Dr Uday Dokras

JAIN ART & Iconography as representing DIVINITY

Jainism

Jainism being a transtheistic religion prescribing non-violence toward all living

beings was originated in the Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BCE. Its
founder Mahavira (c. 540–468 BCE) was born into a royal family but renounced
worldly life to become an ascetic and establish the central tenets of Jainism.

Jainism found favor with the merchant classes and also with several powerful
rulers. Chandragupta Maurya (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320–298 BCE), the
founder of the great Maurya Empire, had succeeded in conquering almost the
entire Indian subcontinent; however he abdicated his throne at the age of 42 to
become a Jain monk. Samprati, also an emperor of the Maurya dynasty and
the grandson of Ashoka the Great (304–232 BCE) also became a Jain. Both
Chandragupta and Samprati were responsible for spreading Jainism in
southern and eastern India.

Jain Architecture

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Jainism has played an important influence on the development of architectural
styles in India. Like Buddhists, Jains participated in Indian rock-cut
architecture from a very early date. Remnants of ancient jaina temples and
monasteries temples can be found all around India, and much early Jain
sculpture is reliefs in these. Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, and the Jain temples
at Dilwara near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan is
a good example of Jain architecture.

Modern and medieval Jains built many Jain temples, especially in western

India. In particular the complex of five Dilwara Temples of the 11th to 13th
centuries at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a much-visited attraction. The Jain
pilgrimage in Shatrunjay hills near Patilana, Gujarat is called "The city of
Temples". Both of these complexes use the style of Solanki or Māru-Gurjara
architecture, which developed in west India in the 10th century in both Hindu
and Jain temples, but became especially popular with Jain patrons, who kept
it in use and spread it to some other parts of India. It continues to be used in
Jain temples, now across the world, and has recently revived in popularity for
Hindu temples.

Palitana Jain Temples-------------------------------------------------Ellora caves

A Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for Jains, the followers

of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and
monasteries, and secular Jain buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of
the place and time they were built. Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in
Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain shrine or temple in
Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical use
in North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna

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Vasahi temples of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word is vasati, it implies an
institution including residences of scholars attached to the shrine.
Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated
temple buildings, normally with a high superstructure, typically a north
Indian shikhara tower above the shrine) and the Ghar Jain temple, a private
Jain house shrine. A Jain temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is
often termed a Tirtha.
The main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula
nayak  A Manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed
[

in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e. stone figures of the main god
of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South and West.

Modern and medieval Jains built many temples, especially in western India.
The earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu
temple plan and monasteries for Jain monks. For the most part, artists in
ancient India belonged to non-denominational guilds who were prepared to
lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. Many of
the styles they used were a function of the time and place rather than the
particular religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to
Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and iconography are specifically
Jain. With some minor variations, the western style of Indian art endured
throughout the 16th century and into the 17th century. The rise in Islam
contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total elimination.

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

Among the earliest Jain monuments are the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves,
located near the city of Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, India. These caves are partly
natural and partly manmade and were carved out as residential blocks for Jain
monks during the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (193–170 BCE). The caves
bear inscriptions and sculptural friezes depicting Tirthankaras, elephants,
women, and geese.

The Dilwara Temples

Built under Chalukya rule in Rajasthan between the 11th and 13th centuries
CE, the Dilwara Temple complex consists of five ornately carved marble
temples, each dedicated to a different Tirthankara. The largest temple in the
complex, the Vimal Vasahi Temple, was built in 1021 and is dedicated to the
Tirthankara Rishabha. Among its most remarkable features are the rang
manda, a grand hall supported by 12 pillars and surmounted by a
breathtaking central dome , and the navchowki, a collection of nine rectangular
ceilings, also richly carved. The pillars in the main hall are carved into the
likenesses of women playing musical instruments and the 16 vidyadevis, or

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goddesses of knowledge; each holds a symbol representing her individual
branch of learning.

Domed ceiling detail: This image shows the interior of a richly carved marble
dome in the Dilwara Temple complex representing Jain Tirthankaras.

Jain Sculpture

Jain sculpture is characterized most often by nude representations of saviors

or deities in meditative postures.

 Jain art is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its

themes and iconography are specifically Jain.
 Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras , or
saviors; the yakshas and yakshinis, or supernatural guardian deities, and
symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which represent peace and
well-being.
 Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet associated with worship in
Jainism; the slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain
worship such as the stupa , dharmacakra, and triratna.
 The colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali, carved in 981 CE out of a
single block of granite and standing 57 feet high, is one of the most sacred
pilgrimage sites for Jain worshipers.

Themes within Jain Sculpture

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The Two Jain Tirthankaras, British Museum: This sculpture represents two Tirthankaras, or
founders of Jainism. On the left is Rishabha, who was the first of the 24 tirthankaras. On the
right is Mahavira, the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and
philosophical system. PIC TO RIGHT Indian Pillar at Ellora which is Jain caves reveal specific
dimensions of Jain philosophy and tradition, vintage line drawing or engraving illustration.

For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to non-denominational

guilds who were prepared to lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu,
Buddhist, or Jain. Many of the styles they used were a function of the time and
place rather than the particular religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is
stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and
iconography are specifically Jain. With some minor variations, the western
style of Indian art endured throughout the 16th century and into the 17th
century. The rise in Islam contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not
result in its total elimination.

