DEM Analysis for deriving geomorphological Indices

Project Report Submitted by -

Akshita Srivastava
Kriti Garg
Vishnu Kiritte Guttikonda

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of certificate for summer internship
(27.01.2019-31.07.2019)

Supervised by -
Dr. Gopal Sharma
Sr.Scientist-SC
NESAC, Umiam
 Certificate

This is to certify that the project titled “DEM Analysis for deriving geomorphological indices
” is submitted by Akshita Srivastava, Kriti Garg and Vishnu Kiritte Guttikonda to NESAC,
Umiam, for the award of the certification, is a bonafide record of project carried out by her
under my supervision. The contents of the project have not been submitted to any other
organization either in full or in parts.

Date: 31-07-2019 (Dr. Gopal Sharma)

Place: Umiam Scientist-SC
Umiam,Shillong
 Acknowledgements

We would like to express our earnest thanks and sincere gratitude North-Eastern Space
Application Center (NESAC) for assigning our summer internship.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge Shri P.L.N. Raju, Director, NESAC, Umiam for allowing and
providing us support for this program.
We wish to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Gopal Sharma, Scientist-SC for all the guidance,
encouragement and constant support he has given to us throughout our project work. This work
would not have been possible without his support and valuable suggestions.
We would also like to thank all the executives and staffs of NESAC for their help which made
us to ponder upon certain things thereby enhancing this project.
We also thank the authorities of our institute for allowing us to undertake this internship.
We would like to thank all of our friends for their help and suggestions during our project work.
Finally, we have no words to express our sincere gratitude to our parents who have shown us
this world and have always supported us.
Contents

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Remote sensing and GIS uses in geomorphology
1.3 Objectives of the study
1.4 Study area
1.5 Limitations
Chapter 2

Prelude to study area

2.1 Climate and rainfall

2.2 Geomorphology and soil types

2.3 Physiography

Chapter 3

3.1 Data Collection

3.2.1 Stream Length Gradient Index

3.2.2 Hypsometric Integral

3.2.3 Drainage Basin Asymmetry Factor

3.2.4 Transverse Topography Factor

3.2.5 Mountain Front Sinuosity Index

3.2.6 Channel Sinuosity Index

3.2.7 Basin Shape Index

Chapter 4

Results and Discussions

Chapter 5

Summary and Conclusions

Scope of the Study

Bibliography
Chapter-1

1.1-Introduction

Morphometry is defined as quantitative measurement of landscape shape. At the simplest level,

landforms can be characterized in terms of their size, elevation and slope. Quantitative
measurements allow geomorphologists objectively to compare different landforms and to
calculate less straightforward parameters (geomorphic indices) that may be useful for
identifying a particular characteristic of an area (its level of tectonic activity).

Some geomorphic indices have been developed as basic reconnaissance tools to identify areas
experiencing rapid tectonic deformation. This information is used for planning research to
obtain detailed information about active tectonics. Other indices were developed to quantify
description of landscape. Geomorphic indices are particularly useful in tectonic studies because
they can be used for rapid evaluation of large areas and the necessary data often can be obtained
easily from topographic maps and aerial photographs. Some of the geomorphic indices most
useful in studies of active tectonics are Hypsometric integral, Asymmetry Factor, Stream
length-gradient index, mountain front sinuosity, Topography Factor, Sinuosity Index and Basin
Shape Index. Mountain front, sinuosity of the channels are surface features that construct the
arid to semiarid landscape and exists at large or small scales. Morphotectonics has been
considered as a tool to determine the intensity of tectonic activity in the tectonically active
areas.
1.2-Remote sensing and GIS uses in geomorphology

In recent years, the advancements in computer technologies and digital data

acquisition/processing has led to the improvement of the knowledge of geomorphic processes
and the development of the use of predictive models and quantitative measurements to analyze,
monitor, and understand landform changes. This advancement has allowed geographers,
geologists, and geomorphologists to explore human/land interaction utilizing modelling and
systems analysis in their geomorphological studies that relied on sophisticated hardware and
software tools (Ata 2008).

