Lecture # 5

Development, Anchorage, and

Splicing of Reinforcement

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021 1

 Introduction
➢ Tensile forces in reinforcement is a
result of force transfer (bond) between
two materials
➢ If bond disappears, bar pulls out of
concrete; T= 0
➢ Bond stress balances tension force
difference

𝜋 𝑑𝑏2
𝑓𝑠2 − 𝑓𝑠1 = 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜋 𝑑𝑏 ℓ
4
∆ 𝑓𝑠 𝑑𝑏
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
ℓ

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021 2

 Average Bond Stress in a Beam
Force in reinforcement at a crack
𝑀
𝑇=
𝑗𝑑
Length of beam between two cracks
∆𝑇 = 𝜋𝑑𝑏 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑏: diameter of bar, or
∆𝑇 ∆𝑀
= 𝜋𝑑𝑏 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 but ∆𝑇 =
∆𝑥 𝑗𝑑
∆𝑀
= 𝜋𝑑𝑏 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑗𝑑
∆𝑥
from free-body diagram
𝑉 𝑉
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = σ 𝑜𝑗𝑑
𝜋𝑑𝑏 𝑗𝑑
Σ𝑜: sum of perimeters

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021 3

 Bond Stress in Axially Loaded Prism
➢ At crack: max reinforcement stress 𝑓𝑠
➢ Between cracks, portion of load is transferred
to concrete by bond
➢ Bond stress proportional to slope of steel stress
diagram at same point
➢ Stress in steel at each of cracks is equal at
each crack
➢ The force is equal, so that Δ𝑇=0
• average bond stress 𝜇𝑎vg= 0
• For 𝜇𝑎vg = zero, “total” area under bond-
stress diagram between two cracks must
be zero
➢ Bond stresses shown in Fig. d are true bond
stresses or in-and-out bond stresses (transfer
stress into the bar and out again), to distinguish
them from average bond stresses

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 True Bond Stress in a Beam

➢ Between support and nearest load

there is shear
➢ There are in-and-out stresses but the
total area under the bond-stress
diagram is NOT zero
➢ Average bond stress is equal to
∆𝑓𝑠 𝑑𝑏
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
4ℓ

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Bond Stress in a Pull-Out Test
➢ Get bond strength of bars by pull-out test
(heavily used prior to 1950; nowadays
various types of beam tests)
➢ Note: This test is not absolute
representative of bond strength of beams
because concrete is not cracked
→ no in-and-out bond-stress distribution

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Mechanisms of Bond Transfer
❑ Smooth Bar
➢ bond by adhesion; friction small
➢ when bar is stretched Poisson’s ratio causes
reduction in diameter
➢ reduction of adhesion and friction
➢ consider anchorage/embedment in concrete
(mechanical anchorage: hooks, nuts, washers,
etc.)
❑ Deformed Bar
➢ bearing stress on bar ribs
➢ longitudinal and radial component of stress
circumferential tensile stress
➢ internal crack pattern around bar (cracks
parallel to bar)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Mechanisms of Bond Transfer
➢ Although adhesion and friction are
present when a deformed bar is
loaded for the first time, these
bond-transfer mechanisms are
quickly lost, leaving the bond to be
transferred by bearing on the
deformations of the bar.
➢ Equal and opposite bearing stresses
act on the concrete. The forces on
the concrete have both a
longitudinal and a radial
component.

➢ The latter causes circumferential tensile stresses in the concrete around the
bar. Eventually, the concrete will split parallel to the bar, and the resulting
crack will propagate out to the surface of the beam.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Mechanisms of Bond Transfer
➢ The splitting cracks follow the reinforcing bars along the bottom or side
surfaces of the beam.
➢ Once these cracks develop, the bond transfer drops rapidly unless reinforcement
is provided to restrain the opening of the splitting crack.

➢ The load at which splitting failure develops

is a function of
1. the minimum distance from the bar to
the surface of the concrete or to the
next bar; the smaller this distance, the
smaller is the splitting load;
2. the tensile strength of the concrete
3. the average bond stress; as this
increases, the wedging forces increase,
leading to a splitting failure.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Mechanisms of Bond Transfer
➢ The splitting cracks tend to develop along the shortest distance between a bar
and the surface or between two bars.
➢ The circles touch the edges of the beam where the distances are shortest. If
the cover and bar spacing are large compared to the bar diameter, a pull-out
failure can occur, where the bar and the annulus of concrete between
successive deformations pull out along a cylindrical failure surface joining the
tips of the deformations.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development length

Development length ℓ𝒅
The shortest length of bar in which the bar stress can increase from zero to yield
strength 𝑓𝑦
➢ If ℓ < ℓ𝑑 bar will pull out of concrete block
➢ ℓ𝑑 different for tension and compression
➢ under tension bar subjected to in-and-out bond stresses
𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑏
ℓ𝒅 =
4𝜇 𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑢
where
𝑓𝑦 = 𝑓𝑠1 − 𝑓𝑠2
𝜇𝑎vg,u : average bond stress at bond failure in beam test

