. The friction resistance for turbulent terms of average velocity gradient
flow is. du
τt =η
1) ∝ V n where n varies from 1.5-2.0 dy
2) ∝ ρ Where,
3) ∝ A Area of contact η is Eddy viscosity,
4) ∝ P Pressure du is average velocity.
5) ∝ Nature of surface
. 6.3.3 REYNOLD’S EXPRESSION FOR
6.3.1 EXPRESSION FOR COEFFICIENT OF TURBULENT SHEAR STRESS
FRICTION IN TERMS OF SHEAR STRESS
Reynold expressed turbulent shear stress
Consider a fluid element of length ‘L’ & between two layers of a fluid at a small
diameter‘d’ distance in terms of velocity fluctuations
τt =ρu'v'
Where,

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 u’ and v’ are fluctuating velocity  du 
2
 du 
2

τt =ρ ( ky )   =ρk 2y 2  
2
components in the direction of x & y due to
turbulence.  dy   dy 
τt will also be varying, Hence to find the by rearranging the above equation
shear stress time avg on both side is du τ
=
considered τ = ρu'v' dy ρk 2y 2

6.3.4 PRANDTL MIXING LENGTH THEORY

du 1 τ
=
FOR TURBULENT SHEAR STRESS dy ky ρ
τ 1
The turbulent shear stress can only be U = ( ln y ) g +C
calculated if u’ and v’ is known. According ρ k
to Prandtl, the mixing length ‘l’, is that τ (U* is known as Shear velocity)
U∗ =
distance between two layers in the ρ
transverse direction such that the lumps of Since y is distance from the surface of pipe
fluid particles from one layer could reach U = Umax at y=R
the other layer and the lumps are mixed in
the other layer in such a way that = U*
Umax lnR + C
momentum of particle in the direction of k
motion is same. U*
=C Umax − lnR
k
Prandtll expressed velocity fluctuations in
terms of mixing length U*  y 
= U ln   + Umax
k R
du du
U' = l & V' = l U*  y 
dy dy = U ln   + Umax
2 0.4 R
 du  y
τt =ρl2   =
U Umax + 2.5U* ln  
 dy  R
Total shear stress is given by
2
du  du  This is Prandtl’s universal velocity
τ =µ + ρl2   distribution equation for turbulent flow in
dy  dy  pipes.
(Umax − U) is known as velocity defect.
6.3.5 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN
TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
6.3.6 HYDRO DYNAMICALLY SMOOTH &
2 ROUGH BOUNDARIES
du  du 
τ =µ + ρl2  
dy  dy  For turbulent flow analysis along a
Viscous shear stress is negligible except boundary, the flow is divided in two
near the boundary. portions. Viscous portion near the surface
Prandtl assumed that mixing length is is known as laminar sub layer. The
proportional to ‘y’ boundaries are considered as smooth or
l∝y rough on the basis of ratio of average
l = ky irregularities ‘k’ and laminar sub layer
Where, thickness ‘δ’
K is Karman factor = 0.4 if k < δ Smooth
if k > δ Rough
k
if < 0.25 boundary is smooth
δ

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 k U* k
if >6 boundary is rough ii) 4 < < 100, boundary is in transition
δ ν
U* k
6.3.7 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FOR iii) > 100, the boundary is rough.
ν
TURBULENT FLOW IN SMOOTH PIPES
6.3.9 VELOCITY IN ROUGH PIPES
U*
=U ln y + C (Nikurddse’s Experiment) show that
k
=
at y 0, U=-∞ k
y' =
30
It means at some finite distance from wall, u*
u = In(y / y ')
the velocity will be equal to zero. Let y’ be k
the distance from wall where velocity is  y 
zero u = 2.5u *In  
y = y ', U=0
 k / 30 
 30y 
U* u = 2.5u *In  
U= 0= ln y '+ C  k 
k
−U *
C= ln y ' Example:
k A Pipe carrying water has avg irregularities
U*  y  of 0.15 mm. What type of boundary it is?
U = ln  
k  y'  (Shear stress developed is
For smooth boundary 4.9N / m , ν =0.01strokes )
2

y ' ∝ δ' Solution:

Where, k 0.15 ×10−3 m
=
δ' is thickness of laminar sub layer τ0 =4.9N / m 2
From experiments, y’& δ' is given by
ν = 0.01strokes = 0.01' cm 2 / s = ∆10−6 m 2 / s .
δ'
y' = ρ =1000Kg / m3
107
11.6ν
11.6ν δ=
δ' = * u*
U
11.6 ×10−6
U  y.100 
*
δ=
U = ln   u*
k  δ 
τ0 4.9
=
u* = = 0.07m / s
6.3.8 REYNOLDS’ NO IN TERMS OF ρ 1000
ROUGHNESS Roughness Reynold No.:
u *k 0.07 ×15 ×103
=
U* k v 10−6
Re =
ν
6.4 LOSS OF ENERGY IN FLUID FLOW
Where,
k is average height of irregularities
6.4.1 MAJOR LOSS
ν is kinematic viscosity
τ Darcy-Weisbach Formula:
U* = Shear velocity =
ρ 4f .L.V 2
hf =
U* k d.2g
i) < 4, boundary is smooth
ν

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 h f = Loss of head due to viscosity. v 2 .k
he =
16 2g
f= for Re<2000 (Viscous flow).
Re Where,
2
=
0.079
for Re varying from 4000 to 106. 1 
1 =
k  − 1
Re 4  Cc 
(for turbulent flow in smooth pipes). Cc is coefficient of contraction
Where,
if= =
Cc 0.62, k 0.375
L=Length,
V = mean velocity of flow, Cc = 0.62, then k=0.375
d = diameter of pipe. v 2 .k v 22
∴ h e= = 0.375
2g 2g
6.4.2 MINOR ENERGY LOSS
if Cc is not given
1) Loss of head due to sudden v 22
enlargement: Due to sudden change of h e = 0.5
2g
diameter the liquid flowing from the
smallest pipe is not able to follow the
abrupt change of boundary. Thus the 3) Loss of head at entrance of a pipe:
flow separates from the boundary and v2
h i = 0.5
turbulent eddies are formed. 2g

4) Loss of head due to exit:

v2
ho =
2g

5) Loss of Head due to an obstruction in

Head loss is ‘m’ is given by a pipe: Due to sudden enlargement of
the area of flow beyond the obstruction,
(v − v )
2

he = 1 2 head loss takes place.

2g After vena contracta, sudden
enlargement takes place.
2) Loss due to sudden contraction: As a =max area of obstruction
the liquid comes out of orifice it A = area of pipe
contract further and the area just V = velocity of liquid.
outside the orifice is lower compared to v2  A 
2

the area of the orifice. This section is Head loss =  − 1

2g  cc (A − a) 
called as vena-contracta. The liquid
expands from vena contracta due to
which the loss of energy takes place.
6) Loss of head due to bend in pipe:
k.v 2
hb =
2g
The value of ‘k’ depends on
• Angle of bend
• Radius of curvature of bend
• Diameter of pipe
Energy loss is given by

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 Example: 4fLV12 4 × 16Q2f  Leq 
At a sudden enlargement of a water =H =  
2g d π2 2g  deq5 
main from 240 mm to 480 mm dia the
hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Leq L L L 
Estimate the rate of flow. 5
=  15 + 25 + 35 
deq  d1 d2 d3 
Solution:
Hydraulic Gradient
 P1   P2  6.5.2 POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH
 + z1  −  + z 2  PIPES
 ρg   ρg 
v2 ( v − v ) Total head available at outlet of pipe
2
P1 v2 P
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2 + 1 2 = H − hf (Minor loss neglected)
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
4f lv 2
= H−
d.2g
d12 v1 = d 22 v 2
Weight of water flowing
d1 = 240mm πd2
Q= .v
d2 = 480mm 4
v1=4v2 πd2
= = ρg
W ρgQ .v
v2=0.1808=0.181m/s 4
Q=A2 v2= 0.03275m3/s = 32.75lit/s Power transmitted
= W × head available at outlet
6.5 FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES OR  4f lv 2  ρg πd2
FLOW THROUGH COMPOUND PIPES =
P H −  v
 2gd  4
6.5.1 EQUIVALENT PIPE
6.6 FLOWS THROUGH NOZZLES
This is defined as the pipe of uniform
diameter having loss of head and discharge Total head at inlet of pipe
equal to the loss of head and discharge of a = total head energy + losses
compound pipe consisting of several pipes v2
of different lengths and diameters. But, total head at outlet of nozzle =
2g
By Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids
Assuming minor loss to be negligible
v2
H − hf =
If no minor loss is assumed 2g
H = ZA − ZB = hf 4f lv 2
total hf =
2gd
4f1L1 V12 4f2L2V22 4f3L3V32
H= + + By continuity equation
2gd1 2gd2 2gd3
AV = av
πd2 πd22 πd32 2
=Q = .V1 = V2 V v 2 4f L  a 
4 4 4 3 =
H +  v
2g 2gD  A 
For friction coefficient,
2gh
4 × 16fQ2  L1 L2 L3  v=
 4f L a2 
=H  + +  1 + × 2
π2 .2g  d15 d25 d35   D A 

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 6.6.1 POWER TRANSMITTED THROUGH ii) Shear Stress at the pipe wall ( τ0 )
NOZZLE The shear stress at any radius r is given by
the equation
1
K.E of the jet at the outlet of Nozzle = mv 2 −δ p r
2 i.e., τ=
δx 2
Mass flow rate = ρav
∴ Shear stress at pipe wall, where r=R is
1 given by
K.E.= ρav3
2 −δ p R
power of outlet of Nozzle 1 / 2ρav3 τ=
η = δx 2
Power at the inlet of pipe ρg Q.H δp −(p 2 − p1 ) p1 − p 2 p1 − p 2
Now= = =
δx x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1 L
Example:
684288 N/ m2
An oil of viscosity 0.1Ns/ m2 and relative = = 2280.96N/ m3
300 m
density 0.9 is flowing through a circular D .05
And R= = = .025m
pipe of diameter 50mm and of length 2 2
300m. The rate of flow of fluid through the .025 N
τ0 = 2280.96× = 28.512N/ m2
pipe is 3.5 lit/s. Find the pressure drop in a 2 m2
length of 300m and also the shear stress at
the pipe wall. Example:
Solution: A laminar flow is taking place in a pipe of
Given: diameter 200mm. The maximum velocity is
Viscosity, µ = 0.1Ns/ m2 1.5m/s. Find the mean velocity and the
Relative density = 0.9 radius at which this occurs. Also calculate
the velocity at 4cm from the wall of the
density of oil = 0.9×1000= 900kg/ m3
pipe.
D =50mm = .05m Solution:
L =300m Given:
3.5 Dia of pipe, D=200mm=0.20m
Q =3.5liters/ S = = .0035m3 / s
1000 Umax =1.5m/ s
(i) Pressure drop
(i)Mean velocity , u
Ratio of
32µuL Q .0035 .0035
p1 − p2 = , where u = = = =1.782m/ s Umax 1.5 1.5
D2
Area π 2 π = 2.0 or = 2.0 ∴ u = = 0.75m/ s
(.05)
2
D u u 2.0
4 4
The Reynolds number (R e ) is given by (ii)Radius at which 𝐮𝐮 occurs
The velocity, u, at any radius ‘r’ is given by
ρ VD
Re = 1 δp 2 2 1 δp 2  r2 
µ u=− R − r  = − R 1 − 
4µ δ x   4µ δµ  R 2 
Where
ρ= 900kg / m3 , averagevelocity= u= 1.782m / s But from equation Umax is given by
∴ 1.782×.05
1 δp 2   r 2 
R e = 900× = 801.9
0.1 Umax = − R ∴ u = Umax 1 −    .....(i)
4µ δ x   R  
As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the
flow is viscous/laminar Now the radius r at which
32 × 0.1×1.782 × 300 u = u = 0.75m/ s
=
∴ p1 − p 2 = 2
684288N / mm 2
0.05
= 68.43N / m 2

