Module 1

4) A spherical container of negligible thickness holding a hot fluid at 140 0 C and having an
outer diameter of 0.4 m is insulated with three layers of each 50 mm thick insulation of k 1
= 0.02: k 2 = 0.06 and k 3 = 0.16 W/m.K. (Starting from inside). The outside surface
temperature is 300 0 C. Determine (i) the heat loss, and (ii) Interface temperatures of
insulating layers.
A)
5) Calculate the rate of heat loss through the vertical walls of a boiler furnace of size 4m x
3m x 3 m high. The walls are constructed from an inner fire brick wall 25 cm thick of
thermal conductivity 0.4 W/m.K, a layer of ceramic blanket insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.2 W/m.K and 8 cm thick, and a steel protective layer of thermal
conductivity 55 W/m.K and 2 mm thick. The inside temperature of the fire brick layer was
measured at 600 0 C and the temperature of the outside of the insulation 60 0 C. Also find
the interface temperature of layers.

A)
6) A steel tube with 5 cm ID, 7.6 cm OD and k=15W/m. 0 C is covered with an insulative
covering of thickness 2 cm and k 0.2 W/m. 0 C. A hot gas at 330 0 C with h = 400 W/m
2 . 0 C flows inside the tube. The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to cooler air at
30 0 C with h = 60 W/ m 2 . 0 C. Calculate the heat loss from the tube to the air for 10 m
of the tube and the temperature drops resulting from the thermal resistances of the hot gas
flow, the steel tube, the insulation layer and the outside air
A)
7) A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 900C. The thermal
conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/m.0C, and the heat transfer coefficient for inside and
outside of the tank area are 2800 and 11 W/ m 2 .0C, respectively. If the atmospheric
temperature is 200C, calculate (i) The rate of heat loss per m 2 of the tank surface area. (ii)
The temperature of the outside surface tank.
A)
8) A 15 cm outer diameter steam pipe is covered with 5 cm high temperature insulation (k
= 0.85 W/m.0C) and 4 cm of low temperature (k = 0.72 W/m.0C). The steam is at 5000C
and ambient air is at 400C. Neglecting thermal resistance of steam and air sides and metal
wall calculate the heat loss from 100 m length of the pipe. Also find temperature drop
across the insulation.
A)
3) Performing the energy balance for a differential volume element, derive the 3-
dimensional heat conduction equation with no internal heat generation volume element in
spherical coordinate system.
A)
2) Consider a differential volume element of a parallelopiped with heat influx and outflux in
all the three directions. The system is generating heat uniformly. For such a system, derive
generalized heat conduction equation in three dimensions.
A)
1) Starting with the energy balance for a differential equation volume element, derive the
one-dimensional, steady state heat conduction equation with internal heat generation in
cylindrical coordinate system.
A)
 Module 2
6) One end of a long rod 35mm in diameter is inserted into a furnace with the other end
projecting in the outside air. After the steady state is reached, the temperature of the rod is
measured at two points 180mm apart and found to be 180 0 C and 145 0 C. The
atmospheric air temperature is 25 0 C. If the heat transfer coefficient is 65W/m 2 . 0
C,calculate the thermal conductivity of the rod.
A)
5) A temperature rise of 60 0 C in a circular shaft of 60mm diameter is caused by the
amount of heat generated due to friction in the bearing mounted on the crankshaft. The
thermal conductivity of the shaft material is 50 W/m.K and the heat transfer coefficient is
6.5 W/m 2 .K. 5 (i) Develop an expression for the temperature distribution. Analyze (ii)
Determine amount of heat transferred through the shaft. Assume that the shaft is a rod of
infinite length.
A)
7)Derive the expression for temperature distribution and conduction heat transfer rate for a
fin with negligible heat transfer from its tip. State the assumptions involved in deriving the
expression.
A)
The following assumptions are made for the analysis of heat flow through the fin:
1. Steady state conduction.
2. No heat generation within the fin.
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of the fin.
4. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e. thermal conductivity of material
constant).
5. Negligible contact thermal resistance.
6. One-dimensional Heat conduction.
7. Negligible radiation.
4) A plane wall (k = 45W/m.K), 10cm thick, generating heat at an uniform rate of 8 x 10 6
W/m 3 . The two sides of the wall are maintained at 180 0 C and 120 0 C. Neglecting end
effects, calculate: Apply (i) temperature distribution across the plate (ii) position and
magnitude of maximum temperature (iii) the heat flow rate from each surface of the plate.
A)
3) A solid sphere (k = 39 W/m.K) 10 cm in diameter generates heat at a uniform rate of 5
x 10 6 W/m 3 . The outer surface of sphere is exposed to an ambient at 50 0 C with heat
transfer coefficient of 400 W/m 2 .K. Calculate: Apply (i) Maximum temperature in solid
and its location (ii) Temperature at the radius of 3 cm.
A)
 Module 3
1) a)Distinguish between Natural and forced convection heat transfer.
A)
Natural convection
Known also as free convection is a mechanism, or type of mass and
heat transport, in which the fluid motion is generated only by density differences in the
fluid. Thermal Engineering