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Basic Tension-Development Equation

❑ ACI Committee 318 & ACI 408 bond committee simplified the design
expressions.
❑ A basic expression was developed for the development length, ℓ𝒅 , given in
ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.4 as
3 𝑓𝑦 𝜓𝑡 𝜓𝑒 𝜓𝑆 𝜓𝑔
ℓ𝑑 = 𝑐𝑏 +𝐾𝑡𝑟 𝑑𝑏 ACI Eq. 25.4.2.4a
40𝜆
𝑓𝑐′ 𝑑𝑏

where
Ψ𝑔 is a reinforcement grade factor (ACI Code Section 25.4.2.5).
𝑐𝑏 +𝐾𝑡𝑟
the confinement term ≤ 2.5 to prevent pull-out bond failures, and
𝑑𝑏

the length ℓ𝒅 ≥ 12 in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Basic Tension-Development Equation
where
ℓd is the development length, in.
db is the bar diameter, in.
𝜓𝑡 is a bar-location factor given in ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.5
𝜓𝑒 is an epoxy-coating factor given in ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.5
𝜓𝑆 is a bar-size factor given in ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.5
𝜓𝑔 is reinforcement grade factor
l is the lightweight concrete factor defined in ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.5.
cb is the smaller of
(a) the smallest distance measured from the surface of the concrete to the center
of a bar being developed, and
(b) one-half of the center-to-center spacing of the bars or wires being developed
is pacing or cover dimension, in.
Ktr is a transverse reinforcement factor given in ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.4.
ACI code Section 25.4.2.2 requires that for 𝑓𝑦 ≥ 80,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, enough transverse
reinforcement shall be provided such that 𝐾𝑡𝑟 ≥ 0.5 𝑑𝑏

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Simplified Tension-Development length Equations

❑ Substitute lower limit values of 𝑐𝑏 and 𝐾𝑡r for common design cases
❑ For deformed bars and deformed wires, ACI Section 25.4.2.3, Table 25.4.2.3 defines
the development length as:

Case 1

The “code minimum” stirrups and ties

mentioned in case 1 correspond to the
minimum amounts and maximum spacing
specified in ACI Code Sections 9.6.3 &
9.7.6.2.2
The length ℓ𝐝 computed using above equations shall not taken less than 12 in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Simplified Tension-Development length Equations

❑ Substitute lower limit values of 𝑐𝑏 and 𝐾𝑡r for common design cases
❑ For deformed bars and deformed wires, ACI Section 25.4.2.3, Table 25.4.2.3 defines
the development length as:

Case 2

The length ℓ𝒅 computed using above equations shall not taken less than 12 in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length

Bar-Spacing Factor, cb is the smaller of two quantities:

1. In the first definition, cb is the smallest distance from the surface of
the concrete to the center of the bar being developed.
ACI 318-19 Code Table 20.5.1.3.2 gives the minimum cover to
principal reinforcement as 1.5 in.
For a beam stem not exposed to weather, with #11 bars enclosed in #3
stirrups or ties, cb will
(1.5-in. cover to the stirrups + 0.375-in. stirrup) + (half of the bar
diameter, 1.41/2 = 0.71 in.) = 2.58 in. (A typical value is
approximately 2.5 in.)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓd , modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5
Bar-Spacing Factor, cb is the smaller of two quantities:
2. In the second definition, cb is equal to 1.5 of the center-to-center
spacing of the bas.
ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.2.1 gives the minimum clear spacing of
parallel bars in a layer as db but not less than 1.0 in.
For #11 bars, the diameter is 1.41 in., giving the center-to-center
spacing of the bars as
1.41 1.41
+ 1.41 + = 2.82 𝑖𝑛.
2 2

The smaller value for cb = 1.41 in. = 1.0 𝑑𝑏

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓd , modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5

Bar-Location Factor, 𝝍𝒕
Horizontal reinforcement with > 12in of fresh concrete
below it at the time the bar is embedded: top
reinforcement.
Water and mortar migrate vertically upward through
concrete
➢ collecting at underside of reinforcing bars
➢ might weaken bond significantly
(beams w/ depth >12in; in walls w/ cast in lifts >12in)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓ𝒅 modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5

Coating factor, 𝝍𝒆
Larger radial force component in epoxy-coated bars
➢ splitting at lower longitudinal force (factor: 1.5);
for larger spacing splitting failure risk reduced
(factor: 1.2)

Note: Product 𝜓𝑡 𝜓𝑒 ≤ 1.7

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓd , modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5

Bar-size factor, 𝝍𝒔
Comparison w/ experimental tests showed that a
shorter development length is possible for smaller
bars (comment: surface area)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓd , modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5

Lightweight-aggregate-concrete factor, l
Any lightweight-aggregate concrete is used 0.75
When normal-weight concrete is used 1.0