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   Solution:
 
2

∴ 0.75 = 1.5 1 −    Given:

r
 D   1.5
  2   µ =1.5poise = = 0.15Ns/ m2
10
  r 2  Relative density = 0.9
∴ 0.75 = 1.5 1 −    ∴ Density of oil
  0.1  
2 ∴ = 0.9×1000= 900kg/ m3
0.75  r 
∴ =
1−   Dia. Of pipe, D= 20mm = 0.02m L = 20m
1.5  0.1 
2 PA =58.86N/ cm2 =58.86×104 N/ m2
 r  0.75 1 1
∴  =1 − =1 − = PB =19.62N/ cm2 =19.62×104 N/ m2
 0.1  1.50 2 2
Solution:
(i)Direction of flow.
r 1 To find the direction of flow,
∴ = = 0.5
0.1 2  p v2 
the total energy  + +Z  at the lower
∴ r = 0.1× .5 = 0.1×707 = .0707m  ρ g 2g 
=70.7mm end A and at the upper end B is to be
calculated. The direction of flow will be
(iii) Velocity at 4cm from the wall given from the higher energy to the lower
∴ r = R − 4.0=10 − 4.0=6.0cm =0.06m energy. As here the diameter of the pipe is
The velocity at a radius =0.06m Or 4cm same and hence kinetic energy at A and B
from pipe wall is given by equation(i) will be same. Hence to find the direction of
 p 
flow, calculating  +Z  at A and B.
 ρg 

Taking the level at A as datum.

p 
  r 2    .06 2  The value of  A +Z  at A
= Umax 1 −    =1.5 1 −     ρg 
  R     .1  
6 ×104 × 9.81
= = + 0 66.67m
=1.5 1.0 − .36 =1.5×.64 = 0.96m/ s 900 × 9.81

Example:  p 
The value of  +Z  at B
Crude oil of µ =1.5 poise and relative  ρg 
density 0.9 flows through a 20mm
2×104 ×9.81
diameter vertical pipe. The pressure gauges = +20 = 22.22+20 = 42.22m
fixed 20m apart read 58.86N/cm2 and 900×9.81
19.62N/cm2 as shown in Fig. Find the  p 
As the value of  +Z  is higher at A.
direction and rate of flow through the pipe.  ρg 
Hence, flow takes place from A to B.

(ii) Rate of flow. The loss of pressure head

for viscous flow through circular pipe is
given by

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 32µuL N = 600r.p.m.
hf = Power = ?
ρ gD2
D1 − D 50.15 − 50
For a vertical pipe hf = Loss of ∴ Thickness of oil film, t = =
2 2
peizometric head 0.15
p  p  = = 0.075mm = 0.075×10−3 m
=  A +ZA  −  B +ZB  = 66.67 − 42.22= 24.45m 2
 ρg   ρg 
Tangential speed of shaft,
32×0.15×u×20.0 π DN π ×0.05×600
∴ 24.45= V= = = 0.5× π m/ s
900×9.81× ( .02)
2
60 60
Or
∴ Shear stress
24.45×900×9.81×.0004
u= = 0.889 ; 0.9m/ s du V 0.9 0.5× π
32×0.15×20.0 τ=µ =µ = × =1883.52N/ m2
dy t 10 0.075×10−3
The Reynolds number should be calculated.
∴ Shear force (F)
If Reynolds number is less than 2000, the = τ × Area =1883.52× π D×L
flow will be laminar and the above
=1883.52× π ×.05×0.1 = 29.586N
expression for loss of pressure head for
laminar flow can be used.
Resistance torque
ρ VD D .05
Now Reynolds number = T = F× = 29.586× = 0.7387Nm
µ 2 2
0.9×.02 2π N 2π NT
= 900× =108 Power, P = T× ω = T× = watts
0.15 60 60
As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the 2π NT 2π ×600×0.7387
flow is laminar. Power = = = 46.41W.
∴ Rate of flow = avg. velocity * area 60 60
π π
= u× D2 = 0.9× × ( .02) m3 / s = 2.827×10−4 m3 / s
2
Example:
4 4
An oil of S.G. 0.7 is flowing through a pipe
= 0.2827lit res/ s of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 500
liters/s. Find the head lost due to friction
Example: and power required to maintain the flow
A shaft having a diameter of 50mm rotates for a length of 1000m. Take ν = .29 stokes.
centrally in a journal bearing having a Solution:
diameter of 50.15mm and length 100mm. Given:
The annular space between the shaft and S.G. of oil S = 0.7
the bearing is filled with oil having Dia. of pipe d =300mm = 0.3m
viscosity of 0.9 poise. Determine the power Discharge Q = 500 litres/ s = 0.5m3 / s
absorbed in the bearing when the speed of Length of pipe L =1000m
rotation is 60 rpm. Velocity,
Solution: Q 0.5 0.5 × 4
Given: =V = = = 7.073m / s
Area π 2 π× 0.32
Dia. of shaft, D=50mm or .05m d
4
Dia of bearing D1 = 50.15mm or 0.05015m Reynolds number,
Length , L =100mm or 0.1m vd 7.073 × 0.3
= =
Re = 7.316 ×104
0.9 Ns ν 0.29 ×10 −4
µ of oil = 0.9 poise =
10 m2

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 ∴ Co-efficient of friction, Example:
0.79 0.79 Determine the rate of flow of water
f= 1 = = 0.0048 through a pipe of diameter 20 cm and
( )
1
Re 4
7.316×10 4 4
length 50 m when one end of the pipe is
∴ Head lost due to friction, connected to a tank and other end of the
4 × f × L × V 2 4 × 0.0048 × 1000 × 7.0732 pipe is open to the atmosphere. The pipe is
=hf = = 163.18m horizontal and height of water in the tank is
d × 2g 0.3 × 2 × 9.81
4 m above the centre of the pipe. Consider
Power required all minor losses and take f = .099 in the
ρg . Q . hf
formula hf = 4 × f × L × V .
2
= kW
1000 d × 2g
Where
=
ρ density of oil = 0.7 × 1000 = 700kg / m3
∴ Power required
700 × 9.81 × 0.5 × 163.18
= 560.28kW
1000

Example:
Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter
Solution:
200mm with a velocity of 3m/s. Find the
Given
head lost due to friction for a length of 5m
if the co-efficient of friction is given by
Dia. of pipe = d 20cm= 0.20m
Length of pipe, L = 50m
.09
=f 0.02 + 0.3 where R e is Reynolds Height of water H = 4m
Re Co-efficient of friction f = .009
number. The kinematic viscosity of water =
0.1 Stokes. Let the velocity of water in pipe = V m / s
Solution: Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the top of
Given: the water surface in the tank and at the
Dia. of pipe, d = 200mm = 0.20m     outlet of pipe, we have[Taking point 1 on
Velocity, V = 3m/ s the top and 2 at the outlet of pipe].
Length, L =5 m P1 V12 P2 V22
Kinematics viscosity, + + z1 = + + z2 + all losses
ρg 2g ρg 2g
= = .01 × 10−4 m2 / s
v 0.01stoke Consider datum line passing through the
Reynolds number, centre of pipe
vd 3 × 0.2 V2
Re= = = 6 ×105
ν 0.01×10 −4 0 + 0 + 4.0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + (hi + hf )
2g
Value of f,
V22
0.09
f =0.02 + 0.3 =0.02 +
0.09 Or 4.0 = + hi + hf
2g
( )
0.3
Re 6 ×105
But the velocity in pipe= V ,
=0.02 +
0.09
=0.02166 ∴V =V2
54.13 V2
+ hi + hf 4.0 =
Head lost due to friction: 2g
4 × f × L × V 2 4.0 × 0.02166 × 5.0 × 32 From equation
=hf = = 0.993 m of water
d × 2g 0.20 × 2.0 × 9.81 V2 4 × f × L × V2
= =
hi 0.5 and hf
2g d × 2g

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 Substituting these values, we have
V2 V2 4 × f × L × V2
4.0 = + 0.5 +
2g 2g d × 2g
v2  4 × 0.009 × 50 
=
∴4 1.0 + 0.5 + 
2g  0.2 
v2 Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A
=
∴4 1.0 + 0.5 + 9.0
2g  and C and taking the datum line passing
through, A and C
v2
∴4 = 10.5 pA VA 2 p V2
2g + + z A = C + C + zC + Losses of head
ρg 2g ρg 2g
due to friction between A and C
4 × 2 × 9.81
=∴ V = 2.734 m / sec Substituting the values of pressures in
10.5 terms of absolute, we have
∴ Rate of flow,
V2
π 10.3 + 0 + 0= 2.8 + + 4.0 + hf 1
Q = A × V = × (0.2)2 × 2.734 = 0.08589 m3 / s 2g
4
= 85.89 litres / s. = =
[Q VC velocity in pipe V]
V2 V2
Example: ∴ hf 1 = 10.3 − 2.8 − 4.0 − = 3.5 − ..... ( i )
2g 2g
A syphon of diameter 200 mm connects
two reservoirs having a difference in Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A
elevation of 15m. The total length of the and B and taking the datum line passing
syphon is 600m and the summit is 4 m through B,
above the water level in the upper
reservoir. If the separation takes place at pA VA 2 p V2
+ + z A = B + B + zB ++ Losses of head
2.8m of water absolute, find the maximum ρg 2g ρg 2g
length of syphon from upper reservoir to due to friction between A and B
the summit. Take f=0.004 and atmospheric
pressure =10.3m of water. But , p= A
pB
= atmospheric pressure
ρg ρg
Solution:
Given And,= VA 0,= VB 0,= z A 15,= zB 0
=
Dia. of syphon = 0.2m
d 200m ∴ 0 + 0 + 15 = 0 + 0 + 0 + hf
Difference of level in two reservoirs = 15m 4 × f × L × V2
Total length of pipe = 600m = hf 15 = or 15
d × 2g
Height of summit from upper reservoirs
4 × .004 × 600 × V 2
= 4m Or = 15
Pressure head at summit 0.2 × 2 × 9.81
Or V = 15 × 0.2 × 2 × 9.81
pc = 2.47m / s
= 2.8m of water absolute 4 × .004 × 600
ρg
Substituting this value of V in equation ( i )
Atmospheric pressure head
we get
pc
3.189m ..... ( ii )
= 10.3m of water absolute 2.472
ρg hf 1 =
3.5 − =3.5 − 0.311 =
2 × 9.81
Co-efficient of friction, f = .004 But
4 × f × L1 × V 2
hf 2 = .... ( iii )
d × 2g

