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PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF VSP IN HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION

Article · September 2006

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Okechukwu Obiegbu Benard Odoh

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 PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF VSP IN HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION
Odoh, B. I. and O. L. Obiegbu

Department of Geology and Exploration Geophysics, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki, P.M. B 058,Presco
Ebonyi 480001 Ebony State Nigeria. Tel. +234-8037240806 and +234-8036732858,
Email- [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The principles behind VSP is the simultaneous recording of both upgoing and downgowing wave
fields by the downhole geophone using various VSP techniques such as zero off-set ,off- set,
walkaway and above, crosshole, 3-D and 4-D VSPs. Acquisition, processing and interpretation of VSP
data are essential in hydrocarbon exploration. Application of VSP in hydrocarbon exploration are
employed in AVO studies, structural interpretation, seismic stratigraphic exploration and delineation
of petroleum reservoirs and other geologic features etc.

Keywords: upgoing, downgoing and profiling.

Principles
Simultaneous recording of both upgoing and downgoing wave fields by the downhole geophone
requires some discussion of the principles involved. In figure 1(b), examples of some possible
upgoing and downgoing events are displayed. For convenience and clarity, upgoing events are to the
left of the well, downgoing are to the right. Furthermore, only two geophone locations are shown,
again separated for convenience in illustrating the concept. In reality, more events than those shown
are possible. Figure 1(a) is the simple impedance model for this hypothetical well. Figure 1(c) shows
the VSP generated from this model as a function of the depth of the well versus one-way time.

Figure 1: Basic concept of upgoing and downgoing wave fields; (a) impedance model, (b)
ray geometry, (c) Vertical Seismic Profiling.( Reprinted from Butler, K. E. 1996).

The upgoing events shown consist of two simple primary reflections and one multiple.
The downgoing events shown consist of the direct arrival and one downgoing multiple. In
Figure 1(c), the first arrivals are on the left-most line increasing in time with depth; i.e.,
from upper left to lower right. Changes in slope on this line indicate changes in velocity in
the subsurface. Primary upgoing events [P1, P2 in figure 1(b)] intersect this line of first
arrivals and proceed toward the upper right on the graph.

Vertical seismic profiling techniques

Check shot surveys: Check shot measures direct travel times from source to receiver, with no
reflection along the way. This provides a measure of seismic velocity near the well and relates seismic

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time to well depth. The first arrivals or first breaks recorded on the seismic trace are picked to deliver
the time to depth information (Christie et. al 1995).

Zero– offset VSP: In zero offset, the source is located directly above the receivers (figure 3 a).
Here, the primary events are symmetric to the first arrivals, and together with the first arrivals, have
typically a "V" shape. Primary reflection P1 illustrates the time-depth tie necessary for correlation.
Figure 1, shows the important fact that upward-traveling multiple events cease as soon as the
geophone is located below the last reflector involved in its generation. The primary reflection and all
the multiples in its tail have their last bounce on that reflector; thus, when the geophone is below that
reflector, primary and upgoing multiple reflections in the tail can no longer be recorded. This
multiple, or reverberant, is henceforth only present in the downgoing wave below this point. Upgoing
events that terminate within the data permit the recognition of the origin of a multiple ( Butler, K .E.
1996). Below is a first arrival time depth curve from a zero-offset curve.

Figure 2: A first arrival time depth curve from the zero offset VSP ( Coulombe, A. C, 1993).
Offset VSP: Here (figure 3 b),a single surface source is positioned at a substantial distance, termed
“offset” from the well. This shifts the reflection points away from the well and extends the subsurface
coverage, helping to detect faults for example. (Christie et. al 1995). Another type of VSP related to
the offset VSP is the multi-offset VSP
(fig.3 g).

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Figure 3: Various methods for acquiring vertical seismic profiles ( oil field glossary Schumberger,
2007).

