BASIC ELECTRICAL IDEAS AND

UNITS
EE -424
MODULE 1 PART 1
ENGR. JEFREY JAY S. CLAUS, RME
1. Understand the basic electrical engineering principle, concepts, laws and
theorems.
2. Distinguish the general aspects of direct current system.
3. Define Ohm’s Law and apply mathematical formulas in solving basic
electrical problems.
4. Determine the temperature-resistance effect.
5. Understand electrical circuits and apply the power, current, resistance
and voltage equations.
 The invisible energy that constitutes the flow of electrons in a closed
circuit to do work is called ‘electricity’. It is a form of energy that can be easily
converted to any other form. Previously, it was thought that electricity is a
matter which flows through the circuit to do work. However, now it has been
established that electricity constitutes the flow of electrons in the circuit, and in
this process, a work is done. It is form of energy. The Greatest discoveries of
man that come from the Greek word “electron” which means amber. Electricity
is all about electrons, which are the fundamental cause of electricity.

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 THE SHOCKING HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY

Around 600 BC Greeks found that by rubbing a hard fossilized resin

(Amber) against a fur cloth, it would attract particles of straw. This strange
effect remained a mystery for over 2000 years.
Two Thousand Years Later
Around 1600, William Gilbert, a physician who lived in London at the
time of Queen Elizabeth I and Shakespeare, studied magnetic phenomena and
demonstrated that the Earth itself was a huge magnet, by means of his "terrella"
experiment. He also studied the attraction produced when materials were
rubbed, and named it the "electric" attraction. From that came the word
"electricity" and all others derived from it.
FAMOUS DISCOVERIES
MODULE 1 PART 1
Father of electricity

The word “electricity” was

coined by Gilbert, who based
it on the
• Greek word for amber.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN • In 1752, Franklin proved that lightning and
the spark from amber were one and the
same thing. This story is a familiar one, in
which Franklin fastened an iron spike to a
silken kite, which he flew during a
thunderstorm, while holding the end of the
kite string by an iron key. When lightning
flashed, a tiny spark jumped from the key to
his wrist. The experiment proved Franklin's
theory, but was extremely dangerous - he
could easily have been killed.
 • In 1786, Luigi Galvani, an Italian professor of medicine, found that
when the leg of a dead frog was touched by a metal knife, the leg
GALVANI AND VOLTA twitched violently. Galvani thought that the muscles of the frog must
contain electricity.
• By 1792, another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta, disagreed: he
realized that the main factors in Galvani's discovery were the two
different metals - the steel knife and the tin plate - upon which the
frog was lying. Volta showed that when moisture comes between two
different metals, electricity is created.
• This led him to invent the first electric battery, the voltaic pile, which
he made from thin sheets of copper and zinc separated by moist
pasteboard.
• In this way, a new kind of electricity was discovered, electricity that
flowed steadily like a current of water instead of discharging itself in
a single spark or shock.
• Volta showed that electricity could be made to travel from one place
to another by wire, thereby making an important contribution to the
science of electricity. The unit of electrical potential, the Volt, is
named after him.
 • The credit for generating electric current on a practical
scale goes to the famous English scientist, Michael
Faraday. Faraday was greatly interested in the
MICHAEL FARADAY invention of the electromagnet, but his brilliant mind
took earlier experiments still further. If electricity could
produce magnetism, why couldn't magnetism produce
electricity?
• In 1831, Faraday found the solution. Electricity could be
produced through magnetism by motion. He discovered
that when a magnet was moved inside a coil of copper
wire, a tiny electric current flows through the wire. Of
course, by today's standards, Faraday's electric
generator was crude (and provided only a small electric
current), but he had discovered the first method of
generating electricity by means of motion in a magnetic
field.
• Faraday also realized that the electric force is
transmitted by an electric field.
 • When Edison's generator was coupled with
JAMES WATT Watt's steam engine, large scale electricity
generation became a practical proposition.
James Watt, the Scottish inventor of the
steam condensing engine, was born in 1736.
His improvements to steam engines were
patented over a period of 15 years, starting
in 1769 and his name was given to the
electric unit of power, the Watt.
ANDRE MARIE
AMPERE • Andre Marie Ampere, a French
mathematician who devoted himself to the
study of electricity and magnetism, was the
first to explain the electro-dynamic theory. A
permanent memorial to Ampere is the use of
his name for the unit of electric current.
GEORGE OHM • George Simon Ohm, a German
mathematician and physicist, was a college
teacher in Cologne when in 1827 he
published, "The Galvanic Circuit Investigated
Mathematically". His theories were coldly
received by German scientists, but his
research was recognized in Britain and he
was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841.
His name has been given to the unit of
electrical resistance.
DIFFERENT METHODS IN
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY
MODULE 1 PART 1
 Electricity plays an important role in our day-to-day life, and hence, we
should be aware of the various functions that electricity can
perform.Nowadays, all our basic needs are completely dependent upon
electricity. The study of an electrical engineering involves the analysis of the
energy transfer from one form to another. So before beginning the actual study
of an electrical engineering, it is necessary to discuss the fundamental ideas
about the basic elements of an electrical engineering.
In this module, you will study about the basic electrical engineering
principles, concepts, laws and theories which enables you to understand the
various applications of electricity in the future.
• Static Electricity - involves electrons that are moved from one place to another,
usually by rubbing or brushing. Static Electricity is nothing but the contact
between equal amount of protons and electrons (positively and negatively
charged subatomic particles). In order to make this friction work the particles
are supposed to be of opposite nature (+,-). If two same-kind particles i.e.
positive-positive or negative-negative, it would then be called as a ‘Non-
friction.
• Current Electricity - involves the flow of electrons in a conductor. Current
Electricity is a flow of electric charge across an electrical field. This current is
lead through a conductor. The conductors are generally of two types, Good
and Bad conductors. Good conductors are the ones which let the electric
charge flow through them (Copper wires) and the bad conductors are the
ones which resists the electric charge (Wood). The constant flow of electric
charge causes the conductor to heat up very often.
 HOW IS ELECTRICITY PRODUCED?
A. Electricity Produced from Frictional Energy (Static
Electricity)
• Frictional Electricity is the least important of all
methods for the production of electricity. It can be
produced by rubbing certain dissimilar materials
together. One application of static electricity is in a
device used in atomic research called Van de Graaff
generator .
 B. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED FROM PRESSURE

