TEACHERS’ EDUCATION PROGRAM

CPE
PED I

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

STUDENT LEARNING MODULE 3.1

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
(BEHAVIORAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY/
PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY)

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

Botolan, Zambales

NOTE:
Do not write anything here. Write your answers on separate sheets provided at the back matter of this Student
Learning Module.

Module 3|Page 1
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan Zambales
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.pcbzambales.com
Contact #: 0949 155 3113

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ENGAGE Activity 1: True or False 3
EXPLORE Activity 2: Prove Me 3
Developmental Theories 4-5
EXPLAIN Behavioral Child Development Theory 5-13
Cognitive Development Theory 13-17
ELABORATE Activity 3: Describe Me 18
EVALUATE Application 18
REFERENCES Electronic References 18
ANSWER SHEETS 19-20

COURSE OUTLINE
PRELIM COVERAGE
TIME FRAME MODULE NO. TOPICS
Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and
Week 1 Module 1
Approaches
Week 2 Module 2 Issues on Human Development
Week 3-5 Module 3 Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
Week 6 Module 4 Learner-Centered Psychological Theories

OVERVIEW
The course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current
research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of the learners
and
Z shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each developmental level.

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth and
learning. But why do we study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of
development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior,
understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

Enjoy learning despite this COVID-19 pandemic!

Module 3|Page 2
 TITLE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
(BEHAVIORAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY/
PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY)

LEARNING At the end of this module, you are expected to:

• differentiate classical and operant conditioning;
OUTCOMES • describe each stage of cognitive development; and
• appreciate these developmental theories on the growth and
development of a person and how these theories are applied in the
classroom.

ENGAGE Activity 1. True or False

Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong. Write your answer
on your answer sheet.

1. According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of
environmental influences.
2. Classical conditioning is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for
behavior.
3. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
4. During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
5. At age 12 and up, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people.

EXPLORE Activity 2. PROVE ME

Briefly answer the following.

How did the environment affect your behavior as a:

a. son/daughter

b. student

c. friend

Module 3|Page 3
 EXPLAIN

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Child development theories focus on explaining how children change and grow over the course of childhood.
Such theories center on various aspects of development including social, emotional, and cognitive growth.

The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have personal experience with
development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as they
do.

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age, family relationships, or
individual temperaments? Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to
understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of child development have arisen
to explain various aspects of human growth.

I. FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Illustration by Joshua Seong, Verywell

Module 3|Page 4
II. ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

Verywell / Joshua Seong

III. BEHAVIORAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviorism rose to become
a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on
observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific discipline.

According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of environmental
influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs
purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is
based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories
deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli,
and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to
internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally
occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and
punishment to modify behaviors.

What Is Classical Conditioning?

A Step-by-Step Guide to How Classical Conditioning Really Works

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in
psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning
is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus.

Module 3|Page 5
Verywell / Joshua Seong

Classical Conditioning Basics

Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist at all, it had a tremendous influence
over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.2

Behaviorism is based on the assumption that:

• All learning occurs through interactions with the environment

• The environment shapes behavior

Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic
experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was
salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (food),
the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.3

How Classical Conditioning Works

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to become familiar
with the basic principles of the process. Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two
stimuli resulting in a learned response.4

Three Basic Phases of Classical Conditioning

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will
automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally
occurring stimulus.

Module 3|Page 6
During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response
(UCR).4 For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response
(the UCR).

At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is
paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:

• The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a
response.4 For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very
hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
• The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus.4 In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.

In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response. A
neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously
neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has
now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus
that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response.4

In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a
whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple
times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the
sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

The during conditioning phase involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus
alone will come to evoke a response even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is
known as the conditioned response (CR).4

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the
conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

In the after conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response.
Key Principles

Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some
of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the disappearance
of a response. These elements are important in understanding the classical conditioning process.

Module 3|Page 7
Five Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened.5 During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers
a response without any learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a
behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned
stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired.

For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell.
You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response
has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone.

Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to
make sure the behavior is well learned.

2. Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical

conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.6

For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a
whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of
hunger.

However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned
stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

3. Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of

extinction. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response.7

For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing
the behavior and the response eventually becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the
conditioned stimulus is not presented, you suddenly ring the bell and the animal spontaneously
recovers the previously learned response.

If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur
very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

4. Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after
the response has been conditioned.8 For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the
sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to stimuli that are similar to the
conditioned stimulus.

In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small child was conditioned to
fear a white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus generalization by also exhibiting fear in response
to other fuzzy white objects including stuffed toys and Watson's own hair.

Module 3|Page 8
 5. Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.9

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to
tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is able to
distinguish between these stimuli, they will only respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented.

Classical Conditioning Examples

It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates both in
experimental and real-world settings.

Fear Response

John B. Watson's experiment with Little Albert is a perfect example of the fear response.10 The child
initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds,
the child would cry when the rat was present. The child's fear also generalized to other fuzzy white
objects.

Prior to the conditioning, the white rat was a neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was the loud,
clanging sounds, and the unconditioned response was the fear response created by the noise.

By repeatedly pairing the rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus)
came to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).

This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single
pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog)
can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).