Natural Convection – Free Convection

In general, convection is either the mass transfer or the heat transfer due to bulk movement
of molecules within fluids such as gases and liquids. Although liquids and gases are
generally not very good conductors of heat, they can transfer heat quite rapidly by
convection. Convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both. In preceding
chapters we considered convection transfer in fluid flows that originate from an external
forcing condition – forced convection. In this chapter, we consider natural convection,
where any fluid motion occurs by natural means such as buoyancy.

Definition of Natural Convection

Natural convection, known also as free convection is a mechanism, or type of mass and
heat transport, in which the fluid motion is generated only by density differences in the
fluid occurring due to temperature gradients, not by any external source (like a pump, fan,
suction device, etc.).
In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat and by thermal
expansion becomes less dense and rises. Thermal expansion of the fluid plays a crucial
role. In other words, heavier (more dense) components will fall, while lighter (less dense)
components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur in a
gravitational field or in the presence of another proper acceleration, such as:
• acceleration
• centrifugal force
• Coriolis force
Natural convection essentially does not operate in the orbit of Earth. For example, in the
orbiting International Space Station, other heat transfer mechanisms are required to prevent
electronic components from overheating.Forced Convection. In this chapter we consider
convection transfer in fluid flows that
originate from an external forcing condition – forced convection. Thermal Engineering

Forced Convection
As was written, convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both. In this chapter
we consider convection transfer in fluid flows that originate from an external forcing
condition – forced convection.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s
law of cooling, which states that:

The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures
between the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small and the
nature of radiating surface remains same.

Note that, ΔT is given by the surface or wall temperature, T wall and the bulk
temperature, T ∞ , which is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
b) Air at 20 oC is flowing along a heated flat plate at 134 o C at a velocity of 3 m/s. The
plate is 2 m long and 1.5m wide. Calculate the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary
layer and the skin friction coefficient at 40 cm from the leading edge of the plate. The
kinematic viscosity of air at 20 o C may be taken at 15.06 x 10 -6 m 2 /s
A) Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
2 a) Define Nusselt, Reynolds, Prandtl and Stanton numbers. Explain their physical
significance in forced convection.
A)

Nusselt
In heat transfer at a boundary (surface) within a fluid, the Nusselt number (Nu) is the ratio
of convective to conductive heat transfer across (normal to) the boundary. In this context,
convection includes both advection and diffusion. Named after Wilhelm Nusselt, it is a
dimensionless number.

The conductive component is measured under the same conditions as the heat convection
but with a (hypothetically) stagnant (or motionless) fluid. A similar non-dimensional
parameter is Biot Number, with the difference that the thermal conductivity is of the solid
body and not the fluid.

A Nusselt number close to one, namely convection and conduction of similar magnitude, is
characteristic of "slug flow" or laminar flow. A larger Nusselt number corresponds to more
active convection, with turbulent flow typically in the 100–1000 range.
The convection and conduction heat flows are parallel to each other and to the surface
normal of the boundary surface, and are all perpendicular to the mean fluid flow in the
simple case.

Empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for forced convection over a flat
plate and circular and noncircular cylinders in cross flow

Reynolds
he Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and
consequently quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow
conditions. Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between two different
cases of fluid flow. They are also used to characterize different flow regimes within a
similar fluid, such as laminar or turbulent flow :

• laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant,
and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
• turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces,
which tend to produce chaotic eddies , vortices and other flow instabilities.
•
For practical purposes, if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. If it is
greater than 3500, the flow is turbulent. Flows with Reynolds numbers between 2000 and
3500 are sometimes referred to as transitional flows. Most fluid systems in nuclear facilities
operate with turbulent flow.

Prandtl
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is best described by
the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number, defined as:
Pr = v / α
Pr = µ Cp / k
Pr = Molecular diffusivity of momentum / Molecular diffusivity of heat

Prandtl Number are unit-less.

The Prandtl numbers of fluids range from less than 0.01 for liquid metals to more than
100,000 for heavy oils (Table below). Note that the Prandtl number is in the order of 10 for
water.

The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which indicates that both momentum and heat
dissipate through the fluid at about the same rate. Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid
metals (Pr < 1) and very slowly in oils (Pr > 1) relative to momentum. Consequently the
thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid metals and much thinner for oils relative
to the velocity boundary layer.