Earth-observing satellites, airborne sensor systems and aerial and space photography have
nearly complete coverage of the Earth’s surface that provides images of different formats and
various scales. This permits not only interpretation of landscape evolution, but rather offers the
opportunity to integrate observation of a variety of processes over a large region. Geomorphic
analysis from space has the advantage of allowing the use of quantitative methods for both data
gathering and information extraction. Thus, satellite images are becoming useful and necessary
in geomorphology, especially in obtaining quantitative measurements and performing
geomorphic analyses (Hayden 1986).

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have enhanced the applicability of geologic mapping
when integrated with data obtained by remote sensing using a wide range of formats and scales.
In addition, advancement in image analysis provides geologists opportunity to enhance,
manipulate, and combine digital remotely-sensed data with several types of geographic
information that in turn increases the amount of extracted information related to topographic
and geologic features (Horsby and Harris 1992).

Digital enhancement of satellite images yields much information about image features. GIS
techniques enable the integration and analysis of multi spatial and nonspatial data that have the
same georeferencing scheme. Therefore, the integration of GIS and remotely sensed data could
be more informative and results would be more applicable to image interpretation. Within the
context of GIS, surface geomorphology is most commonly represented in Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs). DEMs are generally defined as a regular two dimensional array of heights
sampled above some datum that describes a surface.
1.3-Objectives

1. To study and understand different morphological indices and their derivation from DEM.

2. Relating these indices with tectonics of an area which can be used for further studies on
anomalies detection.
1.4-Study area

Upper Siang District is one of the remotest districts of Arunachal Pradesh endowed with
serene beauties of the nature. It is occupying a geographical area of 6188 sq. km. Yingkiong
is the district headquarters which is located at a distance of 720 km from the state capital
Itanagar(Fig.1.1).

The district is mountainous and enriched in natural resources and biodiversity. The area is
characterized by deep gorges and fast flowing streams and rivulets, which form the tributaries
of mighty Siang River. The Siang River flows through the heart of the district running into
Indian Territory at a point near Gelling in the Indo-China border.

Fig 1.1. Location map over study area

1.5- Limitations

• At first we have mentioned, this paper is based on satellite data from USGS. So field
checking did not happen. Thus, there must be some errors.
• The data used here is USGS SRTM DEM whose resolution is 30 meters. So some
errors are bound to occur.
Chapter-2
Prelude to study area

2.1 Climate and rainfall

Climate in the district is varied as rainfall and temperature differs from place to place. The
district experiences temperate and sub-tropical humid set of climatic condition. Maximum
and minimum temperature in the tract during summer and winter vary between 130C-390C
and 40C to 210C while relative humidity in the area varies from 75% to 91%. Rainfall mainly
occurs during the period of April to October.

2.2 Geomorphology and soil types

The district constitutes principally a hilly terrain covered by thick forests. The hill ranges are
generally having moderate to steep slopes and narrow valleys and it occupies the lesser and
inner Himalayan zones of the Great Himalayan Range. The hills are separated by the Siang
River and its tributaries which flow mostly towards south and have deep gorges. The hills are
comparatively higher in the northern side than the southern parts. The elevation, in general
varies from 1,100 to more than 4000 m above mean sea level.

2.3 Physiography

Physiographically the district can be broadly subdivided into two divisions

1. Hilly terrain, underlain by Proterozoic gneisses and schists with subordinate quartzite and
phyllite, volcanics, Gondwanas and Tertiary sedimentary etc.

2. Very limited alluvial deposits in the valley fill. Majority of the district area is occupied by
hills underlain by gneisses, Schists, volcanics, Gondwanas and Tertiary sedimentary barring
the highly restricted valley fills along Siang River.

Siang River, originated from Tibet and its tributaries form the main drainage system of the
district. It flows in almost N-S direction. The drainage pattern is dendritic and follow the
general geomorphological trend of the hills and structural lineaments.