Taste Aversions

Another example of classical conditioning can be seen in the development of conditioned taste
aversions. Researchers John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed this phenomenon when they
observed how rats that had been exposed to a nausea-causing radiation developed an aversion to
flavored water after the radiation and the water were presented together.11

In this example, the radiation represents the unconditioned stimulus and the nausea represents the
unconditioned response. After the pairing of the two, the flavored water is the conditioned stimulus, while
the nausea that formed when exposed to the water alone is the conditioned response.

Later research demonstrated that such classically conditioned aversions could be produced through a
single pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

Researchers also found that such aversions can even develop if the conditioned stimulus (the taste of
the food) is presented several hours before the unconditioned stimulus (the nausea-causing stimulus).11

Why do such associations develop so quickly? Obviously, forming such associations can have survival
benefits for the organism. If an animal eats something that makes it ill, it needs to avoid eating the same
food in the future to avoid sickness or even death.

This is a great example of what is known as biological preparedness. Some associations form more
readily because they aid in survival.12

In one famous field study, researchers injected sheep carcasses with a poison that would make coyotes
sick but not kill them. The goal was to help sheep ranchers reduce the number of sheep lost to coyote
killings.

Module 3|Page 9
 Not only did the experiment work by lowering the number of sheep killed, it also caused some of the
coyotes to develop such a strong aversion to sheep that they would actually run away at the scent or
sight of a sheep.

What Is Operant Conditioning and How Does It Work?

How Reinforcement and Punishment Modify Behavior

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that

employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. 1

For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward.
When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn
to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab
animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in
natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.

Verywell / Joshua Seong

The History of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally
hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.1 As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really
necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested,
we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. The ideas
of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles of classical

Module 3|Page 10
conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background
and train them to be anything he chose.2

Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how
the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we
exhibit every day.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what
he called the law of effect.3 According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are
more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be
strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody
laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future.

If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely
to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by
reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely
to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you
will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher
scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Types of Behaviors

• Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your
hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have
to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
• Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur
spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence
whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences
of that action make up an important part of the learning process.

While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not
account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater
importance.

Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on
operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, often referred to today
as a Skinner box. The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained
a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.

In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The device
recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read by looking at
the slope of the line.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise
or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is
a positive reinforcer.
Module 3|Page 11
 2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of
a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once
you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively
reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an

unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior
is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can
influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and how
often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the
timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors
were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:4

1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs.

Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs
very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a
specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only
after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase
as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been
delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior
after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction
rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This
schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also
tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing
homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or
promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:

• After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience. This acts as
a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he performs the
behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer.
• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not have to
take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students
are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
• If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance in
front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it less likely that you will finish
projects late in the future.
Module 3|Page 12
 • A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone for
the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken
away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior. Operant
conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the
application of a negative outcome. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they
talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

IV. PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how
these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world.

Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of cognitive development.

Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child
development: Children think differently than adults.2

His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states.
It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's
intellectual development.

• Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's
knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors
are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
• Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to use language.
During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
• Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children gain a better
understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events but have
difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
• Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability
to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic
planning also emerge during this stage.

The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but
also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

• Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as
they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously
held ideas to accommodate new information.

Module 3|Page 13
 Illustration by Joshua Seong, Verywell

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific
paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came
when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their
famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his
own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were
not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was
one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older
children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both
qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities.2 In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

Module 3|Page 14
The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs
through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids
interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time
and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling
and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget
also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor
stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside
of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
very concretely about the world around them.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other
people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child

Module 3|Page 15
the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the
other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will
likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup
is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid.
Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might
think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique
to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and
an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential
solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage
of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process;
that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process
through these four stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Important Concepts

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.

Module 3|Page 16
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schemas

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas
are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience
has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose
then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations.

What Role Do Schemas Play in the Learning Process?

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The
process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with
our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the
animal into the child's dog schema.

Assimilation and Jean Piaget's Adaptation Process

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a
process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a
result of new information or new experiences.5 New schemas may also be developed during this process.

The Role of Accommodation in How We Learn New Information

Equilibration

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is
achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.3

Module 3|Page 17
 ELABORATE Activity 3: Describe Me

Give what is being asked for.

Select one of the four stages of Cognitive Development and give the major characteristics
and developmental changes of such stage.

EVALUATION

How is the statement below applied in the teaching and learning process?

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain

a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought to the next.

References

https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068

https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859

https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088

Module 3|Page 18
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan Zambales
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.pcbzambales.com
Contact #: 0949 155 3113

CHILD ADOLESCENT LEARNING AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

MODULE 3.1

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

(BEHAVIORAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY/
PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY)

NAME: SCORE:
COURSE/ YR&SEC: DATE SUBMITTED:
NAME OF INSTRUCTOR: CHARLIE T. CARREON

ENGAGE: Activity 1. True or False

Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong. Write your answer on your answer sheet.

1. According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of
environmental influences.
2. Classical conditioning is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for
behavior.
3. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
4. During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
5. At age 12 and up, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people.

EXPLORE: Activity 2. PROVE ME

Briefly answer the following.

How did the environment affect your behavior as a:

a. son/daughter

b. student

c. friend

Module 3|Page 19
ELABORATE: Activity 3: Describe Me
Select one of the four stages of Cognitive Development and give the major characteristics and
developmental changes of such stage.

EVALUATION:

How is the statement below applied in the teaching and learning process?

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain

a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account
for new knowledge (accommodation).

FEEDBACK/ RECOMMENDATION/S:

Module 3|Page 20