Jain iconography mostly has a sage in sitting or standing meditative posture

without any clothes. Popular themes and icons in Jain art include
the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human beings who achieved the ultimate
spiritual salvation and served as role models for
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian
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deities), and holy symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which
symbolized peace and well-being.

Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilization are similar to Jain
images: nude and in a meditative posture. The earliest known Jain image is in
the Patna museum, dated approximately to the 3rd century BCE. Bronze
images of the 23rd Tirthankara, Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince of Wales
Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd
century BCE. A sandalwood sculpture of Mahāvīra was carved during his
lifetime, according to tradition. Later the practice of making images of wood
was abandoned, with other materials being substituted.

Ayagapata

Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet associated with worship in Jainism.

Many of these stone tablets, some dating back to the 1st century CE, were
discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites such as Kankali Tila near
Mathura , India. These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to
Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra, and triratna, and were often
used as offerings or for worship.

The Statue of Bahubali

A colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali at Shravanbelagola, the Jain siddha

(one who has attained spiritual salvation), is located in Karnataka in southern
India. This statue is one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jain
worshipers. The statue was carved in 981 CE out of a single block of granite; it
stands 57 feet high and is completely nude, as is customary in the Jain
tradition.

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The statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali: The 57 foot high Gommateshwara

statue at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, was built in 981 CE.

Jain Illustrated Manuscripts

 Jain illustrated manuscripts were painted on palm leaf and relied on

sharp outlines for effect, becoming progressively more angular and wiry
until barely a trace of naturalism was left.
 The figures are shown in profile, as the full-face view was reserved for the
Jain Tirthankaras . Only a few colors are used, including yellow, green,
blue, black, and red.
 Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras, or
saviors; the yakshas and yakshinis, or supernatural guardian deities,
and symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which represent peace
and well-being.

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 The earliest illustrations were simple icons in small panels, but they
gradually became more elaborate, depicting scenes from the lives of
various Tirthankaras in detail.
 From the 14th century onward, the increased availability of paper
allowed the production of larger and more elaborate Jain illustrated
manuscripts.

Illustrated Manuscripts in the Jain Tradition

A large number of illustrated manuscripts commissioned by members of the

Jain community have survived from between the 1oth and 14th centuries,
representing the Western Indian style of art. Painted on palm leaf, these
illustrations relied on sharp outlines for effect, becoming progressively more
angular and wiry until barely a trace of naturalism is left. The figures are
shown in profile, as the full-face view was reserved for the Jain Tirthankaras. A
common feature of this style is the projection of an eye beyond the face shown
in profile, meant to indicate the second eye, which would not be visible in this
position. Only a few colors are used, including yellow, green, blue, black, and
red. The earliest illustrations were simple icons in small panels, but they
gradually became more elaborate, depicting scenes from the lives of various
Tirthankaras in detail.

Common themes in Jain painting and illustrated manuscript, similar to other

forms of Jain art, include the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human beings who
achieved the ultimate spiritual salvation and served as role models for
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian
deities), and holy symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which
symbolized peace and well-being.

The Tirthankaras

Most of the Jain paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known
as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the Tirthankaras. Rishabha, the first
Tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the
standing position. He is distinguished from other Tirthankara by the long locks
of hair falling to his shoulders. Incidents of his life, such as his marriage and
Indra marking his forehead, are often depicted in paintings; other paintings
show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers, painting a house, weaving,
and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the 24 Tirthankara is
associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in texts such as
Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali, and Pravacanasaarodhara.

Advances Over Time

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The increased availability of paper from the late 14th century enabled artists to
paint more elaborate illustrations. A 15th century manuscript of Kalpasutra, a
Jain text containing the biographies of the Tirthankaras, is particularly
opulent. The text is written in gold and the margins are illuminated with figural
patterns. Paintings in lavish blue, gold, and red, testifying to the wealth of the
patron , often take up an entire page.

Jain Kalpasutra manuscript: This illustration is from a Jain Kalpasutra

manuscript, 1470—1500 CE. It uses opaque watercolor and gold on paper.

In his book the Monolithic Jinas-The Iconography of the Jain Temples of

Ellora, Jose Pereira says that Jain art dwells heavily on the iconography of its
Sages- more than any other art form . This core of iconography dwells on the
Jina as standing or sitting cross-legged- none of which can embrace the robe in
its context of representation.

A Jaina Motif In Indian & Eastern Architecture

By Mr. S. K. Saraswati

Logically and rationally it is not possible, nor desirable, to classify Indian

architectural styles according to their religious affiliations. At the same time,
however, it cannot be ignored that a few of the Indian religious systems
developed some special forms or types of monuments which may be described
to be distinctively their own For instance, one may cite the stupa and the
caitya shrine each of which, as a form of architecture, is known to have
intimate associations with Buddhists religious beliefs and usages. The
Buddhists owed their inspiration for raising stupas to earlier pre-Buddhist
practices. As a form of memorial the stupa was not known to the Jainas. But it
is the Buddhists who particularly selected and adopted it to their own use and
much of the development and elaboration of the design and form of the

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monument in course of time was, in a large measure, due to Buddhist
patronage. It is not surprising, hence, that as a form of architecture the stupa,
had acquired a special and almost exclusive Buddhist connotation. The caitya
shrine is exclusively Buddhist in inspiration, the design and form being, to a
great extent, determined by the needs and exigencies of that particular belief in
the worship of the caitya which was almost universal in the early days of
Buddhism. With the introduction of the image of the Master and the
occupation of its rightful place in the beliefs and rituals of his followers, the
caitya shrine as a form of monument went out of use, the few experiments, to
utilised it to new usage having proved unsatisfactory and unsuitable.