Walk away and walk-above VSPs: Walk away VSP entails a receiver array of five to seven
geophones collect data from multiple surface source location along a line that extends from the well
each line usually has hundred of source positions. Reflections from each horizon below the geophone
offer an umbrella- shaped coverage of the formation along side and beneath the well. On the other
hand, walk away VSP is some where between single source and walk above VSP. Walk above VSP is
the VSP in deviated and horizontal wells. In this technique, a source may be positioned directly over
the receiver to map a deeper reflector and to map a deviated well onto a seismic section (fig. 3c
and 3 d).

Synthetic VSP's: The synthetic VSP is rapidly becoming a valuable aid in studying the behavior
of upgoing and downgoing wave fields with acoustic impedances obtained from borehole logging.
Whereas the synthetic seismogram models a layered earth as seen from the surface, the synthetic VSP
is a study of seismic events as a function of depth. It also allows the interpreter of VSP's to gain a
better understanding of the complexities of interacting wave fields and gives more confidence in
interpretations.
In calculating synthetic VSP's, one should incorporate the various multiple events. Upward- traveling
multiples are reflected an odd number of times, downward-traveling multiples are reflected an even
number of times (figure 1). For upward-traveling multiples, a so-called first- order multiple would
have been reflected three times, a second order multiple five times, etc. By analogy, a first-order
multiple for downgoing waves has been reflected twice, etc.
For a synthetic VSP, the earth model is divided into equal travel time layers. The total seismic
response for the layered system can be computed from the individual contributions of upgoing and
downgoing waves at the individual interfaces for all the layers in the model. Multiples up to a given
order can be included with overall attenuation as a function of reflection losses. The proper choice of
input wavelet again becomes important if one attempts to match a synthetic with a real VSP. It is

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noted that the real VSP may be contaminated by random and coherent noise, difficult to reproduce
with a synthetic. In order to illustrate the principles and the effects illustrated above, a simple model
and the synthetic VSP calculated from it are shown in figure 4. The velocity contrasts in the model are
rather large to accentuate the effects discussed above. Velocities are seen to range from 1,500 to
6,100 m/s. Density was held constant
(Butler, K .E. 1996).

Figure 4 : Simple synthetic vertical seismic profiling illustrating effects of multiples

(Butler, K .E. 1996).

Cross hole VSP: To make a detailed study of the reservoir, one may wish to use a hole–to-hole
configuration with source in one borehole and the detectors in a nearby hole. If the holes are close
enough, it may be possible to use short seismic wavelength and to achieve very high resolution with
the technique. Frequencies in excess of 400Hz can be obtained.

3D VSPs and 4D VSPs: 3D VSPs allow high resolution imaging to augment surface obstacles,
such as platforms and near surface observations, such as shallow gas zones. It opens up the possibility
of time lapse or 4D seismic surveying. (Christie, et. al 1995). These time lapse VSPs are being
extensively used as a reservoir monitoring tool. As in 4D surface seismic technique, measurements of
acoustic energies through the earth are made at time intervals and the changes in amplitudes and other
seismic attributes compared with other data and interpreted to reflect changes in nature of the
reservoir over the time period.

VSP Acquisition, Processing and Interpretation

A successful vertical seismic profiling investigation requires a high degree of both skill and
technique (Balch et al, 1984). The following points is used in VSP data acquisition, processing and
interpretation.

Acquisition
There are various acquisition processes which include field procedures such as planning,
seismic source and downhole tools all of which are used in getting data from the field. Field
operational problems are unavoidable but necessary provision are made to combat them when they

4
arise. Such problems include tool slippage, creep and poor detector coupling, weak signals, near
surface reverberation, ghosting and tube waves.

Processing and Interpretations

Only very little can be achieved with the raw field data. Detailed and extensive computer
processing of the acquired field data is necessary. It is usually necessary to compensate for changes in
source waveform, source offset location, reverberations, multiples, and other variables. Computer
processing of the data usually yield parameters such as spectral analyses, transfer functions, and
impedance log estimates which are easier to relate to important rock properties than field data.
Interpretation is the final and most important part of the survey since this determines what value the
VSP survey adds to field ( Lee and Balch, 1983). Interpretative processing is also good practice and
has been embraced by several operators. Since each VSP dataset is unique, different processing is used
for 2-D or 3-D component data as explained below.