Based upon the geomorphic elements such as relief, drainage, lithology etc. the district has
been divided into two major units namely denudo-structural hills and valley fill areas.

i) Denudo-structural hills are covering major parts of the district and composed of Phyllites,
quartzites, biotite gneiss and Gondwana sedimentary formations. The denudation processes
were earlier active in the hills and remnants of original structural features like long faults and
strike trends could be seen in the formations.
ii) Valley fills comprise thin layer of alluvial deposits occurring along the Siang rivers in the
form of terrace. The valleys range in altitude from 500-550m above mean sea level.

Soils of the district have been derived from the country rocks of schists, gneisses in hilly areas
and form alluvial materials in the valleys. The soils in the valley areas are sandy loam in texture
with high acidic content. The PH values range between 5 to 6. The carbon content is high with
medium to low phosphorous and potassium concentrations.

The district is underlain by rock formations of Recent to Precambrian age. The Precambrian
rocks comprise high grade gneisses and Schists of Sela Group, followed by quartzite,phyllite,
conglomerate,Shales,Biotite gneiss, Graphite Schist of Bomdila Group and Miri
quartzite,Shale and conglomerates belonging to Miri Formations of Lower Gondwana Group
and Abor volcanics of Paleozoic epoch and Tertiary sedimentaries comprising Geku and
Dalbuing formations of Yingkiong Group. The Sela Group of rocks of Precambrian age
consists of high grade gneisses and schists. It occurs in the west and north-western part of the
district. Bomdila Group of rocks representing low to medium grade metasediments comprising
quartzites, mafic meta volcanics and carbonates, associated with ortho-gneisses, granites and
mafic intrusive. The overlying Miri formations (Gondwana) of lower Paleozoic age constitutes
mainly quartzite with shale and phyllite association occur along a N-S trending patch inside
the Bomdila Group of rocks. The Miri formation is having tectonic contact with the underlying
Bomdila Group of rocks. Paleozoic Abor volcanics representing basaltic flows with
fossiliferous shale and sandstone are rimming around the Tertiary Yingkiong Group
representing Shale, sandstone with welded tuff and mafic volcanics of Geku formation and
Foraminiferal limestone and shale of Dalbuing formation.
Chapter--3
Materials and Methods

3.1 Data Collection

In the present study, seven geomorphic indices were calculated using GIS technique. A 30 m
resolution DEM derived from United States Geological Services (USGS), SRTM, was used for
derivation of the geomorphic indices for the year 2015.

The geomorphic indices calculated are: Stream length gradient index (SL), Hypsometric
integral (HI), Drainage basin asymmetry factor (Af), Transverse topography symmetry factor
(T), Mountain front sinuosity index (Smf), Sinuosity index (SI) and Basin shape index (Bs).

Fig.3.1:Flowchart showing DEMs and methods

3.2.1 Stream Length Gradient Index (SL)

The SL index is used to study effects of environmental variables on longitudinal stream profile
and to test whether the streams have reached equilibrium (Hack, J.T., 1973).

Mathematically, SL is given by:

SL= (∆H/∆L) L

Where ∆H is change in altitude, ∆L is length of a reach and L is the horizontal length from the
watershed divide to midpoint of the reach. The SL index increases in values as rivers and
streams flow over active uplift regions (Keller and Pinter, 2002) (Fig 3.1).
 Fig 3.2: Diagram showing the process of calculating the Stream Length Index (SL) for a
given creek (Keller and Pinter 2002)

In the present study, SL index was computed using SRTM derived DEM (30 m resolution).
For every 200 m elevation difference, distance along the main drainage and total distance from
source were determined in GIS environment. With these inputs, SL index was computed.

The Stream Length-Gradient Index (SL) is calculated along a river and used to evaluate the
erosional resistance of the available rocks and relative intensity of active tectonics. The SL
index has sensitivity to channel slope changes, which makes it a good evaluation tool for the
relationship between potential tectonic activity, rock resistance, topography, and length of the
stream (Hack 1973; Azor, Keller et al. 2002; Keller and Pinter 2002). The SL index is sensitive
to change in slope and this sensitivity allows the evaluation of relationship among the possible
tectonic activity, rock resistance and topography.

Index value will be significantly lower in softer strata; rock types are shale, siltstone and
carbonate rocks and increases, where the stream crosses the relatively hard rocks.