Jainism is still a living faith in India and Jaina patronage has played a not
insignificant part in the history of Indian art and culture. So far as architecture
is concerned, the Jainas are known to have been responsible for the creation of
important groups of temples in different parts of India, some of which (the
Dilwara group, for instance) are justly regarded as outstanding creation. But
Jainism, or for the matter of that Buddhism or Brahmanism, cannot be said to
have developed a particular style of temple exclusively its own. A survey of
Jaina temples in different parts of India would tend to show that basically and
fundamentally they have affiliations with the style or types prevailing in the
regions and periods in which they were erected. The few Jaina temples in
South India have clear affinities with the Dravida temples style of the south.
The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Central Indian expression of the
Nagara temple style. The Dilwara temples, as much as other Jaina temples in
the west, are intimately related to the Western movement of the Nagara style. It
would be futile to separate the Jaina temples as a class apart from the
monuments of other creeds. There are minor variations no doubt, due to the

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exigencies of the beliefs and rituals of Jainism; but such variations are not
fundamental enough to affect their basical relation with the styles and types in
regard to time and space.

A distinctive Jaina inconographic motif, however, seems to have been

responsible for inspiring a rate type of Indian temple, a type that may be found
to have significant reverberations in South East Asia. A four-faced image,
usually known as Chaturmaukha or Caumuha, has been a very popular Jaina
iconographic theme from fairly early times. Such and image has been described
as Pratima Sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the
Christian era. It takes of the shape of solid square obelisk with four images on
its four faces or sides. The image depicted on the four face are usually those of
the four Tirthankaras Risabhnath (Adinatha), the first; Santinatha, the
sixteenth; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third; and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth.
Sometimes, the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces.
This variation, however is immaterial. The name Sarvatobhadrika means
'pleasing' or 'auspicious' from all directions. It is important ot observe that the
Jainas had conceived a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically
expected to be approached from the four directions.

The sanctum cella (garbha-griha) is meant for the enshrinement of the image of
a divinity, and as such is regarded as the holiest of the holies in the entire
temple complex which, not infrequently, assumes extensive proportions.
Almost invariably the garbha-griha consists of a square chamber with a single
entrance facing the image installed inside. A sanctum with a single entrance
generally suits the needs of worship according to the rituals and beliefs of the
different Indian creeds, the majority of the images of the various pantheons
having been conceived for confrontation by the worshippers from one direction
only, i.e., from front. But the four-faced votive object of the Jaina, as the motif
itself suggests, requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with
four entrances on four faces is the most suitable design for the proper
installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the
natural and logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive image conceived by
the Jainas.

In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art

frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations
in the descriptions of the type in the different texts. All texts, however, are
agreed that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple admirably suits
the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika, and it is not
without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying
designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design
seem to go together, one being complementary to the other.

The number of Jaina sarvatobhdrika images of the early centuries of the

Christian era is not small. From Eastern India have been discovered also a

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fairly substantial number of such images of the early mediaeval epoch.
Unfortunately, the shrines in which such images were installed have
disappeared. As already observed, the name sarvatobhadra for the
architectural design appears to have significant relations with the term
sarvatobhadra used for the iconographic motif. The linking together of the two
seems to be not without interest. In this situation it is possible to presume that
the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e., a
shrine without entrances, in the four cardinal directions, in order to suit the
needs of the four-faced votive object that they had evolved. In a manner this
supposition finds confirmation in a number of monolithic votive templets from
Eastern India, now in the State Archaeological Gallery of West Bengal. They
belong to the early mediaeval period and each of them shows four figures of
four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubic block topped by a graceful
curvilinear shkhara, thereby reproducing, in all probability, a shrine with four
entrances confronting the dour figures of the block installed within a cubic
sanctum cella. Such a shrine, i.e., one with four entrances might also have
been employed for installation of a pratima sarvatobhadrika of the early
Christian epoch. The type ;of shrine with four doors on four cardinal faces
appears, thus, to have evolved by the Jainas for the proper installation of their
sarvatobhadrika images at a fairly early date. The Yugadisvara temple at
Ranakpur of the fifteenth centuries may be recognised to be the most elaborate
expression of the simple four-entranced cubical shrine of the Jainas of the
early phases.

Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in

two votive temples, done in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze from
Jhewari (Chittagong District ), both in Bangla Desh. Each of them is in the
form of shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section
having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty
). These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo
the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduces the design of a four
entranced shrine.