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 Where L1 =inlet leg of syphon or length of π 2
A1 V1 4 d1
2
syphon from upper reservoir to the d12  0.4 
V= = × V= V=   V= 1.77V1
summit. 3
A3 π 2 1 d32 1  0.2  1
d
4 × .004 × L1 × (2.47)2 4 3
=
hf 1 = 0.0248 × L1
0.2 × 2 × 9.81 Now using equation of
Substituting this value in equation ( ii ) , 4 × f1 × L1 × V12 4 × f2 × L2 × V22 4 × f3 × L3 × V32
H= + +
0.0248L1 =  3.189  d1 × 2g d2 × 2g d3 × 2g
4 × 0.005 × 400 × V12 4 × 0.005 × 200 × ( 4V1 )
2
3.189 = +
=
∴ L1 = 128.58m 16
0.4 × 2 × 9.81 0.2 × 2 × 9.81
0.0248

4 × 0.005 × 00 × (1.77V1 )
2
Example:
+
Three pipes of 400 mm, 200 mm and 300 0.3 × 2 × 9.81
mm diameters have lengths of 400m, 200m V1 2
V12
300m respectively. They are connected in =
16 (20 + 320 + 63.14)
= × 403.14
series to make a compound pipe. The ends 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
of this compound pipe are connected with 16 × 2 × 9.81
= V1 = 0.882m / s
two tanks whose difference of water levels 403.14
is 16m. If co-efficient of friction for these ∴ Discharge,
pipes is same and equal to 0.005,
π
determine the discharge through the Q = A1 × V1 = (0.4)2 × 0.882 = 0.1108 m3 / s
4
compound pipe neglecting first the minor
losses and then considering them. (ii) Discharge through the compound
Solution: pipe considering minor losses also
Given: Minor losses are:
Difference of water levels, H = 16m 0.5V12
Length & dia. of pipe1, h i =
(a) At inlet, 2g
L1 = 400m and d1 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Length & dia of pipe 2 (b) Between 1st and 2nd pipe, due to
L2 = 200m and d2 = 200m = 0.2m contraction,
Length & dia of pipe 3 0.5V22 0.5(4V1 )2
L3 = 200m and d3 = 300m = 0.3m =h C
= =
(Q V2 4V1 )
2g 2g
Also, f1= f2= f3= 0.005 0.5 × 16 × V 2 V2
(i) Discharge through the compound = 1
= 8× 1
2g 2g
pipe first neglecting minor losses.
(c) Between 2nd and 3rd pipe, due to sudden
Let V1 , V2 , V3 are the velocities in the
enlargement,
1st 2nd and 3rd pipe respectively. 0.5V12
From continuity, we have hi =
2g
A=V A=
1 1
V A3V3
2 2
(4V1 − 1.77V1 )(V − V )2 2

π 2 = he = 2 3 (Q V3 = 1.77V1 )
d
A1 V1 4 1 d1 2
 0.4 
2 2g 2g
∴ V= = × V= V=   V= 4V1 V12 V12
2
A2 π 2 1
d2 2 1
 0.2 
1
= (2.23) × = 4.973
2
d 2g 2g
4 2
And (d)At the outlet of 3rd pipe,
V32 (1.77V1 )2 V12 V12
ho = = = 1.77 ×
2
= 3.1329
2g 2g 2g 2g

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The major losses are Head loss when pipes are arranged in
4 × f1 × L1 × V12 4 × f2 × L2 × V22 4 × f3 × L3 × V32 parallel = h
= + +
d1 × 2g d2 × 2g d3 × 2g Head loss when pipes are arranged in
4 × 0.005 × 400 × V12 4 × 0.005 × 200 × (4V1 )2 series = H
+ D
0.4 × 2 × 9.81 0.2 × 2 × 9.81 d= and f is constant
4 × 0.005 × 300 × (1.77V1 )2 2
+ 1st case:
0.3 × 2 × 9.81
V12 When pipes are connected parallel
= 403.14 × Q = Q1 +Q2 …(i)
2 × 9.81
∴ Sum of minor losses and major losses Loss od head in each pipe =h
 0.5V12 V2 V2 V2 V2 4fL1 V12
=  + 8 × 1 + 4.973 1 + 3.1329 1  + 403.14 1 For pipe AB, = h,
 2g 2g 2g 2g  2g d1 ×2g
V12
= 419.746 Q1 Q 4Q
2g where V1 = = 1 = 12
A1 π 2 π D
But total loss must equal to H (or 16m) D
4
V2
∴ 419.746 × 1 = 16 d1 = D
2g
16 × 2 × 9.81
=∴ V1 = 0.864m / s
419.746
∴ Discharge
p  4Q 
Q = A1 V1 = ×(0.4)2 ×0.864 = 0.1085m3 / s 4fL  12  2
4
 π D  = h or 32fLQ1 = h
2
∴ .....(ii)
Example: D× 2g π2 D5×g
Two pipes have a length L each. One of 32fLQ 22
For pipe AC, =h
them has diameter D, and the other has π2d5 × g
diameter d. If the pipes are arranged in
parallel, the loss of head, when a total 32fLQ12 32fLQ22 Q15 Q25
∴ = or =
quantity of water Q flows through them is π2D5 × g π2d5 × g D5 d5
h, but, if the pipes are arranged in series
 Q1  D5 (2d )
2 5

and the same quantity Q flows through or   = 5 = 5 = 2 = 32

5
∴D = 2d 
D Q
 2 d d
them, the loss of head is H. If d = , find the
2 Q1
ratio of H to h, neglecting secondary losses ∴ = 32 = 5.657 or Q1 =5.657Q2
Q2
and assuming the pipe co-efficient has a
constant value. Substituting the value of Q1 in equation (i),
Solution: we get
Given: Q =5.657Q2 +Q2 =6.657Q2
Length & dia. of pipe1 Q
∴Q 2 = =0.15Q .....(iv)
L1 = L and d1 = D 6.657
Length & dia. of pipe2 From (i)
∴ Q1 = Q − Q2 = Q-0.15Q = 0.85Q .....(v)
L2 = L and d2 = d
2nd case:
Total Discharge =Q

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 When pipes are connected in series
Total loss = sum of head losses on two
pipes
4f .L.V12 4f .L.V22
=H +
d1 × 2g d2 × 2g
Q 4Q Q 4Q
where=
V1 = ,=
V2 =
π 2 πD2 π 2 πd2
D d
4 4

2 2
 4Q   4Q 
4f.L.  2  4f.L.  2 
∴=H  πD  +  πd 
D × 2g d × 2g
32fLQ 2 32fLQ 2
=
or H + ....(vi)
D5 π2 × g d5 π2 × g

32fl h
From equation(ii), = 2
π D ×g Q1
52

32fl h
and frome quation (iii), = 2
π d ×g Q 2
2 5

Substituting these values in equation (vi),

where
h h Q2 Q2  Q2 Q2 
H = Q2 × + Q 2
× = h + h = h  2 + 2
Q 12 Q22 Q12 Q22  Q1 Q2 
H Q2 Q2
= +
h Q12 Q22

But from equations (iv) and (v)

, Q1 = .85Q and Q 2 = 0.15Q
H Q2 Q2 1 1
= 2 2+ 2 2= 2+ 2
h .85 Q .15 Q .85 .15

=1.384 + 44.444 =45.828

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Applying a pressure drop across a

capillary results in a volumetric
flow rate Q under laminar flow
conditions. The flow rate for the
same pressure drop in a capillary of
the same length but half the radius
is (A) 1: 3 : 2 (B) 1: 2 : 3
[GATE–2001]
(A) Q/2 (B) Q/4 (C) 1: 2 : 2 (D) 1: 2 : 2

(C) Q/8 (D) Q /16

Common Data for Q.4 and Q.5

Q.2 For turbulent flow of an Two tanks, A and B, of cross

sectional area 1 m2 each, contain a
incompressible fluid through a
fluid of density 1000 kg/m3 and
pipe, the flow rate Q is proportional viscosity 1 kg/(m.s). The tanks are
to ( ∆P ) , where ∆P is the pressure
n
connected by a pipe of diameter
0.02 m and length 1 m, and a check
drop. The value of exponent n is
valve, at the bottom. Assume that
[GATE–2002] the flow is laminar, and there is no
friction in the check valve. In the
(A) 1 (B) 0 initial state, the height of the fluid
(C) < 1 (D) > 1 in the tank A and 6m and the height
of the fluid in tank B is 2 m (as
shown in the figure below). The
Q.3 Three piping networks, as shown in check valve is opened, and the fluid
the figure, are placed horizontally. flows from tank A to tank B till the
They are made using identical pipe levels in the two tanks are equal in
segments and are subjected to the the final state. Assume g=10 m/s2
same pressure drop across them. in the calculations.
Assuming no pressure losses at Note: Figure not to scale
junctions, the flow rates across the
three networks are related as Q1:
Q2: Q3.
[GATE –2004]
Q.4 What is the average fluid velocity Q.8 Losses for flow through valves and
in the pipe as soon as the valve is fittings are expressed in terms of
opened? [GATE –2008]
[GATE –2005] (A) Drag coefficient
(B) Equivalent length of a straight
(A)0.25 m/s (B)0.5 m/s pipe
(C)1 m/s (D)2 m/s (C) Shape Factor
(D) Roughness Factor
Q.5 What is the total energy loss
Q.9 Given a pipe of diameter D, the
between the initial and final states
due to the fluid flow? entrance length necessary to
[GATE –2005] achieve fully developed laminar
(A) 2 × 10 J (B) 16 × 104 J
4 flow is proportional to (NRe is
Reynolds Number)
(C) 8 × 104 J (D) 4 × 104 J [GATE –2008]

Q.6 A liquid is pumped at the flow rate (A) D N Re (B)

D
Q through a pipe of length L. The N Re
pressure drop of the fluid across
the pipe is ∆P , now a leak develops D
(C) D N Re 2 (D)
at the mid-point of the length of the N Re 2
pipe and the fluid leaks at the rate
of Q/2. Assuming that the friction
factor in the pipe remains Q.10 Two identical reservoirs, open at
unchanged, the new pressure drop the top, are drained through pipes
across the pipe for the same inlet attached to the bottom of the tanks
flow rate (Q) will be as shown below. The two drain
[GATE –2006] pipes are of the same length, but of
different diameters (D1 > D2).
1 5
(A)   ∆P (B)   ∆P
2 8
3
(C)   ∆P (D) ∆P
4