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length
For the calculation of ℓd , modifications factors shall be in accordance with Table 25.4.2.5

Transverse reinforcement index, 𝐾𝑡r

ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.2.4 allows to set 𝐾𝑡r = 0.0 to simplify
40 𝐴𝑡𝑟
𝐾𝑡𝑟 = ACI Eq. 25.4.2.4b
𝑠𝑛
Where
𝑨𝒕𝒓 = total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement within the spacing s, which
crosses the potential plane of splitting along the reinforcement being developed within
the development length
s = maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement within in
n = number of bars or wires being developed or spliced along the plane of splitting.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Factors influencing development length

Excess Flexural Reinforcement

➢ If the flexural reinforcement provided exceeds the amount required to
resist the factored moment, the bar stress that must be developed is
less than fy
➢ In such a case, ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.4.10 allows ℓ𝒅 to be
𝑨𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
multiplied by ( ).
𝑨𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅

➢ It is recommended to ignore this factor, thus ensuring that the steel is

fully anchored.

Note:
The modified development lengths shall not be less than the respective minimums
specified in ACI 318 Sections 25.4.2.1(b), 25.4.6.1(b), 25.4.7.1(b), & 25.4.9.1(b).

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Compression-Development Length
➢ Compression-development length shorter than tension-development length
(since force transferred to concrete by bearing at the end of bar)
➢ No end-and-out bond stress (since no cracks in section under compression
➢ ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.9.1:
Development length ℓ𝒅𝒄 for deformed bars and deformed wires in
compression shall be the greater of
(a) Length calculated in accordance with ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.9.2
(b) 8 in.

➢ ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.9.2:

ℓ𝒅𝒄 shall be the greater of a & b using the modification factors of Section
25.4.9.3:
𝑓𝑦 𝜓𝑟
a. 𝑑𝑏
50 𝜆 𝑓𝑐′

b. 0.0003𝑓𝑦 𝜓𝑟 𝑑𝑏

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Compression-Development Length

ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.9.3

For the calculation of ℓ𝒅𝒄

modification factors shall be in
accordance with Table 25.4.9.3.
except ψr shall be permitted to
be taken as 1.0

ℓ𝒅𝒄 may be reduced for excess reinforcement, as defined in Code Section 25.4.10.1
However, the resulting ℓ𝒅𝒄 > 8 in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development Lengths for Bundled Bars
➢ Where a large number of bars are required in a beam or column, the
bars are sometimes placed in bundles of 2, 3, or 4 bars (ACI Code
Section 25.6.1).
➢ The effective perimeter for bond failure of bundles is less than the total
perimeter of the individual bars in the bundle.
➢ ACI Code Section 25.6.1.5 accounts for this by requiring that
individual bar development lengths be increased by
• 1.2 times for bars in a 3-bar bundle and
• 1.33 times for bars in a 4-bar bundle.
➢ To determine the required cover and spacing values for use in ACI
𝑐𝑏 +𝐾𝑡𝑟
Code Table 25.4.2.3, the in ACI Code Eq. 25.4.2.4(a), and the
𝑑𝑏
cover and spacing values for the ye factor in ACI Code Table 25.4.2.5
• the value of db shall be taken as the diameter of a hypothetical
single bar having the same area as the bundle.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development Lengths for Coated Bars

➢ In bridge decks and parking garages, epoxy-coated or galvanized

reinforcement are frequently used to reduce corrosion problems.
➢ Epoxy-coated bars are covered by the factor ye in ACI Code
Table 25.4.2.5.
➢ There is no modification factor for zinc-coated bars.
➢ The zinc coating on galvanized bars can affect the bond properties
via a chemical reaction with the concrete.
➢ This effect can be prevented by treating the bars with a solution of
chromate after galvanizing.
➢ If this is done, the bond is essentially the same as that for normal
reinforcement.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
Standard Dimensions

➢ In the event that the desired tensile stress in a bar cannot be developed by bond
along the length of the bar alone, it is necessary to provide special anchorage at
the ends of the bar, usually by means of a 90° or a 180° hook or a headed bar
➢ The dimensions and bend radii for hooks have been standardized in
ACI 318-19 Code sections 25.3.1 and 25.3.2 as follows:
1. A 90° bend + 12 𝑑𝑏 at the free end of the bar
2. A 180° bend + 4 𝑑𝑏 > 2.5 𝑖𝑛. at the free end of the bar

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
Standard Dimensions

3. For stirrup and tie anchorage only:

a) For # 3, 4 & 5 bars, a 90° bend + 6 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 3.0 𝑖𝑛. at the free end of the bar
b) For # 6, 7 & 8 bars, a 90° bend + 12 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 3.0 𝑖𝑛. at the free end of the
bar
a) For # 8 bars and smaller, a 135° bend + 6 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 3.0 𝑖𝑛. at the free end of
the bar
b) For # 8 bars and smaller, a 180° bend + 12 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 2.5 𝑖𝑛, at the free end of
the bar.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
Standard Dimensions
ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.3.2.
➢ Minimum inside bend diameters for bars used as transverse reinforcement and
standard hooks for bars used to anchor stirrups, ties, hoops, and spirals shall
conform to Table 25.3.2.
➢ Standard hooks shall enclose longitudinal reinforcement.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
Standard Dimensions