It will be useful to mention in this context a few early temples of Burma

consecrated for Buddhist usage. They repeat not only the iconographic motif of
Sarvatobhadrika image but the architectural design of Sarvatobhadra temples
in a clear and explicit manner. In such shrines the iconographic motif in each
case occupies the position of the altar. The earliest of these temples seems to
have been the Lemeythna at Hmawza (Thayetkhettaya - old Srikshetra). The
exact date of this structure is not known. Some scholars would assign it to a
date between the fifth and the eighth century with the inherent probability that
it might have been the earliest of the extant monuments in this old city. In
spite of its battered state it is possible to determine the fundamental features of
its composition,. It is seen to be a cubical shrine with four entrances on its four
main sides, each entrance being further strengthened by two projecting
buttresses flanking the sides. In the interior one finds a solid masonry obelisk

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of square shape occupying the middle of the sanctuary. This obelisk is faced on
four sides by four sculptured figures, each in axial with the entrance doorway
on each of the sides. This obelisk shoots high up to roof and the space between
the obelisk and the walls forms a continuous gallery around. It is not
impossible to find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the
sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of iconographic motif of the
sarvatobhadrika.

The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the
Burmese Buddhists for a long time and several notable monuments of this
order are known to have been erected in the classical phase of Burmese art
and architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda temple at Pagan is one
of the most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A. D.
1091. In course of time there had been elaborations of the design in respect
both of ground plan and elevation. But such elaborations did, in no way, affect
the fundamental concept of the iconographic motif or of the architectural form.
Hence in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces, one finds the square
masonary pile in the centre with four colossal figure of the Buddha in recessed
niches on its four sides. The altar is surrounded by two concentric galleries
communicating with each other and with the approach vestibules and grilled
windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting one another.
Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the niches containing the
sculptures, by projecting dormer windows provided in the superstructure on
the four sides. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of
the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started
with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha images.

In Burman the type is known to have been in use also in respect of

Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung
Kyaung temple, which is the only Brahmanical temple, now existing, among
the hundred of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. It is said to have been built in
A. D. 931 by king Nyaung U. It consists of a nearly square sanctum cella
accommodating in the centre a solid brick column with four large brick images,
possibly of manifestations of Vishnu (as may be known from the sculptures of
his incarnations on the outer walls), on its four sides. Such brick columns with
sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be
recognised, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or
sarvatobhdrika images of the Jainas.

Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due
to their comparatively fair state of preservation it is possible to recognise easily
the correspondences that they bear to the iconographic motif of the Jaina
sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In
the Indian subcontinent at least, two Buddhist temples of the early mediaeval
phase may be suggested to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the
architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key

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position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi
District, Bangla Desh) that was once the great Somapura Vihara founded by
Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the
beginning of the ninth. In the earlier days there was a jaina establishment at or
near the site, as is known from a copperplate grant dated in (Gupta) year 159
(A. D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple had many unusual features including
elevation in successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant ot he
scope of this paper. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist
shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere that the shrine of this
colossal monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a
square column-like pile with projected chambers, one on each of its four sides,
the whole surrounded by a circumambulatory gallery. There is every possibility
that on each of the four sides of the pile an image was installed in the projected
chamber against pile behind thus repeating the motif of the sarvatobhadrika
images of the Jainas. In this instance the ideas might have been derived from a
similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. The above suggestion
gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on
the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. A similar complex, in
fragments, has been laid bare on the site, known as Salban Vihara, on the
Mainamati hills, the complex that can be identified as the Vihara of Bhavadeva,
fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva dynasty of Eaxt Bengal. The remains of the
temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the
above plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati
temple also one finds a square brick column with four projected chambers on
its four sides. The above suggestion about the Paharpur temple that it had
images on four faces of the square pile in the projected chambers seems o be
supported here also by the find of a fragment of a bronze image of the Buddha
in one of its projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an
extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction of these two shrines
gains credibility from the analogy of the Pagan temples noticed above. The
Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for
imitation by the Buddhists.

In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the

worship of Vishnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been followed, and in this
context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any
Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not
infrequently several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing
the four cardinal directions. But in such concepts the iconic theme in each
case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach
only from the front. Such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be
considered, hence, to the parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in
the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to
the Vaikuntha aspect of Vishnu and Brahma. The first of the Brahmanical
triad, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic description.
The treatment in each case in frontal and the few temples that are known to

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have been dedicated to their worship are each known to have one door only in
front. The Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, one of the most important
enshrining and image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu has an entrance in front only. The
Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides,
three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only
entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of
their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or
confrontation from all sides.

In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognised in the

iconographic motif of Shiva-Linga with four faces or four sides commonly
known under the designation of Caturmukha Linga or Caturmukha Mahadeva.
The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in accordance with
the cylindrical from of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of
Caturmukha Linga are known from fairly early times and it is difficult to say
which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced Linga,
is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a
votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A Linga with its
plain and cylindrical shape or a Caturmukha Linga allows confrontation from
four sides and the logical from of a shrine of this order may be expected to have
the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in
the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known to have
been medicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each being
invariably the Linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been
conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha Mahadeva
temple at Nachna Kuthara (Madhya Pradesh) with a Caturmukha Linga as the
votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The
Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings in four sides; but only
that on the east has been treated as the principal entrance to the shrine. The
Aparajita-priccha (circa twelfth century; G. O. S No. CXVI) describes a Siva
temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra
sarvatobhadras-caturdvarah Sivalayah, chapter 134, verse ). As already
observed, this is the logical form that a Linga shrine is expected to have and
this to have been recognised by the followers of Saivism rather late in the
history of this creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha
temple, as we see it today, at Varanasi are each seen to have four doors on four
cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aprajita-prccha.
They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a
Caturmukha Linga in the sanctum cella. Some late mediaeval Siva temples in
Bengal are also known to have four doors, following the sarvatobhadra scheme.
The description in the Aprajita-paccha of a Siva temple as sarvatobhadra
seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility
that in a Siva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the
particular architectural motif conceived and evolved, as observed above, under
Jaina patronage.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
This particularly Jaina motif in architecture, as is apparent from the above
survey, is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and
to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faith, namely
Buddhism and Brahmanism, and territories outside. This survey, more or less
in outline illustrates the need for a fuller investigation in this regard.
https://www.jainsamaj.org/content.php?url=Jaina_Motif_in_Architecture_-