Q.7 In a laminar flow through a pipe of

radius R, the fraction of the total
fluid flowing through a circular
Assuming the flow to be steady
cross-section of radius R/2
and laminar in both drain pipes, if
centered at the pipe axis is
the volumetric flow rate in the
(A) 3/8 (B) 7/16
larger pipe is 16 times of that in
(C) 1/2 (D) 3/4
the smaller pipe, the ratio D1 /D2 is
[GATE –2006]
[GATE –2009]
 (A) 2 (B) 4 (A) Decreases 2 times
(C) 8 (D) 16 (B) Decreases 16 times
(C) Increases 2 times
Q.11 In Hagen-Poiseuille flow through a (D) Increases 16 times
cylindrical tube, the radial profile
of shear stress is Q.14 For uniform laminar flow (in the x-
[GATE –2010] direction) past a flat plate at high
(A) Constant Reynolds number, the local
boundary layer thickness ( δ )
(B) Cubic
varies with the distance along the
(C) Parabolic plate (x) as
[GATE–2012]
(D) Linear 1 1
(A) δ ∝ x 4 (B) δ ∝ x 3
Q.12 A liquid is flowing through the 1

following piping network. The (C) δ ∝ x 2 (D) δ ∝ x

length of pipe sections P, Q, R and S
shown in the schematic are equal.
Q.15 For a Newtonian fluid flowing in a
The diameters of the sections P and
circular pipe under steady state
R are equal and the diameter of the
conditions in fully developed
section Q is twice that of S. The flow
laminar flow, the Fanning friction
is steady and laminar. Neglecting
factor is
curvature and entrance effects, the
[GATE–2013]
ratio of the volumetric flow rate in −0.2
the pipe section Q to that in S is (A) 0.046 Re
[GATE–2011] 0.125
(B) 0.0014 +
Re0.32
16
(C)
Re
24
(D)
(A) 16 (B) 8 Re
(C) 2 (D) 1
Q.16 In case of a pressure driven
Q.13 Water is flowing under laminar laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid
conditions in a pipe of length L. If of viscosity ( μ ) through a
the diameter of the pipe is doubled, horizontal circular pipe, the
for a constant volumetric flow rate, velocity of the fluid is proportional
the pressure drop across the pipe
to
[GATE–2012]
[GATE–2014]
 (A) μ (B) μ 0.5 S. Both f and CD depend on the
Reynolds number.
(C) μ −1 (D) μ −0.5 T. For laminar flow through a pipe f
doubles on doubling the volumetric
flow rate.
Q.17 Two different liquids are flowing [GATE–2015]
through different pipes of the same
diameter. In the first pipe, the flow (A) R, S, T (B) P, Q, S
is laminar with centerline velocity
(C) P, R, S (D) P, Q, S, T
Vmax,1 , whereas in the second pipe,
the flow is turbulent. For turbulent
flow, the average velocity is 0.82 Q.20 For a flow through a smooth pipe,
times the centerline velocity, Vmax,2 . the Fanning friction factor (f) is
given by f =mRe-0.2 in the turbulent
For equal volumetric flow rates in
flow regime, where Re is the
both the pipes, the ratio
Reynolds number and m is a
Vmax,1 / Vmax,2 (up to two decimal
constant. Water flowing through a
places) is section of this pipe with a velocity 1
[GATE–2015] m/s results in a frictional pressure
drop of 10 kPa. What will be the
Q.18 For uniform laminar flow over a flat pressure drop across this section
plate, the thickness of the boundary (in kPa), when the velocity of water
layer δ , at a distance x from the is 2 m/s?
leading edge of the plate follows the [GATE–2016]
relation
[GATE–2015] (A) 11.5 (B) 20
(A) δ(x) ∝ x −1
(C) 34.8 (D) 40
(B) δ(x) ∝ x

(C) δ(x) ∝ x1/2

(D) δ(x) ∝ x −1/2

Q.19 For Fanning friction factor f (for

flow in pipes) and drag coefficient
CD (for flow over immersed bodies)
which of the following statements
are true?
P. f accounts only for the skin
friction.
Q. CD accounts only for the form
friction.
R. CD accounts for both skin friction
and form friction.
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
D C C B D B B B A A D A B C
15 16 17 18 19 20
C C 1.64 C C C
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (D) Q.3 (C)

In laminar flow, Hagen Poiseulle Equation Pressure Drop in pipe is given by
is used 4 f L V2
∆P=
32μ L v 8μ L v 2D
=∆P =
D2 R2 So, ∆P=K (L Q 2 )
 ∆P R 2 
Q = AV = ( π R 2 )  
For Case-I
 8μ L  ∆P1 = K (2L Q1 2 )
Q∝R 4
1
1  ∆P1  2

Q1  R1 
4
Q1 =   .........(1)
= =  2
4
2 V 
Q2  R 2 
  Q2  
2

Q ∆P2 = K  2L   
Q2 = 1   2  
16
So Option (d) is correct 1
 ∆P  2
Q2 = 2  2 
 V 
Q.2 (C) Similarly Q3
Pressure drop is given by
1
2 f L v2  ∆P  2
∆P = Q3 = 2  3 
D  V 
f for turbulent flow = 0.0014
1
Q2 Q1 : Q 2 : Q3 = : 2: 2
2
v = 2 2
A = 1: 2 : 2
2 f L  Q2 
∆P =  
D  A2  So Option (b) is correct
∆P ∝ Q 2

Q ∝ ∆P 0.5 Q.4 (B)

So, n = 0.5 < 1 In laminar flow, Hagen poiseuille equation
So Option (c) is correct
 32μ L v ∆P D 2 CASE – 2
∆P = ⇒v=
D2 32μ L
∆P = (6 − 2) 1000 × 10
= 4 × 104 Pa

v
(=
4 × 10 ) ( 0.02 )
4 2

0.05
m
32 × 1 × 1 s
So Option (b) is correct

L 
Q.5 (D) P1 − P = K  Q 2  .......................(1)
2 
∆P (6 − 4) g ρ  L  Q 2 
h= =
fs
ρ ρ P − P2 = K     .................(2)
2 2 
 
m 2  Energy loss per 
= 2 × 10   (1) + (2)
s 2  unit mass 
L L 
Total mass flow = ρ=v 1000 × 2 × 1 P1 − P2 = K  Q 2 + Q 2 
2 8 
= 2000 kg
5 5
Total Energy loss = 2000 × 20 ∆P2 =K L Q 2 = ∆P1
8 8
= 4 × 104 J
So Option (b) is correct
So, Option (d) is correct Option

Q.7 (B)
Q.6 (B) Fraction of fluid flowing through a circular

CASE-1 R
cross section of radius
2
R /2 R /2
  r 2 
∫ u (2π r) dr ∫ umax 1 −    (2π r) dr
  R  
= =
0 0
R R
  r 2 
∫ u (2π r) dr ∫0 max 1 −  R   (2π r) dr
u
0  
Pressure drop through pipe
R/2
2 f L u 2ρ  R /2
r3   r2 r4 
∆P =
D ∫0  R 2  dr
r − −
 2 4R 2 
 0
= R=
Q  r3   r2 r4 
R
but, u =
A ∫0  R 2  dr
r −  2 − 4R 2 
 0
2 f L Q 2ρ
So, ∆P =
D A2
∆P1 = K ( L Q 2 )
 R2 R2
−
8 64 7
= = Q.12 (A)
R 2 R 2 16 In laminar flow, Hagen Poiseulle Equation
−
2 4 is used
So, Option (b) is correct ∆P D 2
v=
32μ L
Q.8 (B) π 
q =  D2  v
4 
Q.9 (A) π ΔP D 2
q=
Transition Length for laminar flow is given 128 μ L
by ( ΔP )Q = ( ΔP )S
xt 4
=0.05 N Re qQ  DQ 
D =  = 2= 16
4

x t ∝ D N Re qS  DS 
So Option (a) is correct So Option (a) is correct

Q.13 (B)
Q.10 (A) In laminar flow, Hagen Poiseulle Equation
For laminar flow Pressure drop is given by is used
Hagen Poiseulle Equation 32μ L v
∆P = 2
32 μ L V D
ΔP =
D2 128 μ L Q
∆P = 4
128 μ L Q D π
ΔP =
π D4 1
∆P ∝ 4
Q ∝ D4 D
4
∆P2  D1 
2
Q1 D  1
=16=  1  =  =
Q2  D2  ∆P1  D 2  16
D1 16 ∆P2 =∆P1
=2
D2
So Option (b) is correct
So option (a) is correct
Q.14 (C)
For Boundary layer thickness across flat
Q.11 (D)
plate
32 μ L V
ΔP = μx
D2 δ=5
ΔP ρ V∞
τ= r 1
2L
δ ∝ x 2
τ∝r
So Option (d) is correct
So Option (c) is correct Q.19 (C)

Q.15 (C) Q.20 (C)

Given: f =mRe-0.2
Q.16 (C)
V1 =1 m / s, ΔP1 =10 kPa
In laminar flow, Hagen Poiseulle Equation
is used V2 =2 m / s, ΔP2 =____
32 μ L v Pressure drop due to friction is given by
∆P = 2
D −0.2
 ρvd 
4m  v2
μ 
1
v∝ 4f Lv 2

μ ΔPf = =
2D 2D
So Option (c) is correct
ΔPf ∝ v1.8

Q.17 (1.64) ΔPf 2 v 

1.8

For Laminar Flow = 2 

ΔPf 1  v1 
(=
2 )10
Vavg,1 = 0.5 Vmax,1
ΔPf 2
= 1.8
34.8 kPa
For Turbulent Flow
Vavg,2 = 0.82 Vmax,2 So option (c) is correct
For same Flow rate
Q1 = Q 2
π 2 π 2
 D  Vavg,1 =  D  Vavg,2
4  4 
0.5 Vmax,1 = 0.82 Vmax,2
Vmax,2 0.82
= = 1.64
Vmax,1 0.5

Q.18 (C)
Blasius Equation
5x 5x
δ= =
Re ρvx
μ
So, δ ∝ x
So option (c) is correct
 7 EXTERNAL FLOW

7.1 BOUNDARY LAYER FORMATION 7.2.1 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

The variation of velocity from zero to free In laminar region the fluid flows in
stream velocity in the direction normal to streamline. The viscous force is higher than
the boundary takes place in a narrow inertia force.
region in the vicinity of solid boundary. The Reynold’s No. for flat plate is given by
Boundary layer is a very thin layer of the
U x
fluid, in the immediate neighbourhood of Re x  
the solid boundaries where the variation of 
velocity is from zero to free stream Where,
velocity. U ∞ = free stream velocity
X = distance from leading edge
ν  = kinematic viscosity of fluid

For laminar flow

R ex < 5 × 105
du
The velocity gradient =
dy 7.2.2 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
Fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in
the direction of motion. The value of shear When the length of plate is more than the
µdu critical length ‘x cr ’ , calculated from
stress is given by τ =
dy  Re 5105 
The velocity gradient is set up in the fluid equation  
 U 
near the surface of the plate. This velocity
gradient develops shear resistance which then, transition from laminar to turbulent
retards the fluid. Downstream the leading takes place.
edge, the boundary layer region increases
because the retarded fluid is further 7.2.3 LAMINAR SUBLAYER
retarded.
It is region in the turbulent zone adjacent
7.2 REGIONS OF BOUNDARY LAYER to the solid surface of the plate the velocity
Boundary layer can be divided in three variation is influenced only by viscous
major regions: effects. Though velocity distribution is
1. Laminar parabolic for small thickness, we can
2. Transition reasonably assume that velocity variation
3. Turbulent is linear here
4. Laminar sub-layer  du   ∆u 
τo = µ   ⇒ µ  
 dy   ∆y 
τo is constant in laminar sub-layer.