➢ When welded wire reinforcement (smooth or deformed wires) is used for

stirrups or ties, the inside diameter of bend should
≥ 4 wire diameters for deformed wire > D6
≥ 2 wire diameters for all other wires.
➢ Bends with an inside diameter < 8 wire diameters should ≥ 4 wire diameters
from the nearest welded intersection.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
➢ Forces acting on a bar
❑ Bond on surface
❑ Bearing on concrete inside hook
❑ Bond on surface
❑ Bearing on concrete inside hook. Bar
tends to straighten out. Compressive
stress on outside of tail. If hook is
too close to side face: crushing &
concrete and spalls off

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Hooked Anchorages
Behavior of Hooked Bars
➢ Hooked bars resist pullout by the combined actions of bond along the straight
length of the bar leading to the hook and anchorage provided by the hook.
➢ Tests indicate that the failure of hooked bars in tension is accompanied by
breakout of the concrete in the direction of the tensile force and, to a lesser
degree, splitting of the concrete parallel to the plane of the hook.
➢ Splitting failure becomes more prevalent as the cover decreases and the bar
size increases.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Standard vs 180° Hook - Stress

The amount of slip depends on, among other things, the angle of the
bend and the orientation of the hook relative to the direction of concrete
placement.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Hooked Anchorages
Development of Hooked Bars in Tension
ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.3
❑ No difference between 90° and 180° hooks or between top and bottom hooks
❑ Development length ℓdh for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard
hook shall be the greater of (a) through (c):
𝑓𝑦 𝜓𝑒 𝜓𝑟 𝜓0 𝜓𝑐
a) 𝑑𝑏1.5 with 𝜓𝑒 ,𝜓𝑟 , 𝜓0 , 𝜓𝑐 and 𝜆 given in Section 25.4.3.2
55 𝜆 𝑓𝑐′

b) 8 𝑑𝑏
c) 6 in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Hooked Anchorages
ACI 318-19 Section 25.4.3.2
For the calculation of ℓdh, modification factors shall
be in accordance with Table 25.4.3.2.
Factors ψc and ψr shall be permitted to be taken as
1.0.
At discontinuous ends of members, Section
25.4.3.3 shall apply.

The confining reinforcement factor ψr indicates

closely spaced ties at or near the bend portion of a
hooked bar are most effective in confining the
hooked bar.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Headed Bars in Tension
➢ The ACI Code contains development length
provisions for the use of headed reinforcing bars in
tension.
➢ The development length for a headed bar generally
will be shorter than that for a hooked bar, so it may
be advantageous to use headed bars where there is
limited space available to develop bars in tension.
➢ The transfer of force from the bar to the concrete is
assumed to be achieved by a combination
• Bond-transfer mechanism along the straight
portion of the bar and
• Bearing stresses acting against the head.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Headed Bars in Tension
➢ The heads can be attached to one or both ends of the bar by welding or
forging onto the bar, by internal threads on the head mating to the bar, or by a
separate nut used to secure the head onto the bar.
➢ ACI Code Section 20.2.1.6 states that headed deformed bars shall conform to
ASTM A970, including Annex Al requirements for Class HA head
dimensions.
➢ The expression for the development length of a headed bar in tension, ℓ𝒅𝒕 , is
given in ACI Code Section 25.4.4.2 as

➢ The minimum development length for a headed bar in tension ℓ𝒅𝒕 ≥

𝟖 𝒅𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟔 𝒊𝒏.
➢ However, #11 or smaller bars anchored should be used in normal-weight
concrete.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Headed Bars in Tension
Values for c Factors, ACI Code Table 25.4.4.3
𝜆𝑒 epoxy-coating factor;
• 1.0 for uncoated or zinc-coated (galvanized) bars and
• 1.2 for epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated bars.
Ψ𝑝 parallel reinforcement factor;
• 1.0 for #11 and smaller bars with transverse reinforcement (placed parallel to
the headed bars being developed and within 8 db of the centerline of those
bars) having an area 𝐴𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0.3𝐴ℎ𝑠 , which is the area of the headed steel
bars.
• 1.0 for #11 and smaller bars with lateral spacing between headed bars ≥ 𝟔𝒅𝒃
• 1.6 for other conditions.
Ψ0 bar location factor;
• 1.0 for #11 and smaller bars terminating inside a column core or having side
cover ≥ 𝟔𝒅𝒃 normal to the plane of head and 1.25 for other conditions.
Ψ𝑐 concrete strength factor;
• 1.0 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≥ 6000𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑓𝑐′
• 0.6 + for 𝑓𝑐′ < 6000𝑝𝑠𝑖
15,000