The Concept of Divinity in Jainism[21]

Dr. Kokila Shah
‘Religion is expression of divinity in man’
Jainism  represents sraman current of thought in Indian tradition. It is an
[21]

independent philosophy, a rational religion and an ethical system par

excellence. It does not believe in creator God and yet this religion has well
developed cult, a rich ritual system and marvelous temples. The Jain devotee
worships the Jaina[17][19] image paying homage to Tirthankaras[41]. Here it can
be queried whether it is an atheistic system or not. At the very outset it must
be mentioned that “the atheism of the Jain means denial of a divine creative
spirit”[1] Jainas do not attribute actorship to God. They however
worship Tirthankaras[41]- the ford makers, the enlightened souls besides other
minor deities. God of Jainism[21] is a spiritual Being. Godhood means the
attainment of purity and perfection inherent in every soul[39].
Thus Jainism  may be termed as ‘transtheistic. ’
[21]

It has been a rightly observed that divinity is the principle common to all souls
though not fully developed “The divine character inherent in all beings is called
God[.2] Jainism[21] is polytheistic and denies a creative function of God. There is
no difference between Ataman and Paramatman essentially. The divinity that
dwells in liberation is essentially the same in both. Jainism[21] believes in
godhead, though not in one single God. There is no provision for creator God.
The universe with all its substances, conscious and unconscious is governed
by the laws of Nature Jainism[21] has its own unique concept of divinity which
needs to be appreciated God according to Jaina[17][19] philosophy is the
supreme soul[39] The soul[39] who is omniscient[33], free from all defilements and
preaches reality as it is, is called God.. Faith in the purity of soul[39] is the heart
of Jainism[21]”.[3]It is the foundation of religiousness in Jainism[21] The pure and
perfect soul[39] is worshipped as God. I intend to reinterpret Jain atheism. The
paper highlights the Jain concepts of divinity and its different aspects. The
focus is on the concept of consciousness[11], which is implicit in the Jain view of
divinity.

Aspects of divinity can be explained under the following heads.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
1. Arihantas[6]-Tirthankaras[41]
2. Demi Gods, Yaksa[46] and Yaksis[49] and other goddesses.
3. Paramatman-The pure and perfect soul[39] as God Siddha[38]

Jainas worship Tirthankars[42] -the ford makers besides, other minor

deities. Jaina[17][19] hymns are popularly known as stotras written in praise
of Tirthankars[42] or deities, whose images are usually found in the Jain
iconographic art, Jain devotionalism is directed towards invocations to deities.
The stotra literature gives glimpses into the Jain pantheon, which had
developed at the end of 5th century A. D.

The Yaksa[46] and Yaksinis the attendants of 24 Tirthankars[42] constituting a

class of divine beings called Sasan Devatas - the guardian deities were given a
venerated position next to Tirthankars[42] in the Jain Pantheon. Gradually, their
position was elevated and most of them even attained the status of
independent deities called demi-gods. Various temples are also erected to
worship them.

The word ‘god’ requires some clarification here. Jains believe that
the Arihantas[6] and the Tirthankaras[41]-Siddhas[50] are the highest forms of
divine gods. However there are other gods and goddesses which are sometimes
called devas[14] and devis respectively. Devas[14] and devis are beings who live
in on different astral planes. These are regarded as much lower forms than
the Tirthankaras[41] and the Arihantas[6]. Some times a common word ‘god’ is
used to describe Tirthankaras[41] and those devas[14]. Jains worship idols of
Jinas who are adored as supreme souls. They have also started worshipping
other deities, Such as yaksa[46] yaksinis who are the devotees of Jin[23].

Jain scriptures contain details of the universe and various types of living
beings. There are four main categories of living beings: Hellish beings, animals,
humans, and Demi-gods or Devas[14]. One is born in to all sorts of existence.
After following the three fold right path of liberation one achieves moksa[30].

There are, it is said, four types of Devas[14]. Bhavanpati, Vyantar[45],

Jyotiska and Vaimanika. The four classes of gods are: mansion-dwelling, forest,
luminous and empyrean.[4] References to these gods are found in Jain
devotional literature.[5] The images of deities are found in Jaina[17]
[19]
 iconographic art. Besides this there are large number
of Kuldevis, Vidyadevis  like Sarasvati  etc, Yaksa  and Yaksinis attendan
[44] [37] [46]

ts of 24 Thirthankaras. There are numerous Jaina[17][19] temples[20] in which

images of gods and goddesses could be found along

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 Dr Uday Dokras
with yaksa[46] and yaksinis. Sasan devas[14] and devtas always serve
24 Tirthankaras  and they are Samyak drushti i.E. they are pure soul . They
[41] [39]

help spiritual aspirant and devotees of Jinas.