• Electricity produced from pressure is called

piezoelectricity, which is produced by certain
crystalline materials such as quartz and barium
titanate.
• If a crystal made of this material is placed between
two metal plates and pressure is exerted on the
plates, an electric charge will be develop but the
amount of charge will depend on the amount of
pressure exerted.

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C. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED FROM HEAT

• The amount of charge produced depends on the

difference in temperature between junction and the
opposite ends of two wires. A greater temperature
difference results in a greater charge. Electricity is
produced by heating the junction of a thermocouple.
D. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED FROM CHEMICAL
REACTION

• Electric cells are electricity produced

by chemical reactions.
E. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED FROM LIGHT
• The electricity is produced by light
striking photosensitive materials.
These materials release electrons
when excited by light under the right
conditions. These releases of
electrons are called photoelectric
effect.
F. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED FROM MAGNETISM
• Electricity produced by relative
movement of a magnet and a wire that
result in the cutting of lines of force. The
amount of electricity produced will
depend on:
a. the number of turns in coil
b. the speed with which relative motions
of the coil and the magnet take place
c. the strength of the magnet
QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
MODULE 1 PART 1
QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
• Matter is made up of atoms
• Atoms are made of nucleons (called protons and neutrons) and
electrons
• Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, electrons
have a negative charge
• The charges of protons and electrons are equal and opposite
• ATOMS ARE EVERYWHERE
• Electrons move in and out of fixed pathways around the nucleus
• Changing the number of electrons in a particular type of atom
creates an ion of that atom
 QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
On the Move
• Electrons in the outer rings or shells of atoms are bound more loosely to the nucleus
• Such electrons tend to break free from the nucleus and wander around amongst other nearby atoms
• Such electrons are called free electrons
MATTER
• Anything that occupy space and has weight
ELEMENT
• A substance that cannot be decomposed any farther by chemical reaction
ATOM
• Smallest part that an element can be reduced to and still keeping the chemical properties of the
element. It is the smallest building block of matter.
COMPOUND
• A combination of two or more elements.
MOLECULE
• It is the smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks down to its elements.
QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
• ELECTRONS
Negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus
of an atom. Electron is one of the lightest particles with a known mass.
The mass of electron is about 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
• PROTONS
Positively charged particles that stays in the nucleus of an
atom.
Proton is very small, but it is fairly massive compared to the other
particles that make up matter. The mass of one proton is 1.675 x 10-27
kg.
• NEUTRONS
Particles having no charge.
Neutrons are about the same size as protons but their mass is
slightly greater, 1.675 x 10-27 kg
QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
• NUCLEUS
The central part of the atom where the protons and
neutrons are located.
• ATOMIC NUMBER
Represents the number of electrons or protons of an
atom.
• ATOMIC MASS
Represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom.
• VALENCE ELECTRONS
Electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an atom.
QUESTION