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design of Headed Bars in Tension
➢ For beam-column joints, the confining reinforcement
Att consists of the total area of stirrup or tie legs
oriented parallel to ℓ𝒅𝒕 that are located within 8 db of
the headed bar(s) and distributed toward the center of
the joint
➢ Confinement reinforcement oriented perpendicular to
the development length has been shown to be
ineffective.
➢ ACI Code Section 25.4.10.2(d) does not permit the calculated headed-bar
𝐴𝑠(𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑)
development length to be reduced by the ratio of 𝐴
𝑠(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑)
➢ ACI Code Section 25.4.4.1 also requires that
the net bearing area under the head, 𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑔 ≥ 4 𝐴𝑏
the clear cover for the bars > 2 db
the clear spacing between bars being developed > 3 db
➢ It should be noted that these spacing and cover requirements apply to the bars and not
the heads.
➢ Thus, to avoid potential interferences, it may be necessary to stagger the locations of
the heads on adjacent bars.
(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021
Basic Development Length

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Cut Off of bars
Why Bars Are Cut Off
At midspan, the moments are positive, and reinforcement is required near the bottom face of the
member. The opposite is true at the supports.
For economy, some of the bars can be terminated or cut off where they are no longer needed.
Four major factors affect the location of bar cutoffs:
1. Bars can be cut off where they are no longer needed.
2. There must be sufficient extension of each bar, on each side of every section, to develop the
force in that bar at that section.

3. Tension bars, cut off in a region of moderately

high shear force cause a major stress
concentration, which can lead to major inclined
cracks at the bar cutoff.
4. Certain constructional requirements are specified
in the code as good practice.
Bar cut offs should be kept to a minimum
particularly in zones where the bars are stressed
in tension.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Effect of Shear on Bar Forces and Location of Bar Cut-Off
Points
➢ The inclined cracking increased the tension force in the flexural reinforcement.
➢ From flexure theory, the tensile force in the longitudinal reinforcement is T=M/jd.
➢ If jd is assumed to be constant, the distribution of T is the same as the distribution of
moment. The maximum value of T is between the loads.
➢ Assume the beam was idealized as a truss.
➢ The presence of inclined cracks has increased the force in the tension reinforcement at
all points in the shear span except in the region of maximum moment.

➢ The increase in tensile force gets larger as

one moves away from the point of maximum
moment, and the slope of the compression
diagonals decrease.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Effect of Shear on Bar Forces and Location of Bar Cut-Off
Points
➢ The ACI 318-19 Code does not explicitly treat the effect of shear on the tensile
force.
➢ Instead, ACI 318-19 Code Section 9.7.3.3 arbitrarily requires that longitudinal
tension bars be extended a minimum distance equal to the greater of d or 12 db
past the theoretical cutoff point for flexure.
➢ This accounts for the shift in the moment
diagram due to shear, plus contingencies
arising from unexpected loads, yielding
of supports, shifting of points of
inflection or other lack of agreement
with assumed conditions governing the
design of elastic Structures.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Effect of Discontinuities at Bar Cut-Off Points in Flexural Tension
Zones
➢ For reinforcement and concrete to act together,
each bar must have adequate embedment on
both sides of each section to develop the force
in the bar at that section.
➢ In beams, this is critical at
1. Points of maximum positive and negative
moment, which are points of maximum
bar stress.
2. Points where reinforcing bars adjacent to
the bar under consideration are cut off or
bent (ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.3.2)

➢ To account for bar forces resulting from shear

effects, cut-off bars are then extended away from
the point of maximum moment a distance d or 12 db
past the flexural cut-off point.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Effect of Discontinuities at Bar Cut-Off Points in Flexural Tension
Zones

➢ Severe discontinuity in bar stresses in vicinity of

points where bars are cut off in region of flexural
tension → inclined cracks

ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.3.5 prohibits bar cutoffs in a

flexural tension zone unless factored shear 𝑉𝑢 at cut-
off point not greater than
2
𝜙 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠
3

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development of Bars in Positive-Moment Regions
➢ Between A and B: required moment exceeds
the moment capacity
➢ Slope:
‒ of moment-strength diagram
𝑑(𝜑 𝑀𝑛 ) 𝜑 𝑀𝑛
so at x=0
𝑑𝑥 ℓ𝑑
‒ of required-moment diagram is
𝑑𝑀𝑢
=𝑉𝑢
𝑑𝑥
‒ Min. required slope of moment-strength
diagram:
𝜑 𝑀𝑛
=𝑉𝑢
ℓ𝑑
‒ Longest development length that can be
tolerated
𝜑 𝑀𝑛
ℓ𝑑 =
𝑉𝑢
where Mn is the nominal moment strength based on the bars
in the beam at 0 and Vu is the shear at 0.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development of Bars in Positive-Moment Regions

ACI Section 9.7.3.8.3

➢ At simple supports and points of inflection, db for positive
moment tension reinforcement shall be limited such that ℓ𝒅
for that reinforcement satisfies (a) or (b).
➢ If reinforcement terminates beyond the centerline of
supports by a standard hook or a mechanical anchorage at
least equivalent to a standard hook, (a) or (b) need not be
satisfied.