7.3 BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS

It is defined as the distance from the

boundary of the solid measured in the y-

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 direction to the point, where the velocity of 7.4 DRAG FORCE ON FLAT PLATE DUE
fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times TO BOUNDARY LAYER
free stream velocity ( U ∞ )
7.4.1 VON KARMAN MOMENTUM
Slam ,Stur ,S' laminar sub layer
INTEGRAL EQUATION
τ0 dθ
7.3.1 DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS (δ) * =
ρU∞ dx
2

It is defined as displacement of surface in

the direction normal to the surface to  dθ 
=
τ0   ρU ∞ 2
compensate for the reduction in the flow  dx 
rate, due to boundary layer formation. τ0 is shear stress.
θ is momentum thickness

The above equation is valid for

1. Zero pressure gradient.
2. Laminar & turbulent flow
3. Incompressible steady flow.

7.4.2 LOCAL COEFFICIENT OF DRAG

The plate is displaced by distance (δ) * τ0
given by cd* =
1 2 
δ
 u   ρU∞ 
δ= ∫ 1 −
*
dy 2 
0
U∞  Local shear stress in laminar flow is
obtained by
7.3.2 MOMENTUM THICKNESS du
τ0 =µ
dy
It is defined as the distance, measured Average coefficient of drag
normal to the boundary of the solid body,
Favg
by which the boundary should be displaced cd =
to compensate for the reduction in 1 2 
momentum of the flowing fluid on account  ρU∞ 
2 
of boundary layer formation. L

=θ ∫
δ
u 
1 −
u 
dy
Favg = ∫ τ .b.dx
o
o

U∞  U∞ 
0
b is the width of plate
L is the length up to which average force is
7.3.3 ENERGY THICKNESS to be evaluated
It is defined as the distance measured 7.5 BOUNDARY CONDITION FOR THE
normal to the boundary of the solid body, VELOCITY PROFILE
by which the boundary should be displaced du
to compensate for the reduction in K.E. of 1) at=y 0,= U 0, has some finite value.
dy
the flowing fluid.
 u  2  2) at y =δ, u = U∞ ,
 **   1 u dy
0 U 
  U 2  3) at y =δ,
du
=0,
dy
Assume velocity profile to be

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 2
u y y
= a + b  + c   ρux
U∞ δ δ = Re
Using boundary conditions, value of
μ
coefficients obtained are x2
δ = 30 .
a = 0 , b = 2 , c = −1 , Re
x
The velocity profile for laminar boundary
Shear stress in terms of Reynolds No
layer flows is given by
2µU
u
= 2(y / δ) − (y / δ) 2 τo =
U∞ δ
Equation involved 2µU µU ρUx
= τo = 0.365
τ0 do x x µ
= 5.48
ρU 2
dx Rex
U is free stream velocity Coefficient of drag
µdu
τo = F0
dy cD =
1 2
du d   y   y  
2
 ρAU 
= 2  −    2 
dy dy   δ   δ   L
  FD = ∫τo .b.dx
du  2 2Y 
= U  − 2  at y=0 o
dy  δ δ  Where b is thickness of plate
du 2U 2u µU ρUx
=
dy δ
, τ=µ .... 1
δ
() 0
L
FD = ∫ 0.365
x µ
gbdx
δ
u u
=θ ∫ U 1 − U  dy ρU L 1
=
FD 0.365µU gb∫ dx
µ
o
0
  Y   Y 2  
x
Y Y 
δ 2

=θ ∫ 2  −    1 − 2  +    dy ρUL
o 

δ   δ  
  δ   δ   =
FD 0.73bµU
µ
2δ
θ=
15
ρUL
dθ d  2δ  0.73bµU
=   … (2) µ
dx dx  15  Cd =
1
2U d  2δ  2 ρAU2
µ=   ρU 2
δ dx  15  1.46µ ρUL
Cd =
15µdx ρU µ
ρdδ =
δU
µ
Cd = 1.46
ρUL
δ2 15µ
= x +C
2 ρU
1.46
Cd =
at= = 0 at 
= 0,C
x 0,δ ReL
30µx2
δ=
ρUx

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 7.6 ANALYSIS OF TURBULENT
BOUNDARY LAYER Example:
Determine the thickness of the boundary
7.6.1 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON layer at the trailing edge of smooth plate of
FLAT PLATE length 4m & width 1.5 m, when the plate is
moving with a velocity of 4 m/s. In
Blasius, on basis of his experiments gave stationary air, kinematic viscosity
expression for velocity profile in ν 1.5 × 10−5 m2 / s .
=
turbulent flow over flat plate
n
u y Solution:
= 
U∞  δ  UL 4× 4
Re= = = 10.66 × 105
=
Where n 1 / 7,R e < 107
L
ν 1.5 × 10 −5

Turbulent
1/7
u  y  0.37x
=  = δ = 92.19mm
U∞  δ 
( Rex )
1
5

Since shear stress in turbulent flow is given

by
1/4 7.7 LIFT
2 μ 
τ o = 0.0225ρu   A component in the direction of force is
 ρδu  called drag FD
A component normal to the direction of
7.6.2 BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS IN
force is called Lift FL
TURBULENT FLOW
1 It is expressed by dimensionless quantities
 µ  5 45 like Lift Coefficient CL and Drag Coefficient
δ =0.37   gx
ρ
 ∞ U CD
0.37x FD
δ= CD = where, FD is the Drag Force
( x)
1
Re 5 1
ρU A 2

2
7.6.3 COEFFICIENT OF DRAG FL
CL = where, FL is the Lift Force
1
ρU A 2

If R e > 5 × 105 & less then107 2

U is the free stream Velocity
0.37x ,
δ= 1
(Re )
1/5
F=
L =
W ρU 2CL A
x
2
0.072
CD =
(R )
1/5

eL
7.8 BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION
Where,
Separation of flow is said to occur when the
x = distance from leading edge
direction of the flow velocity near the
R e = Reynold’s No. for length x
x surface is opposite to the direction of the
R e = Reynold’s No at the length ‘L’ of plate free stream velocity, which means
(du/dy) ≤ 0. If (dp/dx) increases to the
L

For R e > 107 ,R e > 109 extent that it can overcome the shear
0.455 near the surface, then separation will
CD =
occur. Such a pressure gradient is called
( log10R )
2.58

eL adverse pressure gradient. In the case of

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 incompressible flow in a nozzle a u y y
2
Substituting the value of,= 2  −   we
favourable pressure gradient exists & U δ δ
Separation will not occur in such flows. In have
the case of diverging section of a diffuser,  2 
   y   y  
δ
separation can occur if the rate of area δ=
* ∫0   δ   δ    dy
1 − 2 −
increase is large. 
   
δ  y   y  
2
 2y 2 y 3 
δ

=∫ 1 − 2  +   dy = y − + 
0  δ δ   2δ 3δ2  0
 
δ2 δ3 δ δ
=δ− + 2 = δ−δ+ =
δ 3δ 3 3
( ii ) Momentum thickness θ is given by
δ
u u
δ
 2y y 2    2y y 2  
=θ ∫0 U  1 − U =
 dy

∫0  δ − δ2  1 −  δ − δ2  dy
 
δ
 2y y 2   2y y 2 
= ∫0  δ − δ2  1 − δ + δ2  dy
δ
 2y 4y 2 2y 3 y 2 2y 3 y 4 
= ∫0  δ − δ2 + δ3 − δ2 + δ3 − δ4 dy
7.8.1 LOCATION OF SEPARATION POINT δ
δ
 2y 5y 2 4y 3 y 4   2y 2 5y 3 4y 4 y 5 
= ∫0  δ − δ2 + δ3 − δ4 dy =  2δ − 3δ2 + 4δ3 − 5δ4 
 ∂u  0
  < 0 Separated flow  δ2 5δ3 δ4 δ5  5δ δ
 ∂y y =0 =  − 2 + 3 − 4  =δ− +δ−
 δ 3 δ δ 5 δ  3 5
 ∂u 
  = 0 Verge of separation 15δ − 25δ + 15δ − 3δ 30δ − 28δ 2δ
 ∂y  y =0 =
15
= =
15 15
 ∂u 
  > 0 No separation ( iii ) Energy thickness δ * * is given by
 ∂y  y =0
 2y y 2    2y y 2  
2
u  u2 
δ δ
 1 −  −   dy
Example:
δ *=
* ∫0 U 1 − U2  dy= ∫0  δ δ2    δ δ2  
 − 
 
Find the displacement thickness, the δ
 2y y 2    4y 2 y 4 4y 3  
momentum thickness and energy for the = ∫0  δ δ2    δ2 + δ4 − δ3   dy
−  1 −
velocity distribution in the boundary layer  
2 δ
 2y y 2  4y 2 y 4 4y 3 
u y y
= 2  −  
given by
= ∫0  δ δ2 
−  1 − − +
δ2 δ4 δ3 
 dy
U δ δ δ
 2y 8y 3 2y 5 8y 4 y 2 4y 4 y 6 4y 5 
Solution: = ∫0  δ − δ3 − δ5 + δ4 − δ2 + δ4 + δ6 − δ5 dy
Given:
u y y
2
 2y y 2 8y 3 12y 4 6y 5 y 6 
δ

Velocity distribution,
= 2  −   = ∫0  δ − δ2 − δ3 + δ4 − δ5 + δ6 dy
U δ δ
( i ) Displacement thickness δ * is given  2y y 3 8y 4 12y 5 6y 6 y 7 
= − 2− 3+ − + 
δ

by  2δ 3δ 4δ 5δ4 6δ5 7δ6  0

δ
u δ2 δ3 2δ4 12δ5 δ6 δ7 δ 12 δ
* ∫  1 −  dy
δ= = − 2 − 3 + 4 − 5 + 6 = δ − − 2δ + δ − δ +
U δ 3δ δ 5δ δ 7δ 3 5 7
0