Stanton
Stanton number for heat transfer, St, is a dimensionless parameter relating heat transfer
coefficient to heat capacity of the fluid stream per unit cross-sectional area per unit time,
i.e.,

where α is heat transfer coefficient; , mass flux; cp, specific heat capacity of the fluid; μ is
velocity, and ρ, fluid density.
The analagous Stanton number for mass transfer is

where β is mass transfer coefficient.

The total rate of heat transfer, , to a fluid flowing inside a tube of diameter D and length
L is given by

where and are appropriately averaged values of heat transfer coefficient and
driving temperature difference, respectively, and ΔT is the temperature rise of the fluid
over the length L. Hence

Therefore Stanton number, for a given geometry, is proportional to the temperature change
in the fluid divided by the driving temperature difference.
 b) Assuming that a man can be represented by a cylinder 30 cm in diameter and 1.7 m
high with a surface temperature of 30 o C, calculate the heat that he would lose while
standing in a 36 km/h wind at 10 o C
A) Same model
Take D = 300 mm = 0.3 m, L = 1.7 m, ts = 30 oC, t∞ = 10 oC, U = 36 km/h = 10 m/s
Follow the same procedure.
3 a) Explain for fluid flow along a flat plate, velocity distribution in hydrodynamic boundary
layer
A)
4) Derive the Continuity equation for boundary layer
A) The continuity equation is defined as the product of cross-sectional area of the pipe
and the velocity of the fluid at any given point along the pipe is constant.

Continuity Equation Derivation

Continuity equation represents that the product of cross-sectional area of the pipe and the
fluid speed at any point along the pipe is always constant. This product is equal to the
volume flow per second or simply the flow rate.  The continuity equation is given as:

R = A v = constant

Where,
• R is the volume flow rate
• A is the flow area
• v is the flow velocity

Assumption of Continuity Equation

Following are the assumptions of continuity equation:
• The tube is having a single entry and single exit
• The fluid flowing in the tube is non-viscous
 • The flow is incompressible
• The fluid flow is steady

Derivation
Consider the following diagram:

Now, consider the fluid flows for a short interval of time in the tube. So, assume that short
interval of time as Δt. In this time, the fluid will cover a distance of Δx1 with a velocity v1
at the lower end of the pipe.

At this time, the distance covered by the fluid will be:

Δx1 = v1Δt

Now, at the lower end of the pipe, the volume of the fluid that will flow into the pipe will
be:

V = A1 Δx1 = A1 v1 Δt

It is known that mass (m) = Density (ρ) × Volume (V). So, the mass of the fluid in Δx1
region will be:

Δm1= Density × Volume

=> Δm1 = ρ1A1v1Δt ——–(Equation 1)

Now, the mass flux has to be calculated at the lower end. Mass flux is simply defined as the
mass of the fluid per unit time passing through any cross-sectional area. For the lower end
with cross-sectional area A1, mass flux will be:

Δm1/Δt = ρ1A1v1 ——–(Equation 2)

Similarly, the mass flux at the upper end will be:

Δm2/Δt = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Equation 3)

Here, v2 is the velocity of the fluid through the upper end of the pipe i.e. through Δx2 ,
in Δt time and A2, is the cross-sectional area of the upper end.
In this, the density of the fluid between the lower end of the pipe and the upper end of the
pipe remains the same with time as the flow is steady. So, the mass flux at the lower end of
the pipe is equal to the mass flux at the upper end of the pipe i.e.

Equation 2 = Equation 3.

Thus,
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Equation 4)

This can be written in a more general form as:

ρ A v = constant

The equation proves the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics. Also, if the fluid is
incompressible, the density will remain constant for steady flow. So, ρ1 =ρ2.
Thus, Equation 4 can be now written as:

A1 v1 = A2 v2
This equation can be written in general form as:

A v = constant
Now, if R is the volume flow rate, the above equation can be expressed as:

R = A v = constant

This was the derivation of continuity equation

 Module 3
1. Explain
a. What are hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths.