(a) ℓd ≤ (1.3Mn/Vu + ℓa)

if end of reinforcement is confined by a compressive
reaction

(b) ℓd ≤ (Mn/Vu + ℓa)

if end of reinforcement is not confined by a compressive
reaction

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Development of Bars in Positive-Moment
Regions
Mn is calculated assuming all reinforcement at
the section is stressed to fy
Vu is calculated at the section support
ℓ𝒂 is the embedment length beyond the center
of the support.

At a point of inflection, ℓ𝒂 is the embedment

length beyond the point of inflection limited to
the greater of d and 12db.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Development of Bars in Positive-Moment

➢ It should be noted that hooked bars at

a support can lead to bearing failures
unless they are carefully detailed.
➢ The potential crack illustrated does
not encounter any reinforcement.
➢ In precast beams, the end of the beam
is often reinforced.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Flexural reinforcement in nonprestressed beams

ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.3.2

Critical locations for development of
reinforcement are points of maximum
stress and points along the span where
bent or terminated tension reinforcement
is no longer required to resist flexure.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Reinforcement Continuity and Structural Integrity Requirements

Primary purpose for continuity and structural-

integrity reinforcement requirements is to
tie the structural elements together and prevent
localized damage from spreading progressively to
other parts of the structure

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Continuity Reinforcement
❑ ACI 318-19 Code, Section 9.7.3.8.1 &
9.7.3.8.2
for positive-moment reinforcement
𝟏
At least 𝟑 of the positive-moment
reinforcement used in midspan for simply
supported members and at least ¼ of
positive-moment reinforcement used at
midspan for continuous members shall be
continued at least 6 in. into the supporting
member.
❑ Further, if beam under consideration is part
of primary lateral load-resisting system
bottom reinforcement must be continuous
through interior supports and fully anchored
at exterior supports (ACI 318-19 Code
Section 9.7.3.8.2)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Continuity Reinforcement
Continuity requirements for positive-moment reinforcement in continuous
beams (use at least two bars every where reinforcement is required).

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Continuity Reinforcement
ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.3.1 & 9.7.3.8.4
for negative-moment reinforcement
❑ Negative-moment reinforcement must be continuous through interior supports
and fully anchored at exterior supports.
❑ requires that all of the negative-moment reinforcement must extend the
development length into the span before being cut off
❑ At least one-third of the
negative moment
reinforcement at a support
shall have an embedment
length beyond the point of
inflection at least the
ℓ
greatest of d, 12db & 𝒏
𝟏𝟔

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Structural-Integrity Reinforcement
ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.7 Structural integrity reinforcement in cast-in-place beams
Section 9.7.7.1
For beams along the perimeter of the structure, structural
integrity reinforcement shall be in accordance with (a)
through (c):
a) At least one-quarter of the maximum positive moment
reinforcement, but not less than two bars or strands,
shall be continuous
b) At least one-sixth of the negative moment
reinforcement at the support, but not less than two
bars or strands, shall be continuous
c) Longitudinal structural integrity reinforcement shall
be enclosed by closed stirrups in accordance with
Section 25.7.1.6 or hoops along the clear span of the
beam

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Structural-Integrity Reinforcement
ACI 318-19 Section 9.7.7 Structural integrity reinforcement in cast-in-place beams

Section 9.7.7.3 Longitudinal structural integrity reinforcement shall pass

through the region bounded by the longitudinal reinforcement of the column.

Requirements for longitudinal

structural-integrity reinforcement in
perimeter beams.
Note: required closed transverse
reinforcement not shown.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Structural-Integrity Reinforcement

Perimeter beams:
➢ Must have continuous top and bottom reinforcement that either passes
through or is anchored in the column core
1
➢ Continuous top reinforcement shall consist of at least of negative-moment
6
reinforcement required at the support, but at least 2 bars
➢ Continuous bottom reinforcement shall consist of at least ¼ of positive-
moment reinforcement required at midspan, but not less than two bars
➢ At noncontinuous supports (corners), all of the bars must be anchored to
develop 𝑓𝑦 at the face of the support
➢ All of the continuous longitudinal bars must be enclosed by closed
transverse reinforcement (spacing 𝑠 ≤ 𝑑/2); Continuity can be achieved by
Class B tension lap splices (or mechanical or welded splice)

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Structural-Integrity Reinforcement