Field record

Demultiplexing

Edit

Stacking

Shot static correction

Frequency analysis and band pass filtering

Wavelet shaping

Amplitude analysis

Multi-channel velocity filtering

Downgoing wave train deconvolution

Vertical stacking

Transfer function

Computation

Impedance log estimation

Display

Figure 5: Shows an illustration of various steps in VSP data processing (after Lee and Balch, 1983).

Processing of three component data

The sequence for processing 3D VSP is similar to that for 2D data discussed above. The
processing for a 3-D data include:

Data preprocessing: This includes loading and verification of the navigation or geographical
survey data for each shot location and the display of the data for each receiver level and for each of
three components for quality control purposes.

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Triaxial projection: To acquire data rapidly, a tool with multiple triaxial geophone “shuttles”
is deployed in the well. However, each shuttle can have a different, unknown orientation in the
borehole, and this orientation may change if the tool is moved and clamped at a new level. Thus,
waves arriving from one direction, say a reflector, may have a different appearance on each receiver.
Triaxial projection converts the data from the recording geometry to the geometry of the arriving
waves, to make the data suitable for processing.

Wave field Separation: The energy arriving at the geophone consists of energy arriving from
above overprinting the energy reflected from the target formations below. Wave field separation
discriminates between this “downgoing” and “upgoing” energy in the received wave field. This is
achieved by velocity filters, which enhance the coherency of events aligned with a given apparent
velocity relative to the receiver geometry. The same technique may be used to separate compressional
from shear waves, since they travel at different velocities. A popular method for wave field separation
is called parametric wave field decomposition.

Deconvolution: The earth at discontinuities causes reflections and create unwanted additional
seismic events called multiples, and it attenuates higher frequencies more than lower frequencies,
producing signals with both desirable and undesirable information. The process of deconvolution,
remove the unnecessary signals so that only signals related to reservoir features remain. Through
deconvolution, the recorded downgoing wave field is converted into an idealized downgoing wave
field. The filter that accomplishes this is then applied to the upgoing wave field to produce signals that
would have been recorded if the experiment had been perfect.

3D-VSP migration: This allows the repositioning of events and focusing of energy to their
appropriate positions in space some of which include possible ray paths and travel times are computed
by tracing rays through a velocity model of the subsurface. In contrast to the migration of 3D surface
seismic data, the VSP migration algorithm includes specific provision for the different source and
down hole receiver geometry. The migration applied to 3D VSPs is a full 3D migration, meaning it
considers the positions of reflectors in the imaged volume, rather than in a series of 2D slices. The
migration algorithm is based on the seismic wave equation, and applied prestack, to preserve true
reflection amplitudes.

Application of VSPs in hydrocarbon exploration

The most convincing argument for the continued use of VSP is that the method really works .
VSP has been a requisite tool especially in the exploration, development and monitoring of oil and gas
fields. The most important benefits of running a VSP survey are reduced risk and excess expenditure
and as well it reduces risk by measuring the seismic velocities accurately in the well bore; this allows
accurate time to depth conversion of the surface seismic data. VSP is also used to reprocess older
seismic data to yield more clearly interpretable results. VSP is used in various application or aspects of
exploration in hydrocarbon search. These applications include:

Amplitude versus Offset (AVO) Studies: The presence of gas in a reservoir causes an
anomaly in the P-wave to S-wave velocity ratio, which can be seen on AVO and acoustic impedance
attribute displays. The ability to predict lithology and fluid types from surface seismic is greatly
affected by the quality of prestack seismic amplitudes, which are often degraded by noise and
multiples. Also, prestack processing can also affect true amplitudes. Correct reflection amplitudes and
phase are preserved in the VSP processing because we know the phase and amplitude of the
downgoing wave field just before reflection and this help in removing any variations caused by an

6
anomalies in the wave field data. This leaves only those effects due to the reflection characteristics of
the reservoir in the upgoing wave field. As an example, if the amplitude of the trough increases with
offset, it corresponds to the AVO response of type III gas sand. The results can be used for the 3D
surface seismic processing, not only of the target but, if the AVO time window was large enough, of
several other reflectors as well. A bulk phase rotation can be measured and applied to the surface
seismic data; then the prestack amplitude calibrated and balanced to match the VSP
measurements.(Ireson et al , 1996). A practical use of this technique is taken from the BP- operated
Forties Field in the UK sector of the North Sea.