The twenty-four Yaksas[47] are associated with twenty-

four Tirthankaras . Each yaksa  is the attendant deity of Tirthankara[40] and
[41] [46]

there is female yakisni on the left side of the Jina[24] idol. For example: For

twenty- third Tirthankara[40] Parsva yaksa[46] and Padmavati[34] yaksini[48].

The concept of Arihant[4] and Siddha[38], taksa, yaksini[48], demi gods etc. need

to be understood.

Jains are clear about the concept of divinity and the words
like Tirthankaras[41] and Arihantas[6] are used for the highest form of souls. The
other gods are also worshipped because they are believed to help ordinary
humans with their extra ordinary power. In Jain stotra literature we find praise
of Tirthankars[42] and also the names of certain Demi-gods and demi-godesses
called Sasan Devatas, yaksa[46] and yaksini[48].

Now, Jainism[21] does not acknowledge existence of God as a Creator and

administrator. God is not the first cause or the architect of the universe as
things of the world are eternal Therefore; there is no necessity of any cause for
bringing them in to existence. Jainas are antitheists in this sense. The
assumption of God as a creator, according to Jainism[21], is ontologically
irrelevant and logically inconsistent. The universe is beginning less and it is
eternal. Hence, any conception of God as creator is unnecessary. It might,
however, be added here that the kind of religiousness of Jainas is essentially
different from the conception of divinity found in theistic religious systems of
world. Jainism[21] does not deny the existence of Paramatman, the highest
state of soul[39] which is the state of divinity, the supreme soul[39].

The outstanding characteristic of the concept of God is omniscience it

represents. Jainism[21] subscribes to the view that omniscience is possible
when soul[39]’s perfection is achieved. It must be noted that the concept of
divinity is manifested in the state of perfect soul[39], the state of
pure consciousness[11].

The concept of Arihant[4] and Siddh as divine beings need to be emphasized.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
The very first line of Jain prayer is Namo Arihantanam - obeisance
to Arihantas[6] - embodied perfect beings-who are devoid of
destructive karmas[25]. Then the Siddhas[50] are saluted who are devoid of
eight karmas[25]. Arihanta[5] and Siddha[38] are the supreme object of devotion.
They represent Deva[13] or Divine Being. Arihantas[6] are liberated while alive
while the Siddhas[50] enjoy disembodied liberation. Both of them have
actualized divinity potential in themselves. They are hence, supreme objects of
devotion. It is clear that devotion to jina[24] implies that Jainas believe in
adoration of virtues, not person. There are two kinds of Arihantas[6].

1. Tirthankara[40]
2. Non-Tirathakara         

Tirthankara[40] preach and propagate religious doctrines in order to guide the

mundane soul[39] and his sermons are worded by gandharas - while
those Arihantas[6] who are not Tirthankaras[41] are not the Propounder of religion
however, they are omniscient[33].

In Jaina[17][19] Texts, Arihanta[5] and Siddha[38] are called ‘God’. Yet as

neither Arihanta[5] nor Siddha[38] are creators or destroyers of the world. The
spiritual aspirant receives no favours from them. They are however worshipped
as they possess certain qualities. The aspirant pray to them worship them and
meditate on them. They are rather ideals and provide inspiration to common
souls. Jinbimpratistha-idol installation is one of the Jain rituals.

Here God means any soul[39], which is, free from attachments and aversions
and is omniscient[33].

Arihanta[5] is absolutely dispassionate - beyond attachment and

aversion. Arihanta[5] is Jina[24]-spiritually victorious soul[39]. Siddhas[50] are the
beings free from all karmas[25] the highest form of souls.

The main images in temples are those of the Tirthankaras[41]. There are other
Gods and Goddesses. The other Gods are worshipped because they are believed
to help ordinary humans with their magical powers. These Gods are

1. Gods living in different parts of the universe.

2. Gods and Goddesses who are called attendant deities.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
           
Although Jainism[21] does not admit God as the world creator, it does admit a
perfect human being who is omniscient[33], Paramatman is revealed, giving
supreme bliss to saints who are established in equanimity[15]. It is called God
Every soul[39] through self-exertion and spiritual development can attain
godhood. Thus there are many gods in Jainism[21] is characterized as
polytheism.