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 δ 12 δ −210δ − 35δ + 252δ + 15δ
= −2δ − + δ + = Example:
3 5 7 105
−245δ + 267δ 22δ
Determine the thickness of the boundary
= layer at the trailing edge of smooth plate of
105 105
length 4m and of width 1.5m, when the
plate is moving with a velocity of 4m/s in
Example:
stationary air. Take kinematics viscosity of
Air is flowing over a smooth plate with a
velocity of 10 m/s. The length of the plate is air as 1.5×10−5 m2 / s
1.2m and width is 0.8m. If laminar
boundary layer exists up to a value of Solution:
R e = 2 × 105 , find the maximum distance Given:
Length of plate, L = 4m
from the leading edge upto which laminar Width of plate, b=1.5m
boundary layer exists. Find the maximum
Velocity of plate, U = 4m/ s
thickness of laminar boundary layer if the
velocity profile is given by Kinematics viscosity,   1.5105 m 2 / s
2 Reynolds number,
u y y U L 4 4
= 2  −   Re L    10.66105
U δ δ  1.510 5

Take kinematics viscosity for air = 0.15 As the Reynolds number is more than
stokes. 5 × 105 and hence the boundary layer at the
trailing edge is turbulent.
Solution: The boundary layer thickness for turbulent
Given: boundary layer is given by
Velocity of air,
Length of plate,
U =10m/ s
L = 1.2m δ=
0.37x=
Here x ( L=
and R e R e
x L
)
(R )
1
5
Width of plate, b= 0.8m ex

Reynolds number upto which laminar 0.37 × 4.0

= = = 92.1mm
0.0921m
boundary exists = 2 × 10 ( )
5 1
10.66 × 105 5
ν for = = 0.15 × 10−4 m2 / s
air 0.15 stokes
ρUx Ux Example:
=
Reynolds number, Re = Water is flowing over a thin smooth plate
L
µ ν
of length 4m and width 2m at a velocity of
If R e = 2 × 10 , then x denotes the distance
5
x
1.0m/s. If the boundary layer flow changes
from leading edge upto which laminar from laminar to turbulent at a Reynolds
number 5 × 10 , find ( i ) the distance from
5
boundary layer exists
10 × x leading edge upto which boundary layer is
∴ 2 × 105 =
0.15 × 10−4 laminar, ( ii ) the thickness of boundary
2 × 105 × 0.15 × 10−4
∴x
= = 0.30m= 300mm layer at the transition point, and ( iii ) the
10
Maximum thickness of the laminar drag force on one side of the plate. Take
boundary for the velocity profile, viscosity of water µ = 9.81×10−4 Ns/ m2 .
2
u y y
= 2  −   Is given by
U δ δ
5.48 × x 5.48 × 0.30
=δ = = 0.00367m
= 3.67mm
Re 2 × 105
x

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 A=Area of plate upto laminar boundary
layer
= 0.49×b= 0.49×2= 0.98 m2

Substituting the value of CD and A in

equation ( i ) , we get
Solution: 1
FEF = ×1000×0.98×1.02 ×.001878 = 0.92N
Given: 2
Length of plate, L = 4m .... ( ii )
Width of plate, b= 2m
Velocity of flow, U =1.0m/ s b) Drag force due to turbulent boundary
Reynolds number for laminar boundary layer from F to G =Drag force due to
layer = 5 × 10
5 turbulent boundary layer from E to G −
Viscosity of water, µ = 9.81×10−4 Ns/ m2 Drag force due to turbulent flow from E
to F
i) Let the distance from leading edge upto
which laminar boundary layer = FEG − FEF ( ) turb
( ) turb
exists = x Now, 1
Ux 10001 x
(F )
FG turb
=ρAU2 × CD
2
 5105   Where CD is
 9.81104
−4 0.072
∴ x = 5 × 10 × 9.81 × 10
5
CD =
(R )
1
1000 5
eL
= 0.4900m
= 490mm
But
ii) Thickness of boundary layer at the
ρUL 1.0 × 4.0
point where the boundary layer R e ==× 1000 =×
40.77 105
changes from laminar to turbulent i.e.,
L
µ 9.81 × 10−4

at Reynolds number = 5 × 10 , is given=

50.072
∴ CD = 0.00343
( )
1
by Blasius’s solution as 40.77 × 105 5

5x 5g0.49
= δ = = 3.46mm 1
Rex 5 × 105 ∴ ( FEG ) =ρAU2 × CD  
turb 2
(
Here x= 49cm= 0.49m, R e = 5 × 105 1 )
= × 1000 × (4 × 2) × 12 × .00343 13.72N
x
=
iii) Drag force on the plate on one side 2
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer 1
+ Drag due to turbulent boundary Also FEF
turb
= ρA EF × U2 × CD
2
( )
a) Drag due to laminar boundary layer Where A EF =Area of plate upto
(i.e., from E to F)
1 EF = EF× b = 0.49×2= 0.98 m2
FEF = ρ AU2×CD ...... ( i ) And
2
0.072 0.072
Where CD is given by Blasius solution CD = = = .00522
( EF ) ( )
1 1

for laminar boundary layer as R 5

5×10 5 5

CD =
1.328
=
1.328
( for EF,R ex
=5×10 5
) (F ) 1
= ×1000×0.98×12 ×.00522= 2.557N
Re 5×10 5 EF turb
2
x

= 0.001878 ∴ Drag force due to turbulent boundary

layer from F to G

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 = ( FEG ) - ( FEF ) =13.72-2.557 =11.163N δu y 1 y 1
2
turb turb
∴ = 2U × 2  × − U × 3  ×
∴ Drag force on the plate on one side δy δ δ δ δ
=Drag force due to laminar boundary layer
upto F + Drag force due to turbulent  δu 
At y = 0,  
boundary layer from F to G  δ y  y =0
= 0.92+11.163 = 12.083N
2
0 1 0 1
Example: = 2U × 2  × − U × 3  × = 0
For the following velocity profiles, δ δ δ δ
determine whether the flow has separated  δu 
or on the verge of separation or will attach As   = 0 , the flow is on verge of
with the surface.  δy  y =0
3 separation.
u 3 y  1 y 
=
i)  −  
U 2 δ  2 δ  3rd velocity profile
2 3 2
u y y u y y
=
ii) 2  −   =
−2  +  
U δ δ U δ δ
2 2
u y y y y
iii) = −2  +   ∴u =
−2U   + U  
U δ δ δ δ
Solution: δu 1 y 1
=
−2U   + 2U   ×
Given δy δ δ δ
1st velocity profile
3 3
u 3 y  1 y  3U  y  U  y  At y=0,
=−    or u =  −  
U 2 δ  2 δ  2 δ 2δ  δu  2U 0 1 2U
  = − + 2U   × =−
Differentiating w.r.t., y, the above equation  δy  y =0 δ δ δ δ
becomes,
 δu 
δ u 3U 1 U  y  1
2
As   is negative the flow has
= × − ×3  ×  δy  y =0
δy 2 δ 2 δ δ separated.
At y =0 ,
2
 δu  3U 3U  0  1 3U
  = −   × =
 δ y  y =0 2δ 2  δ  δ 2δ
 u 
As   is positive. Hence flow will not
  y  y 0

separate or flow will remain attached with

the surface.

2nd velocity profile

2 3
u y y
= 2  −  
U δ δ
2 3
y y
=
∴ u 2U   − U  
δ δ

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 For flow past a flat plate, if x is the Which of the above set of friction factor
distance along the plate in the data is correct
direction of flow, the boundary (A) Set I (B) Set II
layer thickness is proportional to
(C) Set III (D) Set IV
[GATE–2002]

1
(A) x (B)
x
1
(C) x (D)
x

Q.2 The following table provides four

sets of fanning friction factor data,
for different values of Reynolds
number (Re) and roughness factor
k
 
D
[GATE–2017]

Re 102 103 105 105

k 0 0.001 0 0.001

 
D
Set I f 0.16 0.016 16x10- 16x10
5 -5

Set II f 0.016 0.16 0.0055 0.004

5
Set III f 0.16 0.016 0.0045 0.005
5
Set IV f 0.004 0.005 0.016 0.16
5 5
ANSWER KEY:

1 2
A C
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (A)
5x
δ=
 ρvx 
 μ 
 
δ∝ x
So Option (a) is correct

Q.2 (C)
Laminar
16
f = ,So when
Re
Re = 102 ⇒ f = 0.16
Re = 103 ⇒ f =
0.016
Turbulent
0.125
=f 0.0014 +
Re0.32
Re = 105 ⇒ f = 0.0045
 8 FLOW PAST IMMERSED BODIES

8.1 LIFT On solving the equation, we get

A force acting in opposite to the relative 24
CD = (Stoke’s Law)
motion of any object is called drag FD Re
A component normal to the direction of
applied force is called Lift FL 8.3 TERMINAL VELOCITY
It is expressed by dimensionless quantities When the body is moving freely under the
like Lift Coefficient CL and Drag Coefficient influence of gravitational force. By the
time the acceleration attained by the body
CD
keeps reducing. The maximum velocity
attained by the particle when the
acceleration is zero is called Terminal
Settling Velocity.

FD
CD = where, FD is the Drag Force
1 2
ρU A
2
FL
CL = where, FL is the Lift Force
1 2
ρU A
2
U is the free stream Velocity From Fig,
1
FL =W= ρU 2 CL A Net Force = Fg − FB − FD
2
mp 1
F = mg − ρ g − CD ρ U 2 A
8.2 STOKE’S LAW ρp 2
mp 1
It is found that for low Reynold’s Number m a = mp g − ρ g − CD ρ U 2 A
i.e. less than 1, the total Drag force is given ρp 2
by
FD =3πμDU Acceleration (a ) = 0 , U = u t
But the Total drag force is also given by
g (ρ p − ρ) 1
1
FD = ρU 2 CD A = CD ρ U 2 A
2 ρp 2
1 2
So, 3πμDU= ρU CD A
2
 2 m g (ρ p − ρ)
ut = 8.4 STAGNATION POINT
ρ p CD ρ A p
The streamlines in the fluid flowing past
Where, A p = Projected Area the object in the figure shown below show
that the fluid stream in the plane of the
If the particle is considered as Spherical section is split by the object into two parts,
π one passing over the top of the object and
A p = Dp 2
4 other under the bottom. Streamline AS
Then the Equation Becomes divide the two parts and terminates at a
definite point S at the nose of the body.
4 g D p (ρ p − ρ)
ut = This point is called Stagnation point.
3 CD ρ
Where, u t = Terminal Settling Velocity
D p =Diameter of Spherical Partical
ρ p =Density of particle
ρ= Density of fluid

CASE-I: - For low Re Number (Re<1) or for

Laminar flow, The Terminal Settling
Velocity is given by Stoke’s Law or (Stoke’s
Regime)
Here, CD =3πμD p U 0 Stagnation pressure is the
24 static pressure at a stagnation point in a
On solving we get, CD = fluid flow. At a stagnation point the fluid
Re
velocity is zero and all kinetic energy has
4 g D p (ρ p − ρ) × ρu t D p
So, u t = been converted into pressure energy.
3 ρ × 24 × μ
g D p 2 (ρ p − ρ) Applying Bernoulli Equation at points A
ut =
18 μ and S