Application in surface seismic and borehole data: VSP techniques permits the
measurement of the actual seismic energy at closely space levels within the bore hole. As a result of
this , it is applied in the correction of the actual seismic event inclusive of the changes it undergoes,
multiples and attenuation of the actual recorded depths. (Batch, et. al 1984). This leads to great
confidence in correlating surface seismic data with borehole data and hence the subsurface geology.

Uses in seismic stratigraphic exploration: One attribute of VSP is that it measures the
acoustic properties of target stratigraphic horizons. In seismic stratigraphic studies, significant lateral
changes in the VSP data and the surface seismic data checked for changes. Since VSPs are used to
estimate attenuation, it is related to important rock properties such as sand percentage and shale ratio.
Also , VSP can be obtained from several wells in a field and used to map the geology of the areas by
careful correlation with available surface seismic data. (Batch, et. al 1984).

Structural Interpretation: Offset VSP have been widely used to image reflecting horizons
since reflected events come from different reflecting points on the horizon. For each trace the distance
from the reflecting point to the borehole is estimated as a function of time. The trace is divided into
binned segments which are corrected to two-way travel time and segments within each been summed
(Balch et al, 1984). The method called VSP-CDP stack may be used to image faults. Extra care is
taken when dealing with dipping reflectors since most of the reflections may come from the opposite
side of the well from the source. The dips of horizons may be estimated using an iterative procedure
on data from well logs and the VSP data or by summing the VSP data along computed arrival time-
depth curves (Balch et al, 1984). Walkaway VSP surveys supply high-resolution seismic structural
detail around boreholes. An example of a case history is in the Morgan’s Field, Texas.

Analysis of seismic problems: Structural and stratigraphic details can be obtained from VSPs
in areas where acquisition of good quality surface seismic data are not possible. Many areas of
exploration interests exist within such areas. VSP allows investigation of the nature of the wave field
within the earth and thus help in determining for poor quality data.

Delineation of petroleum reservoirs and other geologic features: When the

source-detector paths are such that the generated seismic waves encounter pools of oil or gas, a
distinctive amplitude loss is observed. This is because there is the tendency for oil and gas bearing
horizons to absorb seismic energy. The direct wave amplitude (and attenuation) is plotted as a function
of depth. The fall off in the first arrival amplitudes in the VSP data can thus be used as an indication of
the presence of petroleum in target horizons. VSPs when used, delineates reservoirs and also assist in
the interpretation of amplitude anomalies in the surface profiles in the area (Balch, 1984).

Preparation of Synthetic VSPs: Synthetic VSPs are useful aids in the interpretation of field
recorded data and for planning proposed VSPs (Balch, 1984). The synthetic VSP is rapidly becoming

7
a very important tool in studying the behavior of the upward and downward going waves with the
acoustic impedances obtained from borehole logging. Whereas the synthetic seismogram models the
earth as seen from the surface, the synthetic VSP is a study of seismic events as a function of depth. It
is often not possible to obtain a good match between the synthetic seismogram from sonic logs and the
surface seismic data making the synthetic VSP which would usually give a match with surface seismic
data an indispensable tool. Synthetic VSPs also allows the interpreter gain an understanding of wave
field interactions. In calculating synthetic VSPs, multiples up to a given order are incorporated and the
earth model divided into travel time layers. The total seismic response is then computed from the
individual contributions of the upgoing and downgoing waves. Careful choice of the input wavelet
must be made. Multiples and their origin are easily identified on synthetic VSPs (EM 1110-1-1802,
1995).