Metaphysically, Jainism[21] is realistic pluralism. Its first principle is that the

universe is a system by itself, governed by laws inherent in its very
constitution. In this connection, it has been rightly observed that “Jainism is
not a theistic system in the sense of belief in the existence of God as the
creator and Ruler of the universe and still the highest being in the Jaina[17]
[19]
 view is a person and not impersonal quality less being”[6]

In the worldly cycle of birth’ and death based on the force of Karmas[25], there
can be no place for the creatorship of God. Further, Jainism[21] contends that a
man can achieve freedom from karmas[25] by his own efforts and attain
perfection. Jainism[21] believes in Rebirth and liberation. If by atheism is meant
an unbelief in life beyond, then a Jaina[17][19] is not an atheist. The term ‘God’
has highest spiritual significance in Jain philosophy[18]. Thus, “Jainism has no
quarter for a creative God, accommodating at the same time the concept of
Godhead”.[7]

Soul[39] and God and consciousness[11]:

The concept of god is essentially related to the concept of soul[39]

[10]
 in Jainism[21]. Soul[39] has been described in Jain scripture in grand terms. It
is the repository of excellent characteristics, It is the supreme substance
among the substances and the superb spiritual principle among
principles. Soul[39] is that which knows thinks and feels. Jainism[21] believes in
independent existence of soul[39]. According to Jainism[21], ontologically, there
are six eternal substances. A substance is that which has origin destruction
and permanence. “That is, substance is permanent, though it undergoes
changes. The continuity of the substance in all its modifications is a fact,
which is emphasized here by the Jaina[17][19] philosophers. Soul[39] is an eternal
spiritual substance. Consciousness[11] is its essential quality “[8] Jainism[21] is
very explicit on this point.

According to Acharya[1] Kundakunda[26][2] “self is an eternal substance which

possesses pure knowledge and pure perception”. [9] Pure soul[39] possesses

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 Dr Uday Dokras
infinite knowledge, infinite bliss and perception. Pujyapada[35] has pointed out,
“Divinity is the natural attribute of the soul[39]”.[10] Human being by destruction
of all karmas[25] i. e - the soul[39] being released from all connections with matter
regains its pure state and becomes divine - parmatman. The soul[39] is this state
experience bliss which is unique and interminable.[11]

The road to ‘Godhood” Paramatman or divinity consists in making efforts.

When impurities of self are removed, pure manifestation of consciousness[11] is
possible. All souls wandering in the world are in bondage due to karma-
impurities. Soul[39] in its natural state free from Karmas[25] is Pure soul[39] and
that state of soul[39] is godhood. Thus Godhood is the natural state
of soul[39] which is not revealed when soul[39] is covered by Karmas[25].
When soul[39] realizes Its real nature, It becomes Perfect and that is God- God is
none other than soul[39]. It is interesting to note that, thus soul[39] is not a part
of God, It does not dissolve into God after liberation but it becomes God.

The journey from Internal self to the transcendental self is reached through the
medium of moral and spiritual disciplines. Jainism[21] subscribes to the view
that the soul[39] and God are essentially the same. Soul[39] has to be evolved
into Paramatman by progressive realization. The spiritual aspirant can attain
enlightenment by observing spiritual disciplines. Obviously; the Jain
conception is ‘The Atman[7] is really Paramatman’ [12] to be more
precise, soul  is divine inherently. This innate divinity is obscured by karmic
[39]

particles and hence the divinity is dimmed but not destroyed because, the
essence is indestructible. [13]

From the Jaina[17][19] point of view substance remains the same though changes.

That is, change is compatible with identity. Jainism[21] believes in relation of
Identity in difference. The conception of supreme soul[39] is metaphysical
possibility and is spiritually significant.

Conclusion:

1. Thus in Jain tradition, there is rejection of theism in the sense that no

creator God is there.
2. At the same time, the Jainas believe in the theory of inherent divinity of
self. Divinity consists in self perfection. Soul[39] has to be evolved
into Paramatman by progressive realization.

In brief, ‘God is the symbol of all that is morally excellent, he is not the creator
or the preserver or the destroyer. He is not in any sense responsible for the

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 Dr Uday Dokras
destiny of the universe or the individual. Nor is he capable of bestowing grace
upon the devotee’. In this connection the Jaina[17][19] philosophers have made a
distinction between the states of the soul[39], which is significant.

Bahiratman - external soul[39] It consists in the identification

of soul  with body  and external things.
[39] [8]

Antaratman - internal self - when inwardization takes place - there is freedom

for the sense of otherness- self has discriminative knowledge. That is,
knowledge of the distinction between soul[39] and body[8].

Parmatman - the pure and perfect self which is free from all the impurities
of karmas[25] It is pure consciousness[11] which is God. Thus we have not to seek
God there in the world outside, nor is God to be found in the ‘dark corner of a
temple’-soul[39] the spirit itself is God, the Perfect soul[39].

The Jains recognize divinity in Man and Godhood for them is the attainment of
purity and perfection inherent in every soul[39]. A couple of observations about
Jain view are remarkable.

1. Idea of God as a creator is logically illegitimate.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
2. Jain atheism makes moral life and religious experience quite
meaningful. The soul[39] alone is responsible for all that, it does.

Incidentally, it may not be out of place to mention Jain belief in other Gods and
Goddesses - the attendant deities of Tirthankaras[41] who are believed to help
ordinary humans with their power. These demi-Gods provide protection to
humankind. Besides there are Goddesses of wisdom, knowledge etc. and
guardian deities like Cakresvari, Padmavati[34] etc. There are Gods in heaven
and Gods in hell. There is also mention of some Indras. They are kings and the
gods of the different heavens. The deities are meant for fulfillment of material
desires. They can be called popular Gods. Tirthankaras[41] are the Gods
completely free from attachment and aversion so they will not favour any one.
They are the Pure souls residing in ultimate bliss. They are not to grant any
wishes or fulfill desires. Perhaps Later on the cult of worshiping other gods and
Goddesses had begun within the Jain faith.