Interior beams:
ACI 318-19 Code defined two ways to satisfy structural-integrity requirements for
continuous longitudinal reinforcement
➢ If closed transverse reinforcement is NOT present, then structural integrity
must be achieved by continuous bottom reinforcement similar to that
required for perimeter beam:
reinforcement passes through or be fully anchored in column core;
reinforcement continuity through Class B tension lap splice
➢ For interior beams not part of primary system for resisting lateral loads: bottom
reinforcement does not need to be continuous through interior supports or fully
anchored at exterior supports
instead structural integrity achieved by combination of bottom and top steel
that is enclosed by closed transverse reinforcement

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Graphical Calculation of Flexural Cut-Off Points

➢ Flexural capacity of a beam is 𝜙𝑀𝑛 = 𝜙 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 𝑗 d

➢ 𝑗d is relatively insensitive to amount of reinforcement
→ Assume 𝑗 d is constant
→ 𝐴𝑠 (required) directly proportional to 𝑀𝑢
➢ Appendix A: schematic graph of bending-moment envelope for typical
multi-span beam.
Use to locate flexural cut-off points and points of inflection

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Graphical Calculation of Flexural Cut-Off Points

➢ Extreme points of inflection for positive

moment at 0.146 ℓ𝑛 from face of
support
→ positive moment steel must extend
from midspan to at least 0.146 ℓ𝑛 from
support

➢ Extreme points of inflection for negative

moment at 0.24 ℓ𝑛 from face of support
→ negative moment steel must extend
at least 0.24 ℓ𝑛 from support
Bending-moment envelope for exterior
span with exterior support built integrally
with a spandrel beam or girder
(moment coefficients: -1/24, +1/14, -1/10).

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Graphical Calculation of Flexural Cut-Off Points

➢ Extreme points of inflection for

positive moment at 0.104 ℓ𝑛 from
face of support
→ positive moment steel must
extend from midspan to at least
0.104 ℓ𝑛 from support

➢ Extreme points of inflection for

negative moment at 0.24 ℓ𝑛 from
face of support
→ negative moment steel must
extend at least 0.24 ℓ𝑛 from support
Bending-moment envelope for exterior span with
exterior support built integrally with a column
(moment coefficients: -1/16, +1/14, -1/10).

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
There are four types of splices:
➢ lapped splices,
➢ mechanical splices,
➢ welded splices
➢ end-bearing splices.
All four types of splices are permitted, as limited in
ACI 318-19 Code Sections 25.5

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices
➢ In a lapped splice, the force in one bar is
transferred to the concrete, which transfers it to
the adjacent bar.
➢ The force-transfer mechanism is clearly visible
from the crack pattern sketched.
➢ The transfer of forces out of the bar into the
concrete causes radially outward pressures on
the concrete; these pressures, in turn, cause
splitting cracks along the bars similar. Once
such cracks occur, the splice fails.
➢ The splitting cracks generally initiate at the ends
of the splice, where the splitting pressures tend
to be larger than at the middle. Large transverse
cracks occur at the discontinuities at the ends of
the spliced bars.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices
Failure of a tension lap splice without stirrups enclosing the splice.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices
➢ Transverse reinforcement in the splice
region delays the opening of the splitting
cracks and hence improves the splice
capacity.
➢ ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.5
distinguishes between two types of
tension lap splices, depending on the
fraction of the bars spliced in a given
length and on the reinforcement stress at
the splice.
The splice lengths for each class of splice
are as follows:
– Class A splice: 1.0 ℓ𝑑
– Class B splice: 1.3 ℓ𝑑

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.1.1
Lap splices shall not be permitted for bars larger than #11, except as provided in
Section 25.5.5.3.
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.1.2
For contact lap splices, minimum clear spacing between the contact lap splice and
adjacent splices or bars shall be in accordance with the requirements for individual
bars in Section 25.2.1.
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.1.4
Because the stress level in the bar is accounted for in Table 25.5.2.1, the reduction
in the development length for excess reinforcement allowed in Section 25.4.10.1 is
not applied in computing for this purpose.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Tension Lap Splices

ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.1.3

➢ For noncontact splices in flexural members, the transverse center-to-center
1
distance spaicng of spliced bars shall not ≤ the splice length, with a
5
maximum of 6 in.
➢ Lap splices should always be enclosed within stirrups, ties, or spirals, to
delay or prevent the complete loss of capacity.
➢ The presence of transverse steel may lead to shorter ℓd and hence shorter
splices.
➢ ACI 318-19 Code requires that tension lap splices of flexural
reinforcement in beams resisting seismic loads be enclosed by hoops or
spirals.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Compression Lap Splices