Seismic Tomography: Image reconstruction by seismic tomography is one of the more promising
frontiers of VSP. It involves adapting the principles of medical tomography to earth investigations; the
implementation of the principle is complex though. It entails determination of the distribution of
velocities and/or absorption coefficients in a slice of earth bound by two wells that would produce
observed travel times and absorptions. Ray path curvatures are usually taken into account when
carrying out such seismic reconstruction. (Balch, 1984).

Salt-Proximity VSP: Salt-proximity surveys, which originated in the 1930s, are recorded in wells
adjacent to salt domes with the source placed immediately above the salt dome. Travel-time
information and the polarization of first arrivals are measured by the downhole geophone at various
locations in the well. Knowing the location of the receivers and the source, the velocity of the salt, the
velocity of the sediment layers and the distance to the top of the salt dome, a travel-time inversion may
be performed to determine the locations of points where rays exit the salt dome. This allows a profile
of the salt dome to be constructed, which may be used to determine the lateral distance from the well
to the salt, and also to identify possible overhangs and potential traps along the salt flank (figure 3e).

Seismic While Drilling (Drill-Noise VSP): The drill bit seismic technique,
sometimes called drill-noise VSP or seismic-while-drilling, reverses the geometry of the source and
receiver and is a useful way of acquiring borehole seismic for real-time display. Seismic while drilling
(SWD) becomes even more powerful when integrated with conventional VSP data. The drill bit itself
is the seismic source, and receivers are placed on the surface. Clever processing can image the
reservoir or a drilling hazard, such as overpressure, as the well is being drilled. Ordinary VSPs can
give an indication of such features below the current total depth of the well, by flagging zones of
anomalous acoustic impedance. But VSP data can be converted to depth only as far down as the
lowest borehole receiver level. After that, results are in time, and so not very useful to drillers. The
drill bit seismic technique can complement the time-based acoustic impedance profile derived from
VSPs by providing a means to measure the time-depth information below the bottom VSP receiver
level as the drilling progresses. Thus, the depth index of the acoustic impedance prediction can be
continuously updated at the well site, showing clearly when a suspected drilling hazard is about to be
hit. It is noted that the signals received by the surface hydrophones (and/or geophones) are the sum of
direct and reflected noise from the bit: energy travels directly to the surface, or radiates downwards,
ahead of the drill bit, and is reflected by impedance contrasts in the earth
(fig. 3f).

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 Conclusion
VSP survey are important in clearly delineating exploration objectives. Though very well costly, it still
remains an indispensable tool. It helps in improving seismic data from area with poor seismic data and
resolves subtle structural and stratigraphic features. VSP surveys will be performed more often in the
future as explorationists strive to get the most useful and cost effective seismic data available in a
prospect area to help make critical drilling decision. It is envisaged that since vertical seismic profiling
meets challenges of most exploration programmes, it would be come a standard logging tool as we
strive to meet the accuracy demand of modern day challenges.

Acknowledgements
My special thanks to Mr. Odoh, Benard. I for his support in reviewing and improving the manuscript.
Also, I acknowledge all who’s works, including figures were used to write this paper.

References
Balch, A. H., and Lee M.W., 1984. Vertical Seismic profiling: Technique, Applications and Case
Histories, International Human Resources Development Corporation, Publishers Boston. pp 1-56.

Butler, K. E. , 1996. Measurement of the seismoelectric response from a shallow. Geophysics Vol. 61,
pp. 1769- 1778.

Christie P. et al, 1995. Borehole Seismic Data Sharpen the Reservoir Image: Oilfield Review, (Winter
Eds), pp 18-31.

Coulombe, A. C. , 1993. Amplitude versus offset analysis using verstical seismic profiling and well
log data. The crewes project, conosortium for research in elastic wave exploration seismology, 167p.

Ireson, D. , Scott, L, 1996. Seismic integretation: realizing the potential, signals,

e-journals. Schumberger. www.slb.com

Lee, M. . W., and Balch,A.H.,1983. Computer processing of vertical seismic profile data.
Vol. 48, pp 272-287.

www.oilfiled.slb.com: Various methods for acquiring vertical seismic profiles (Oil field glossary,
Schumberger, 2007).

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