CASE-I: - For high Re Number (Re>1000) PA VA 2

+
P V2
+0= S + S +0
or for Turbulent flow, The Terminal ρ 2 ρ 2
Settling Velocity is given by Newton’s Law But, VS = 0
or (Newton’s Regime) PS − PA VA 2
CD = 0.44 =
ρ 2
g D p (ρ p − ρ)
u t =1.75
ρ
 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The diameter of a drop of liquid fuel

changes with time, due to
combustion, according to the
 t 
relationship, D = D0 1 −  , while
 tb 
burning, the drop falls at its
terminal velocity under Stokes'
flow regime. The distance it will
travel before complete combustion,
is given by
[GATE –2010]
D Δρ t b g
2
(A) 0
18 μ

D0 2 Δρ t b g
(B)
36 μ

D0 2 Δρ t b g
(C)
54 μ

D0 2 Δρ t b g
(D)
108 μ

Q.2 The drag coefficient for a

bacterium moving in water at 1
mm/s, will be of the following
order of magnitude (assume size of
the bacterium to be 1 micron and
kinematic viscosity of water to be
10-6 m2/s)
[GATE–2012]

(A) 24000 (B) 24

(C) 0.24 (D) 0.44
ANSWER KEY:
1 2
C A
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (C)
By Stokes Law
g D p 2 Δρ
ut =
18 μ
Integrate
2
g Δρ  t 
∫ u t dt= ∫ 18 μ 1 − t b  dt
g Δρ  t 2 2t 
=∫ u t dt ∫ 18 μ 1+ t b 2 − t b  dt
g D0 2 t b Δρ
ut =
b
54 μ
So Option (c) is correct

Q.2 (A)
dp = 10-6 m
v = 10-6 m2 /s
x = 10-3 m /s
v d 10−3 ×10−6
=
Re = = 10−3 < 1
ν 10 −6

For low Re < 1

24
C=
D = 24000
Re
So Option (a) is correct
 9 FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM

9.1 DECRIPTION OF POROUS MEDIUM

Porous medium means a solid, or a

collection of solid particles, with sufficient
open space in or around the particles to
enable a fluid to pass through or around
them. π 
4  D2 
DH = 
4 
=D
One of the important term for porous πD
medium is porosity ( ε ). (c)Cuboid
Total Volume − Volume of Solid
ε=
Total Volume
A Void
ε=
A

9.2 HYDRAULIC DIAMETER

In flow through porous medium the fluid

4 ( ab ) 2 ( ab )
follows an undefined path. One method of DH = =
2 ( a+b ) ( a+b )
describing the flow in porous medium in
non-circular conduit is termed as
“Hydraulic Diameter (DH)”. 9.3 FRICTION IN FLOW THROUGH BEDS
OF SOLIDS
4A With the help of Hagen-Poiseuille equation
DH = and experimental data, there are many
P
(a) Cube expression to determine the pressure drop
in bed per unit length.

9.3.1 Kozeny carman equation

The epression is given as
ΔP 150 μ V0 (1 − ε) 2
=
(φ d p ) ε 3
2
L
4× a2
DH = =a The above equation is applicable for low
4a
Reynold number.
(b)Cylinder
It gives viscous loss
 9.3.2 Burke Plummer Equation Fluidized bed are widely used for
The expression is given as conducting gas solid reactions (coal
ΔP 1.75 ρ f V0 (1 − ε)
2
combustion), gas solid catalytic reactions
= (catalytic cracking of petroleum), etc.
L φ d p ε3
Several applications also utilize liquid
The above Equation is applicable for High
fluidized beds (bioreactors).
Reynold number.
Some of the important design parameters
It given Kinetic Energy loss.
for such systems are: the minimum
fluidization velocity ( Vmf ), bed expansion
9.3.3 Ergun Equation
The Ergun equation include both the of fluidization
losses i.e. viscous loss and kinetic energy ( L ), and pressure variation in the bed ( ∆P
loss. It gives pressure drop for overall ).
range of bed. Once the bed is fluidized, the pressure
It is given as drop across the bed remains constant but
the bed height increases as the velocity of
ΔP 150 μ V0 (1 − ε) 2 1.75 ρ f V0 (1 − ε)
2

= + fluid is increased.
(φ d p ) ε 3 φ d p ε3
2
L

For liquid, the state of fluidization past the

9.4 FLUIDIZATION minimum fluidization stage is called
homogeneous/ smooth / particulate /
When a bed of solid particle is passed with non–bubbling fluidized bed, as the bed
fluid the pressure drop increases as the expands smoothly. At higher velocity,
fluid velocity increases. When the force there is a carry-over of particles.
exerted by fluid counter balance the
weight of bed the particles start to rise. For gases, the particulate or homogeneous
Fluidization is a process in which solids fluidization occurs only for small (fine)
are caused to behave like a fluid by particles. For large particles, bubbles are
blowing gas or liquid upwards through the formed. At even higher velocity, vigorous
solid-filled reactor Fluidization occurs, with turbulent motion
of solid clusters and bubbles. Such state is
called “Fast Fluidized Bed”. There may be
carryover/entrainment of particles with
the outgoing gas

Pressure drop in laminar flow is given by

Hagen–Poiseuille Equation
 32 μ L V The above equation is called ‘Burke
ΔP =
D2 Plummer Equation’ and it is used to find
6 VP pressure drop across fluidized bed in
Sphericity(φs )=
SP D P turbulent flow in pipe and tube.
It gives Kinetic Energy loss and is used for
Equivalent Diameter is given by High Reynold’s Number.
2  ε 
D Equi. = φs D P   In Laminar flow there is some pressure
3  1− ε 
drop due turbulent behavior and vice
ε = Porosity of Bed
versa.
The Ergun Equation gives pressure drop
32 μ L V for both laminar and turbulent flow in
So, ΔP = 2
2  ε  fluidized bed.
 3 φs D P  1 − ε  
   ΔP 150 μ V0 (1 − ε ) 1.75 ρ V0 (1 − ε )
22

On Solving we get = +
L φs 2 D P 2 ε 3 φs D P ε 3

ΔP 150 μ V0 (1 − ε )
2

= 9.4.1 Minimum Fluidization Velocity

L φs 2 D P 2 ε 3 At the certain velocity, the force exerted by
fluid counter balance the weight of bed the
The above equation is called ‘Kozeny particles start to rise, this velocity is called
Carman Equation’ and it is used to find Minimum Fluidization Velocity ( Vmf ).
pressure drop across fluidized bed in
laminar flow in pipe and tube.
It gives viscous loss and is used for low
Reynold’s Number.

Now, Pressure drop in turbulent flow is

given by
2 ρ f L V2
ΔP =
D
2 ρ f L V2
ΔP =
2  ε 
φs D P  
3  1− ε 

On solving we get At incipient fluidization,

ΔP 1.75 ρ V0 (1 − ε )
2

=
L φs D P ε 3
 ΔP
= (ρ p − ρ)(1 − ε) g
L
where, ΔP = Pressure Drop across Bed
L = Height of Bed
ε = Porosity of Bed
ρ p = Density of Particle
ρ = Density of Fluid
To find Minimum fluidization Velocity,
150 μ Vmf (1 − ε )
2

(ρ p − ρ)(1 − ε) g =
φs 2 D P 2 ε 3
1.75 ρ Vmf 2 (1 − ε )
+
φs D P ε 3

9.4.2 Superficial fluid Velocity

It is hypothetical velocity in an empty
channel
V0 = ε V
V = Average fluid Velocity
GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 A gas (density= 1.5 kg/m3,

viscosity= 2 x 10-5 kg/m s) flowing (A) 0.058 m (B) 0.061 m
through a packed bed (particle size
(C) 0.075 m (D) 0.093 m
O.5 cm, porosity= 0.5) at a
superficial velocity of 2 m/s causes
a pressure drop of 8400 Pa / m. The Common Data for Q.4 and Q.5
pressure drop for another gas, with For a liquid flowing through a packed bed
density of 1.5 kg/m3 and viscosity the pressure drop per unit length of the
of 3 x 10-5 kg/m s, flowing at 3 m/s ∆P
will be bed is
L
[GATE–2002]
ΔP 150 μ V0 (1 − ε) 2 1.75 ρ f V0 (1 − ε)
2

= +
(φ d ) ε 3 φ d p ε3
2
(A) 8400 Pa/m L
p

(B) 18900 Pa/m Where V0 is the Superficial Velocity, ε is

(C) 12600 Pa/m the porosity, d p is the average particle
(D) 16800 Pa/m size, φ is the particle sphericity, ρ f is the
liquid density, μ is the liquid viscosity.
Q.2 Under fully turbulent flow Given data:
conditions, the frictional pressure dP =1×10−3 m , φ = 0.8, ρ f =
1000 kg/m3 ,
drop across a packed bed varies μ = 1×10−3 kg m −1s −1
with the superficial velocity (V) of Particle Density ρ P = 2500 kg / m3
the fluid as and acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m / s 2
[GATE –2009]
(A) V -1 (B) V Q.4 When V0 is 0.005 m/s and ε = 0.5,
(C) V3/2 (D) V2 which ONE of the following is the
CORRECT value for the ratio of the
Q.3 The height of a fluidized bed at viscous loss to the kinetic energy
incipient fluidization is 0.075 m, loss?
and the Corresponding voidage is [GATE–2011]
0.38. If the voidage of the bed (A) 0.09 (B) 1.07
increases to 0.5, then the height of (C) 10.71 (D) 93
the bed would be
[GATE –2010]
Q.5 On further increasing V0 , incipient fluidization (up to one decimal place)
fluidization is achieved. Assuming is_____
that the porosity of the bed remains [GATE–2015]
unaltered, the pressure drop per
unit length (in Pa/m) under
incipient fluidization condition is
[GATE –2011]
(A) 3675 (B) 7350
(C) 14700 (D) 73501

Q.6 A bed of spherical glass beads

(density 3000 kg/m3, diameter 1
mm, bed porosity 0.5) is to be
fluidized by a liquid of density 1000
kg/m3 and viscosity 0.1 Pa s.
Assume that the Reynolds number
based on particle diameter is very
small compared to one. If g = 10
m/s2, then the minimum velocity
(in m/s) required to fluidize the
bed is
[GATE–2012]

(A) 3.33 × 10−4

(B) 3.33 × 10−1
(C) 3
(D) 30

Q.7 A cylindrical packed bed of height 1

m is filled with equal sized
spherical particles. The particles
are nonporous and have a density
of 1500 kg/m3. The void fraction of
the bed is 0.45. The bed is fluidized
using air (density 1 kg/m3). If the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.8
m/s2, the pressure drop (in Pa)
across the bed at incipient
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B D D C B A 8080
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (B) So Option (b) is correct

Case-I
∆P1 =
8400 Pa / m
Q.2 (D)
ρ f 1 = 1.5 kg / m3 In turbulent flow
μ1 = 2×10−5 kg / m s 1.75ρV 2 ΔL 1 − ε
ΔP =
V0,1 = 2 m / s DP ε3