In landscape evolution, the adjustment of stream profiles to rock resistance is assumed fairly
quickly. Therefore, the SL index is used to identify recent tectonic activity by identifying
anomalously high index values on a particular type. For example, an area of high index values
on softer rock may indicate recent tectonic activity. Anomalously low values of the index also
may represent tectonic activity, along linear valleys produced by strike slip faulting, indicates
valleys is crushed by fault movement.

Thus, the SL index is a valuable reconnaissance tool useful in isolating smaller areas for
detailed work.
 Fig 3.3: Longitudinal profile and SL index computed along the Siang river for southern part
of Upper Siang Valley

3.2.2 Hypsometric Integral (HI)

In tectonic geomorphology, morphometric analysis is the key tool to evaluate the area on the
basis of the tectonic activity. The distribution of the elevations within a region provides
information on the balance between external processes (which tend to lower the landscape) and
internal processes (which tend to create relief).One of the most useful parameter that describe
and analyze the distribution of elevations in an area is Hypsometry.

The HI is generally derived for a particular drainage basin and is independent of total basin
area (Mahmood and Gloaguen, 2012). It explains the distribution of elevation of a given area
of a landscape, particularly a drainage basin (Strahler, 1952). It is defined as the area below
the hypsometric curve and thus expresses the volume of a basin that has not been eroded. The
equation used for calculating the index (Mayer, 1990; Keller and Pinter, 2002) is given by:

HI= Elevmean − Elevmin/Elevmax − Elevmin

Where Elevmean, Elevmin and Elevmax represents mean, minimum, and maximum
elevation respectively. High values of HI generally reveal that not much of the uplands has
been eroded and suggest a younger landscape possibly produced by active tectonics.
Intermediate to low hypsometric integral values represent more evenly dissected drainage
basins, indicating a mature stage of development (Strahler 1952; Mayer 1990; Keller and
Pinter 2002).In the present study, the curves have been depicted by plotting the relative area
(0–1) against relative height (0–1) (Fig 3.3).
 Fig 3.4: Hypsometric Curve for Upper Siang Valley

The shape of the curve is related to its erosional stage. Convex curves characterize relatively
‘young’ and weakly eroded regions, S-shaped hypsometric curves characterize moderately
eroded regions, and concave curves characterize relatively ‘old’ and highly eroded regions.

The shape of the hypsometric curves (and the HI values) provides valuable information about
the tectonic, climatic, and lithological factors controlling catchment landscape (Moglen and
Bras, 1995; Willgoose and Hancock, 1998). High HI values are possibly related to young
active tectonic regime with convex curve, and low values are related to older landscapes with
concave curve that have been more eroded and less impacted by recent active tectonics.
Hypsometric integral is a dimensionless parameter.

3.2.3 Drainage Basin Asymmetry Factor (Af)

The geometry of stream networks can be described in several ways, both qualitatively and
quantitatively. Different drainage pattern reflects different structural control as well as their
tectonic settings also. If drainage pattern develops in the presence of active tectonic
deformation, the network often has a distinct pattern and geometry. Drainage basin asymmetry
depicts that in which direction river migrate and how much a basin is asymmetric. In other
words we can say that we calculate tectonic tilting of the basin and their direction and how
much tilting is taking place in comparison to other basin. Thus, the drainage basin asymmetric
factor (Af) reflects the existence of tectonic tilting at the scale of a drainage basin (Fig 3.4).
This method is generally used over a relatively large area. Parameter Af is defined by:

Af= 100 (Ar/At)

Where Ar is the area of the basin to the right of the trunk stream facing downstream, and At is
the total area of the drainage basin. The Af factor is close to 50, if a basin has developed under
stable conditions with little or no tilting. Parameter Af factor above or below 50 may result
from basin tilting, which may be credited to active tectonics. So with the help of this simple
formula we can easily calculate the tilting of the basin. If Af is 50, it suggest stable setting and
there is no tilt in the basin and if Af is more or less 50, may suggest tilt and it indicates that
basin is tectonically active and still uplifting. In the present study, drainage basin Asymmetry
factor has been calculated from the above formula for the Upper Siang Valley.