Hydrodynamic Entrance Length

Thermal Entry Length
b. Air at 15oC, 30 km/hr flows over a cylinder of 500 mm diameter and 1600 mm height with surface
temperature of 50oC. Calculate the heat loss.
2. Air at 45oC flows over a tube with a velocity of 30 m/s. The tube surface temperature is 135oC. Calculate the heat
transfer coefficient for the following cases (i) Tube could be square with a side of 6 cm and (ii) Tube is circular
cylinder of diameter 6 cm.
3. Lubricating oil at a temperature of 60oC enters 1 cm diameter tube with a velocity of 3 m/s. The tube surface is
maintained at 40oC. Assuming that the oil has the following average properties, calculate the tube length required to
cool the oil to 45oC. ρ =865 kg/m3, Cp =1.78 KJ/kg oC and k=0.140 W/moC. Assume laminar and fully developed
flow.
4. Air at 30oC, 0.2 m/s flows across a 120W electric bulb at 130oC. Find heat transfer and percentage of heat lost due to
convection if bulb diameter is 70mm.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Just take t∞ = 30oC, U = 0.2 m/s, D = 70mm = 0.075 mm
In the (ii) The percentage of power lost due to convection - instead of (Q*100)/100, take (Q*100)/120
 Module 4
1. Explain
a. Define Grashof Number. What is its physical significance
b. A vertical plate of 0.75 m height is at 170oC and is exposed to air at a temperature of 105oC and one
atmosphere. Calculate
i. Mean heat transfer coefficient
ii. Rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Just Take L = 0.75 m, t s = 170 oC, tsat = 105 oC
2. A cylindrical body of 300 mm diameter and 1.6 m height is maintained at a constant temperature of 40oC. The
surrounding temperature is 30oC. Find out the amount of heat to be generated by the body per hour. Assume
Nu=0.12(Gr.Pr)1/3.
3. A hot plate 1.2 m wide, 0.35 m high and at 115 oC is exposed to the ambient still air at 25 oC. Calculate the following
(i) The boundary layer thickness at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate, (ii) Local heat transfer coefficient at
180 mm from the leading edge of the plate, (iii) Average heat transfer coefficient over the surface of the plate and
(iv) total mass flow through the boundary.
4. Explain the development of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer along a vertical plate.
5. Water is boiled at a rate of 30kg/h in a copper pan, 30 cm in diameter, at atmospheric pressure. Estimate the
temperature of the bottom surface of the pan assuming nucleate boiling conditions.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Just Take m = 30kg/h, D = 0.3 m
(OR)
6. Explain different boiling regimes with boiling curve of water.
7. Explain the condition under which drop wise condensation takes place. Why does the rate of heat transfer in drop
wise condensation many times larger than in film wise condensation.
8. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 3 bar, condenses on the surface of a vertical tube of height 1 m. The tube surface
temperature is kept at 110oC. calculate the following
a. Thickness of the condensate film
b. Local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 0.25 m.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Just Take x = 0.25 m, T s = 110 oC, p = 3 bar
Solve it ↑
 Module 5
1. Give the classification of heat exchangers with neat sketches.
2. In a double pipe heat exchanger, hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300 J/kg K enters at 380oC and leaves at 300oC.
Cold fluid enters at 25oC and leaves at 210oC. Calculate the heat exchanger area required for counter flow and what
would be the percentage of increase in area if fluid flows were parallel. Take overall heat transfer coefficient is 750
W/m2K and mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1 kg/s.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Just Take cph = 2300 J/kg K, th1 = 380 oC, th2 = 300 oC, tc1 = 25 oC, tc2 = 210 oC, U = 750 W/m2K, mh = 1 kg/s
3. Explain
a. What is a fouling factor.
b. In a counter flow heat exchanger, water at 20oC flowing at the rate of 1200 kg/h. It is heated by oil of specific
heat 2100 J/kgK flowing at the rate of 520 kg/h at inlet temperature of 95oC. Determine (i) total heat transfer,
(ii) outlet temperature of water and (iii) outlet temperature of oil.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Take tc1 = 20 oC, mw = mc = 1200 kg/h = 0.333 kg/s, cpc = 4200 J/kg oC, cph & cp = 2100 J/kg oC
moil = mh = 520 kg/h = 0.144 kg/s, th1 = 95 oC
4. Derive the expression for logarithmic mean temperature difference(LMTD) in the case of Parallel flow and counter
flow heat exchangers.
5. Explain the following terms (i) absorptivity, (ii) reflectivity, (iii) transmissivity, (iv) Kirchoff’s law of radiation, (v)
Stefanboltzman law and (vi) Shape factor

[(i), (ii), (iii)]

(iv) Kirchoff’s Law
(v) Stefan - Boltzmann Law

(vi) Shape Factor

6. Explain
a. What is a radiation shield?
b. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800oC and 300oC are 0.3 and 0.5 respectively. Find net
radiant heat exchange per square metre for these plates. Find the percentage reduction in heat transfer when a
polished aluminium radiation shield of emissivity 0.06 is placed between them. Also find the temperature of
the shield.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Take t1 = 800 oC, t2 = 300 oC, ε1 = 0.3, ε2 = 0.5, ε3 & εs = 0.06
7. Derive the expression for heat exchange between two non black parallel surfaces.
8. Calculate the net radiant interchange per sq.m. for two large planes at a temperature of 900K and 400 K respectively.
Assume that the emissivity of hot plane is 0.9 and that of cold plane is 0.7.

Same Model ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

Take T1 = 900 K, T2 = 400 K, ε2 = 0.7