ρ P = 0.005 kg / m3 ΔP ∝ V 2
So Option (d) is correct
ε = 0.5
Case-II
Q.3 (D)
∆P2 = ____ At Incipient Fluidization
ρ f 1 = 1.5 kg / m3 ΔP
= ( ρ p − ρ ) (1 − ε ) g
μ 2 = 3×10−5 kg / m s L
1
V0,2 = 3 m / s L∝
(1 − ε )
Re1 =
ρvd
=
(1.5)( 2 )( 0.005) L1 (1 − ε 2 )
μ (1 − ε ) ( 2 ×10−5 ) ( 0.5 ) ∝
L 2 (1 − ε1 )
= 1500 > 1000
L 2 = 0.093 m
Re 2 =
ρvd
=
(1.5)( 3)( 0.005) So Option (d) is correct
μ (1 − ε ) ( 3 ×10−5 ) ( 0.5 )
= 1500 > 1000 Q.4 (C)
So, Burke Plummer Equation is used 150 μ V0 (1 − ε) 2
( φ d p ) ε3
2
∆P 1.75 ρ f V0 (1 − ε)
2
Viscous Loss
= =
L φ d p ε3 K.E. Loss 1.75 ρ f V0 2 (1 − ε)
2
 V0,2   3  2 9
φ d p ε3
∆P2
=  =  = 150 μ (1 − ε)
∆P1  V0,1  2 4 =
1.75 ρ f V0 φ d p
9
∆P2 = × 8400
4 150 × (1× 10−3 ) × (1 − 0.5 )
= = 10.71
∆P2 =18900
Pa 1.75 × 1000 × 0.005 × 0.8 × (1 × 10 −3
)
m
So Option (c) is correct
Q.5 (B)
At Incipient fluidization V0 ,
ΔP
= ( ρ P − ρ f ) (1 − ε) g
L
= (2500 − 1000)(1 − 0.5) 9.8
Pa
= 7350
m
So Option (b) is correct

Q.6 (A)
Incipient fluidization for low Re number s
given by
ΔP 150 μ Vmf (1 − ε) 2
= ( ρ p − ρ f ) (1 − ε) g =
(φ d p ) ε 3
2
L

( 2000 )(10 ) (10−3 )( 0.53 )

Vmf =
( 0.5)(150 )( 0.1)
= 3.33 ×10−4 m / s

So Option (a) is correct

Q.7 (8080 Pa)

Given
L=1m
ρ P =1500 kg / m3
ε=0.5
ρ f = 1 kg / m3
∆P at Incipient Fluidization
ΔP
= ( ρ P − ρ f ) (1 − ε ) g
L
= (1500 − 1)(1 − 0.45 ) 9.8
= 8080 Pa
 10 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS

10.1 FLOW METERS (b) Orifice Meter

Flow meters are the equipment used for

measuring flow in a channel

(a) Venturimeter

After applying Bernoulli Equation at point

‘a’ and ‘b’ we get
π 
CO  Db 2 
4  2 ∆P
Q=
α a − αb β4 ρ
After applying Bernoulli Equation at point Where, CO = Orifice Coefficient
‘a’ and ‘b’ we get (c) Pitot tube
1 2 ( Pa − Pb )
Vb =
α a − αb β4 ρ
Db
where, β =
Da
π 
So, Q = Vb  Db 2  CV
4 
π 
CV  Db 2 
Q=  4  2 ∆P
α a − αb β4 ρ After applying Bernoulli Equation at point
‘a’ and ‘b’ we get
Where, CV = Venturi Coefficient
1 2 ∆P
=0.9 to 0.95 Va =
αa ρ
(d) Rotameter  P '− PV  h fs
NPSH =  a − − za
 ρg  g
Where, PV = Vapour pressure,
h fs
− za =
Suction lift
g

10.4 POWER CONSUMPTION

An Important consideration in design of an
agitated vessel is the power required to
drive the impeller
It is given by
 ρu 2 
FD = CD AP   k 2π2
 2  P= N Q ×ρ n 3 D5
2
Where, u = Relative Velocity where, D=Impeller Diameter
N Q = Flow number
10.2 CAVITATION AND SUCTION LIFT IN
PUMP q
NQ =
From energy consideration, whether the n D3
suction pressure is below atmospheric
pressure or well above it as long as the
fluid remains liquid. If the suction
pressure is slightly greater than the
vapour pressure, some liquid may flash to
vapour inside the pump. The process is
called cavitation.

If the suction pressure is actually less than

the vapour pressure, there will be
vapourization in the suction line and no
liquid can be drawn into the pump.

10.3 NPSH
To avoid cavitation, the pressure must
exceed the vapor pressure by a certain
value is called NPSH (Net Positive Suction
Head).
 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The operation of a rotameter is

based on (P) Capacity (1) proportional to n
[GATE–2001] (Q) Head (2) proportional to n2
(A) Variable flow area (3) proportional to n3
(B) Rotation of a turbine [GATE –2006]
(C) Pressure drop across a nozzle (A) P-2, Q-1 (B) P-1, Q-3
(D) Pressure at a stagnation point (C) P-2, Q-3 (D) P-1, Q-2

Q.2 With increasing flow rate, the

Q.5 A storage vessel exposed to
hydraulic efficiency of a centrifugal
atmosphere (absolute pressure:
pump
10.3 m of water) has a diameter of
[GATE–2002]
3 m and is initially filled with water
(A) Monotonically decreases
to a height of 2 m. The pump draws
(B) Decreases and then increases
water from the vessel and is located
(C) remains constant
at an elevation of 5 m above the
(D) Increases and then decreases
bottom of the vessel. The frictional
head loss in the suction pipe is 2 m
of water. If the vapour pressure of
Q.3 The equivalent diameter for flow
the liquid at the temperature of
through a rectangular duct of width
operation is 3 m of water, then the
B and height H is
[GATE –2004] available NPSH is

HB
(A)
2(H+B)
HB
(B)
(H+B)
2HB
(C)
(H+B) [GATE –2010]

4HB (A) 2.3 m (B) 5.3 m

(D)
(H+B)
(C) 6.3 m (D) 8.3 m

Q.4 Match the following for a Q.6 Match the pumps in Group I with
centrifugal pump with impeller the corresponding fluids in Group
speed n. ll.
[GATE–2011]
 GROUP I GROUP II
(P) Gear Pump (1) Highly Q.10 The characteristics curve (Head-
viscous liquid Capacity relationship) of a
(Q) Peristatic Pump (2) Aqueous centrifugal pump is represented by
Sterile liquid the equation
(3) Slurry
∆H PUMP =43.8 − 0.19 Q , where
(A) P-III; Q-I (B) P-II; Q-I
(C) P-III; Q-II (D) P-I; Q-II ∆H PUMP is the head developed by
the pump (in m) and Q is the
flowrate (in m3/h) through the
Q.7 The local velocity of a fluid along a
streamline can be measured by pump. The pump is to be used for
[GATE–2012] pumping water through a
(A) Pitot tube horizontal pipeline. The frictional
(B) Orifice head loss ∆H Piping (in m) is related
(C) Venturi meter to the water flowrate QL (in m3/h)
(D) Rotameter by the equation
∆H Piping =
0.0135 Q L 2 + 0.045 Q L .
Q.8 Slurries are most conveniently The flowrate (in m3/h, rounded off
pumped by a to the first decimal place) of water
[GATE–2014] pumped through the above
(A) Syringe pump
pipeline is______
(B) Vacuum pump
(C) Diaphragm pump [GATE–2016]
(D) Gear pump

Q.9 Match the following

GROUP I GROUP II Q.11 In a venture meter, ∆P1 and ∆P2
(P) Turbulence (1) Reciprocating are the pressure drops
Pump corresponding to volumetric
(Q) NPSH (2) packed Bed flowrates Q1 and Q2. If Q2/ Q1 =2
(R) Ergun (3) fluctuating , then ∆P2 / ∆P1 equals
Equation Velocity [GATE–2017]
(S) Rotameter (4) Impeller (A) 2 (B) 4
(T) power (5) Vena
Number Contracta (C) 0.5 (D) 0.25
[GATE–2014]
Q.12 Pitot tube is used to measure
(A) P-III, R-II, T-IV [GATE-2018]
(B) Q-V, R-II, S-III (A) Liquid level in a tank
(B) Flow velocity at a point
(C) P-III, R-IV, T-II (C) Angular deformation
(D) Q-III, S-V, T-IV (D) Vorticity
Q.13 A venturimeter is installed to
measure the flow rate of water in a
178 mm diameter (ID) pipe. The
throat diameter is 102 mm. The
differential pressure measured
using a manometer is 154.3 kN/m2.
The data given are: discharge
coefficient 0.98; water density
1000 kg/m3.
The volumetric flow rate of water
(in m/s) is ______

[GATE-2018]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A D C D A D A C A 48.9 4 B 0.148
 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (A) Q.5 (A)

Given : h atm =10.3 m
Q.2 (D) h v =3 m
h f =2 m
hl = 5 − 2 = 3 m
NPSH= h atm − h v − h f − h l
= 10.3 − 3 − 2 − 3
= 2.3 m
So Option (a) is correct

Q.6 (D)

Q.7 (A)
Q.3 (C)
Equivalent Diameter = 4 × Hydraulic Radius Q.8 (C)
 c/s Area 
= 4×  Q.9 (A)
 Wetted Parameter 
 BH  Q.10 (48.92)
= 4×  
 2(B+H)  ∆H PUMP =43.8 − 0.19 Q
=
2BH ∆H Piping =
0.0135 Q L 2 + 0.045 Q L
(B+H)
The pump head to compensate for
So Option (c) is correct
head loss due to friction
43.8 − 0.19 Q = 0.0135 Q 2 + 0.045 Q
Q.4 (D)
0.0135 Q 2 + 0.235 Q − 43.8=0
Capacity is proportional to n
0.235 43.8
Head is proportional to n2 Q2 + Q− =0
0.0135 0.0135
− (17.407 ) ± (17.407 ) − 4 (1)( −3244.44 )
2

Q=
2 (1)
− (17.407 ) ± 115.24
Q= = 48.92 m3 / h
2
 π
= = ( 0.178) 0.02488 m 2
2
Let a1
4
Q.11 (4) π
= =( 0.102 ) 0.00817 m 2
2
a2
4
Now, P = ρ g h

h=
(154.3×10 ) =15.72 m
3

103 ×9.81
1 2 ∆P CD a1 a2 2 gh
V= Vol. Flow rate ( Q ) =
D 
4 ρ
a1 2 − a2 2
1−  2 
 D1  0.98 × ( 0.02488 )( 0.00817 ) × 2 × 9.81×15.72
Q=
Q=AV 103 × 9.81
  m3
  Q = 0.148
 s
π 1 2 ∆P 
Q = D22  
4   D2 
4 ρ 
 1 −   
  D1  
Q ∝ ΔP
2
ΔP2  Q 2  2
=  =2 =4
ΔP1  Q1 

Q.12 (B)

Q.13 (0.148)
Given: CD = 0.98