Fig 3.5: Block diagram showing the effect of an asymmetry factor with a left side tilt on
tributaries lengths (From Keller and Pinter 2002)

3.2.4 Transverse Topography Symmetry Factor (T)

The Transverse topography symmetry factor (T) is another index which can be used to interpret
small basin scale disturbances or responses due to tectonic activity. It is defined by:

T= Da/Dd

Where Da is the distance from the midline of the drainage basin to the midline of the active
meander belt, and Dd is the distance from the basin midline to the basin divide. The T factor
can be considered as a vector that has direction and magnitude ranging from zero to one (T =
0 to 1), which reflects a perfect symmetric to asymmetrical basin or a tilted one respectively
(Cox, 1994; Burbank and Anderson, 2001; Keller and Pinter, 2002). Thus, for a perfectly
symmetric basin T = 0; as asymmetry increases, the value of T increases and approaches a
value of 1.The transverse topography symmetry factor has been computed in the present study
(Figure 6).

Fig 3.6: Different values of transverse topography factor (T) of the study area

Migration of the channel from the midline of the basin is an indication of the ground tilting in
the direction of migration. Parameters Af and T are used as indicators of ground tilting because
of deformation (Cox, 1994).

3.2.5 Mountain Front Sinuosity Index (Smf)

Mountain front sinuosity is a widely used reconnaissance tool to identify areas on the basis of
the tectonic activity. Smf index reflects a balance between the tendency of streams and slope
processes to produce an irregular (sinuous) mountain front and vertical active tectonics that
tends to produce a prominent straight front (Bull and Fadden 1977).
Mountain front sinuosity (Smf) is the ratio of the total length of the mountain front as measured
along the prominent break in slope along the foot of a mountain and the straight line length of
the mountain front. The Mountain front sinuosity index Smf is expressed as

Smf= Lmf/Ls

Where Lmf is the planimetric length of a mountain front, and Ls is the length of the mountain
front measured along a straight line. This index is used to evaluate the relative tectonic activity
along mountain fronts.

Active mountains yield a straight front with low Smf values; whereas along less active fronts,
erosional processes generate irregular or sinuous fronts with high Smf values.

Lower Smf values have demonstrated that they are indicative of tectonically active fronts
(Keller, 1986), while higher Smf values are normally associated with inactive fronts (Bull,
2007). Thus, lower values of the mountain front sinuosity indicates straight mountain front
while higher values shows that front is irregular. Mountain front sinuosity index is generally
applicable to all fault bounded mountain fronts.

3.2.6 Sinuosity Index (SI)

Channel sinuosity is a significant quantitative index for interpreting the significance of streams
in the evolution of landscapes and beneficial for Geo morphologists, Hydrologists and
Geologists. Sinuosity deals with the pattern of channel of a drainage basin. Channel sinuosity
is defined as the ratio of channel length and river valley length and it is calculated as:

S= SL/VL

Where, S is the channel sinuosity, SL is the stream length and VL is the valley length.

The index value of 1 indicates straight river course. Values between 1.0 and 1.5 indicate
sinuous river whereas channel sinuosity more than 1.5 represents meandering course.

Sinuosity or meandering usually occurs on those regions where relief is very low. Those river
channels which flow on the mountainous region and on steeper slopes follow straight course.

In practice no river follows straight course from source to mouth. Sinuosity of the river helps
in understanding the role of the tectonics. Sinuosity of the river channel depends on many
factors such as underlying rock type, structures present on that region, climate, vegetation,
hydrological factor, deposition of the sediments in river course, time etc.

3.2.7 Basin Shape Index (Bs)

The basin shape index (Bs) is defined as:

 Bs= Bl/Bw

Where Bl is the length of a basin measured from the headwater point to the mouth, and Bw is
the width of a basin measured at its widest point. The basin shape can be considered as an
indicator of tectonic activity. High Bs values are associated with elongated basins with
relatively higher tectonic activity; whereas low values of Bs indicate a more circular-shaped
basin, associated generally with low tectonic activity.