To sum up, Jain Concept of soul[39][10] and God has far reaching implications. It

needs to be noted that philosophy of the Jainas is not essentially founded on
any particular writing or external revelation but on the unfoldment of
spiritual consciousness[11] which is the birth right of every soul[39].

Jain view of divinity has certain elements of mysticism. It is spiritualism per

excellence as consciousness[11] is primary reality. It can be related to
contemporary findings about consciousness[11]. I would like to conclude by
offering “Salutations to souls supreme”.

Footnotes
1:Hopkins, E. W, The Religions of India, Munshiram Manhoralal, New Delhi[12]
[32]
. 1970 p. 285.
2:VR Gandhi[16] Religion and philosophy of the Jainas. Jaina[17]
[19]
 International Ahmedabad[3] 1993.
3:Joshi, L/M Facts of Jaina[17][19] Religiousness in Comprarative Light, L. D
Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad[3], 1981, P. 41.
4:Tattvarthsutra 4/1
5:Kundakunda[26] Bhaupahund 1.
6:Gopani, A. S An Article ‘Thus spake Mahavir[27]. ’ Mahavira[28] and his
Teachings[29], Bhagvan Mahavira[28] 2500th Nivran Bombay[9], 1977. P207.
7. Tattvarthsutra V. 30
8:Ibid II-8
9:Kindakunda Niyamsar, 102.
10:Pujyapada[35]-Istopades. 2
11:Kundakunda[26] Pravancansar-1-13
12:Tatia Studies in Jain philosophy[18] P. V Research Institute Varanasi[43].

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 Dr Uday Dokras
13:Raynade, B Jaina[17][19] Philosophy, Bharatiya Prakashan Delhi[12]. 2002P.
202
https://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=75112

The Concept of Divinity in Jainism: Where was God before the creation of the
Universe?

NewsGram Desk

Jainism is a rational, ethical religion with an independent philosophy. The

religion has a rich ritual system, a well-developed cult and beautiful temples. It
does not believe in a divine creative spirit. Instead, they pay homage to
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 Dr Uday Dokras
Tirthankaras- the ford-makers. It believes that God is a spiritual being. It
believes that the attainment of perfection and purity in the soul leads to
Godhood.The divinity is achieved through the path of salvation or the Moksha
Marga. ‘Aptha’ is the lord who reveals the path of salvation to the mankind out
of his love and mercy for the humans suffering in the samsara. The Idea of God
is illegitimate in Jainism. The soul is responsible for moral life and religious
experience.

Jainism has its own sole idea of divinity. Philosophy is the supreme soul. There
is no difference between ‘Aatman’ and ‘Paramatman’. The Universe is governed
by the laws of nature. God is nothing but an omniscient soul which teaches
reality as it is and is free from all forms of defilements. It is the foundation of
the beliefs of Jainism. God is not the architect of the Universe. The assumption
of God as a creator is logically inconsistent. The Universe is eternal. So, the
concept of God as the creator of the universe is irrelevant. However, it does not
deny the existence of a supreme soul which is the state of divinity i.e.,
Paramatman.

The Jain writings are very contemptuous of the idea of God as the creator of
the universe.Where was God before the creation of the Universe? Where is he
now? How can an immaterial God create something that is material? If God is
perfect and complete, how did the will to create the universe arise in him? No
single being had the potential to build the entire universe. No form of God is
essential to keep the universe in existence.Jains believe in the attendant deities
of Tirthankaras who help humans with their power. There is Goddess of
wisdom and knowledge and also other guardian deities. There are Gods in
heaven and in hell. There are kings and Gods in heaven. However, the Kings of
heaven are still subject to reincarnation and karma. Gods of Tirthankaras are
free from attachment and hatred. They are just pure souls living in paradise.
They don’t grant wishes.

Basically, it has the following forms of divinity:

1. Paramatman: The pure and perfect soul

2. Demi Gods, Yaksa and Yaksis
3. Arihantas- Tirthankaras

The philosophy of Jainism is based on the spiritual consciousness and not on

any form of external revelation or any particular writing. The concept of God in
Jainism subscribes to the opinion that omniscience is possible when the soul
has reached the pinnacle of purity and perfection. The concept of divinity is
viewed in the state of pure consciousness and perfect soul. Jains do not believe
in a God who must be obeyed. There is not a god for judgment. The quality of a
human’s life is determined by his karma. Karma has nothing to do with
spiritual beings; it is a physical process.

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 Dr Uday Dokras
Every soul can be a perfect soul. These perfect souls do not have any interest
in human beings. They don’t have a desire for anything. Thus, these Gods don’t
demand any worship. They can’t intervene in the human world.In many ways,
the Jain attitude to perfect beings is both intelligible and satisfying, and
sufficient to demolish the claim that Jainism is an atheistic religion. If one
wants to argue that Jainism is atheistic then one must do so from a specific,
limited, idea of what it means to be divine.The beliefs of Jainism regarding the
perfect souls are satisfying and comprehensible. Only a person with a limited
idea of the meaning of divinity will disagree with the beliefs of Jainism.

– by Diksha Arya of NewsGram. 

https://www.newsgram.com/the-concept-of-divinity-in-jainism-where-was-
god-before-the-creation-of-the-universe

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