➢ In a compression lap splice, a portion of the force transfer is through

the bearing of the end of the bar on the concrete.
➢ This transfer and the fact that no transverse tension cracks exist in the
splice length allow compression lap splices to be much shorter than
tension lap splices (ACI 318-19 Code Section 25.5.5).
➢ Frequently, a compression lap splice will fail by spalling of the concrete
under the ends of the bars.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Compression Lap Splices
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.5.1
Compression lap splice length ℓsc of #11 or smaller deformed bars in compression shall
be calculated in accordance with (a) or (b):
(a) For fy ≤ 60,000 psi: ℓsc is the greater of 0.0005fy db & 12 in.
(b) For 60,000 psi < fy ≤ 80,000 psi: ℓsc is the greater of (0.0009fy – 24) db & 12 in.
(c) For fy > 80,000 psi: ℓsc is the greater of (0.0009fy – 24) db & ℓsc calculated in
accordance with 25.5.2.1
For fc′ < 3000 psi, the length of lap shall be increased by one-third.
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.5.2
Compression lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than #11, except as permitted in
Section 25.5.5.3.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Splices
Compression Lap Splices
ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.5.3
Compression lap splices of #14 or #18 bars to #11 or smaller bars shall be permitted
and shall be in accordance with Section 25.5.5.4.

ACI 318-19 Section 25.5.5.4

Where bars of different size are lap spliced in compression, ℓsc shall be the greater of
ℓdc of larger bar calculated in accordance with 25.4.9.1 and ℓsc of smaller bar
calculated in accordance with 25.5.5.1 as appropriate.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

The length ld computed using above equations shall not taken less than 12in.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Design Aids

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

Questions or Comments?

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021 83

Checking the development of a bar in a positive-moment region

Example 3
The beam has 2#14 bars and #3 U-
stirrups @ 10in O.C.
The normal-weight concrete has a
compressive strength of 4.0 ksi and
the reinforcing steel has a yield
strength of 60.0ksi.
The beams supports a total factored
load of 9.0 kips/ft.
Check whether ACI 9.7.3.8.3 is
satisfied:

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4
➢ The beam shown is constructed of normal-weight, 3000-psi concrete
and Grade-60 reinforcement.
➢ It supports a factored dead load of 0.42 kip/ft and a factored live load of
3.4 kips/ft.
➢ The cross sections at the points of maximum positive and negative
moment shown.
➢ Locate flexural cut offs for positive-moment reinforcement

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4

Calculation of flexural cutoff

points for a statically
determinate beam with an
overhang, loaded to
produce maximum positive
moment.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4
Location of positive-moment cutoff point

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4

Calculation of flexural cutoff points for

negative moment

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4
Location of negative-moment cut-off points

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Example 4

Reinforcement details

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Example

Final Bar Details

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Tension-Development lengths
➢ Factors affecting the splitting load:
‒ Radial components of forces on concrete cause
pressure on a portion of prism cross section
‒ Pressure equilibrated by tensile stresses in
concrete on either side of bar
→ assume stress to be linearly distributed
‒ If max stress in concrete more than 𝒇𝒄𝒕 → splitting
➢ Equilibrium in vertical direction in Prism of length ℓ𝑑 :
𝑝𝑑𝑏 ℓ 𝑑𝑏
= 𝐾 𝑐𝑏 − 𝑓𝑐𝑡 ℓ
2 2
where
𝐾 = ratio of average tensile stress max tensile stress
= 0.5 for triangular stress distribution
𝑐𝑏 1
𝑝= − 𝑓
𝑑𝑏 2 𝑐𝑡
➢ Average bond stress 𝜇𝑎vg,u at onset of splitting (assume forces
acting at 45° angle) and 𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 6 𝑓𝑐′
𝑐𝑏 1
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑢 = 6 𝑓𝑐′ −
𝑑𝑏 2
(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021
 Tension-Development lengths
➢ The development length , ℓ𝑑 : length of bar required to raise the stress in the bar
from zero to fy (substituted into previous equation)
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑏
ℓ𝑑 = 𝑑𝑏 So, ℓ𝑑 =
4 𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑢 𝑐 1
24 𝑓𝑐′ 𝑑𝑏 − 2
𝑏
With Cb = 1.5 db
𝑓𝑦
ℓ𝑑 = 𝑑𝑏
24 𝑓𝑐′

Summary of assumptions
➢ Distribution of tensile stresses in concrete
➢ Angle of inclination of forces on the deformations
➢ Replacement of concentrated forces on the deformations with a force
that is uniformly distributed along the length and around the
circumference of the bar
➢ Neglect the effect of in-and-out bond stresses between cracks

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1
➢ A 16-in.-wide cantilever beam frames into the edge of a 16-in.-thick wall.
➢ To reach Mn, the #8 bars at the top of the cantilever are stressed to their yield
strength at point A at the face of the wall.
➢ Compute the minimum embedment of the bars into the wall and the
development length in the beam.
➢ The concrete is sand-lightweight concrete with a strength of 4000 psi.
➢ The yield strength of the flexural reinforcement is 60,000 psi.
➢ Construction joints are located at the bottom and top of the beam.

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021

 Anchorage of a Straight Bar
Example 1

(CE-579) Advanced Reinforced Concrete Structures – Fall 2021