Relatively young drainage basins in active areas tend to be elongated in shape parallel to the
topographic slope of a mountain. The drainage basin widths are much narrower near the
mountain front in tectonically active areas where the energy of the stream is directed primarily
to down cutting. In contrast, lack of continuous rapid uplift permits widening of the basins
upstream from the mountain front in stable areas (Mahmood and Gloaguen, 2012).

Chapter-4
Results and Discussions

Based on above described geomorphic indices the seven indices were calculated for a part of
the Upper Siang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh. The results are as follows:

• Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) (223.47) indicates that the area is tectonically less
active.
• Hypsometric integral (HI) gives the value of 0.395 which indicates that the topography
is of mature stage.
• The drainage basin asymmetry factor (Af) (48.328) shows that the basin is stable and
is tectonically less active.
• Transverse topography factor (T) provides a value of 0.42 which specifies that the
basin is asymmetric and has low tectonic activity.
• The value of mountain front sinuosity index (Smf) (1.91) directs that the mountain
fronts are irregular and inactive.
• Channel sinuosity index (SI) gives us the value of 1.3 which shows that the river is
sinuous.
• Basin shape index (Bs) gives the value as 1.358 indicates that the basin is circular and
has low tectonic activity.

INDICES FORMULAE VALUE

Stream Length Gradient SL= (∆H/∆L) L 223.47
Index (SL)

Hypsometric Integral HI= Elevmean − Elevmin/Elevmax 0.395

(HI) − Elevmin

Drainage Basin Af= 100 (Ar/At) 48.328

Asymmetry Factor (Af)

Transverse Topography T= Da/Dd 0.42

Factor (T)

Mountain front sinuosity Smf= Lmf/Ls 1.91

index (Smf)

Channel sinuousity index SI=Sl/VL 1.3

(SI)
Basin shape index (Bs) Bs=Bl/Bw 1.358

Chapter-5
5.1- Summary and Conclusions

Morphometry is defined as quantitative measurement of landscape shape. Quantitative

measurements allow geomorphologists objectively to compare different landforms and to
calculate less straightforward parameters (geomorphic indices) that may be useful for
identifying a particular characteristic of an area (its level of tectonic activity). Geomorphic
indices are particularly useful in tectonic studies because they can be used for rapid evaluation
of large areas and the necessary data often can be obtained easily from topographic maps and
aerial photographs. Some of the geomorphic indices most useful in studies of active tectonics
are Hypsometric integral, Asymmetry Factor, Stream length-gradient index, mountain front
sinuosity, Topography Factor, Sinuosity Index and Basin Shape Index. Morphotectonics has
been considered as a tool to determine the intensity of tectonic activity in the tectonically active
areas.

The above seven geomorphic indices were calculated for southern part of the Upper Siang
Valley, Arunachal Pradesh. . A 30 m resolution DEM derived from United States Geological
Services (USGS), SRTM, was used for derivation of the geomorphic indices. The SL value
indicates that the region is tectonically less active. The longitudinal river profile and SL index
analysis reveals that some faults may be present where the SL value increases abruptly.
Hypsometric integral shows that the topography is of mature stage. The drainage basin
asymmetry factor indicates that the basin is unstable and is still uplifting. Transverse
topography factor specifies that the basin is asymmetric and has low tectonic activity. Mountain
front sinuosity index directs that the mountain fronts are irregular and inactive. Channel
sinuosity index shows that the river is sinuous. Basin shape index indicates that the basin is
circular and has low tectonic activity. Thus, the southern part of Upper Siang Valley is
tectonically less active. Hence, the study shows the analysis of geomorphic indices from SRTM
DEM. These geomorphic indices are used to study the tectonics of an area.

Scope of the study

 1. This study has been carried out by using SRTM DEM. But further attempt can be
carried out by using high resolution DEMs like ALOS PULSAR.
2. Delineating the watershed can help us in more accurate results. Further, relative study
can help us in analysis of tectonic activities and can also be useful in finding
geomorphic anomalies.

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