• The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in an atoms whose atomic

number is 11 and mass number is 23 will be:

ANSWER: 11 electrons, 11 protons and 12 neutrons

 QUICK REVIEW OF THE ATOM
CONDUCTORS Other Types of Conductors
• In conductors, electric charges are free to • Electrolytes
move through the material. In insulators, they
are not. Both negative and positive charges can
move.
• In conductors:
• Semiconductors
• The charge carriers are called free electrons
In-between conductors and insulators in
• Only negative charges are free to move their ability to conduct electricity
• When isolated atoms are combined to form a Conductivity can be greatly enhanced
metal, outer electrons of the atoms do not by adding small amounts of other elements
remain attached to individual atoms but
become free to move throughout the volume Requires quantum physics to truly
of the material understand how they work.
 INSULATORS
• Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials,
generally non- metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” float about within their basic atom
structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attached by the positively
charge inner nucleus. So if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as
there are no electrons to move which gives these materials their insulating properties.
• Examples of good insulators are marble, p.v.c plastics, rubber, glass ,oil, asphalt, fiberglass,
porcelain, ceramic, dry cotton, dry copper, dry wood, air, diamond, mica, textile fiber, and wax.
• Insulators play an important tool within electrical and electronics because without them electrical
circuit would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or porcelain are
used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy glass resin materials
are used to make printed circuit boards, PCB’s etc.
SYSTEM OF UNITS
MODULE 1 PART 1
 SYSTEM’S OF UNITS
• In representing a circuit and its elements, we must define a consistent
system of units for the quantities occurring in the circuit. At the 1960 meeting
of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, the representatives
modernized the metric system and created the Systeme International
d’Unites, commonly called SI units.

Table 1.1 SI Basic Units

 SYSTEM’S OF UNITS
Table 1.2 Examples of SI Derived Units
 SYSTEM’S OF UNITS
Table 1.3 SI Derived Units with Special Names and Symbols
SYSTEM’S OF UNITS
Table 1.4 Metric Prefixes
 SYSTEM’S OF UNITS
Table 1.6. Units Outside the SI That Are Accepted for
Use with the SI System
MODULE 1 PART 1
• Fundamental theory upon which all branches of electrical engineering are
built.
• Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines,
control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric
circuit theory.
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
• An electric circuit is an interconnection
of electrical elements and each
component of the circuit is known as an
element.
• A simple electric circuit in the figure
above consists of basic elements such as
battery, a light bulb, connecting wires
and a switch.
• A electric circuit is always a closed
path. A closed circuit is one that is
complete, with good continuity
throughout.
 DIRECT CURRENT SYSTEM

• Direct current (DC) is an electric

current that is uni-directional, so the
flow of charge is always in the same
direction. As opposed to alternating
current, the direction and amperage of
direct currents do not change. It is used
in many household electronics and in all
devices that use batteries. Anything that
works with a battery works on DC.
• Open Circuit- implies that the two terminals
are points are externally disconnected,
which is equivalent to a resistance R=∞ .
This means that zero current can flow
between the two terminals, regardless of
any voltage difference.
• Short Circuit- implies that the two
terminals are externally connected with
resistance R=0 , the same as an ideal wire.
This means there is zero voltage difference
for any current value.
Electrical Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUMENTS

MODULE 1
 AMMETER
• An ammeter is an instrument used to
measure current and must be
connected in series with the circuit.
Figure shows an ammeter connected
in series with the lamp to measure
the current flowing through it. Since
all the current in the circuit passes
through the ammeter it must have a
very low resistance.
 VOLTMETER
• A voltmeter is an instrument used for
measuring electric potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.
and must be connected in parallel with
the part of the circuit whose potential
difference is required. In the Figure , a
voltmeter is connected in parallel with
the lamp to measure the potential
difference across it. To avoid a
significant current flowing through it a
voltmeter must have a very high
resistance.
 WATTMETER OHMMETER
• A wattmeter is an instrument for the • An ohmmeter is an instrument for
measurement of power in an measuring resistance.
electrical circuit.
 MULTIMETER
• A multimeter, or universal instrument,
may be used to measure voltage,
current and resistance.
CIRCUIT VARIABLES

MODULE 1
 Charge is an electrical property of the atomics particles of which
matter consists, measured in Coulombs(C ).
Like charges repel while unlike charges attract.
1 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = −1.602𝑥10−19 C
1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.602𝑥10−19 C
1 coulomb (C )= 6.24 x 1018 electrons or protons

𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
Where:
Q = Charge in Coulumbs(C)
I = Current in Amperes (A)
t = time in seconds (s)
 If a current of 10A flows for four minutes, find the
quantity of electricity transferred.
60𝑠𝑒𝑐
Given: I = 10A, t= 4mins x = 240 seconds,
1𝑚𝑖𝑛

Solution:
Quantity of electricity, Q =It
Q= 10A(240sec)= 2400 Coulombs(C)
1. How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
2. Calculate the amount of charge represented by six million
protons.
3. In what time would a current of 10A transfer a charge of 50
C?
Such movement of free electrons creates an electric current
Materials with large numbers of free electrons are called electrical conductors.
They conduct electrical current.

rate of flow of electron or electric charge through a conductor or circuit

elements

measured in amperes (A) or Coulombs/sec

Where:
𝑄 Q = Charge in Coulombs(C)
I= I = Current in Amperes (A)
𝑡 t = time in seconds (s)
1. Direct Current (DC) – is a current that remains constant with
time.
2. Alternating Current(AC)- is a current that varies sinusoidally
with time.

A time-varying current is
If the current does not represented by the symbol i. A
change with time, but common form of time-varying
remains constant, we call current is the sinusoidal current or
it a direct current (DC). alternating current (AC).
Conventional current flow: (a) positive current
flow, (b) negative current flow
 The three main effects of an electric current are:
(a) magnetic effect (b) chemical effect (c) heating effect
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current
include:
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers,
telephones, car-ignition and lifting magnets
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and
electroplating
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons,
furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
 What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be
transferred in 15 ms?
1𝑠𝑒𝑐
Given: I = ?, Q= 0.24 C, t= 15ms x = 0.015 seconds,
1000𝑚𝑠
Solution:
𝑄
I=
𝑡

0.24𝐶
𝐼= = 16C/sec or 16 A
0.015𝑠𝑒𝑐
1. The current in an electric lamp is 5 amperes. What
quantity of electricity flows towards the filament in 6
minutes?
2. A constant current of 4 A charges a capacitor. How
long will it take to accumulate a total charge of 8
coulombs on the plates?
 We know that like charges repel each other whereas unlike charges
attract each other. To overcome this force of attraction or repulsion, a certain
amount of work or energy is required. When the charges are moved, it is said that
a potential difference exists and the work or energy per unit charge utilized in this
process is known as voltage or potential difference.
 Also known as electromotive force (emf); electric pressure; potential
difference.
The energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in
volts (V)

Where:
W= WORK DONE ( joule)
Q= CHARGE (coulomb)
DC Voltage
- commonly produce by batteries
AC Voltage
- produced by electric generator

A constant voltage is called dc voltage and is

represented by V, Whereas a sinusoidal time varying voltage is
called an ac voltage represented by v.
A polarity (+. -) is used to indicate a voltage across an element.
Voltages , like currents, can be positive or negative.
 The potential at point a with respect to point b is V ab.

• The Vab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) Point a is at a

potential of Vab volts higher than point b, or (2) and point b
-Vab volts above point a. It follows logically that in general
 A battery can deliver 10 Joules of energy to move 5

coulombs of charge. What is the potential difference between

the terminals of the battery?

Given: V = ?, W= 10 Joule, Q= 5 Coulombs
Solution:
𝑊
V=
𝑄
10 𝐽
V= = 2 J/C or 2 V
5𝐶
1. Work equal to 136.0 joules is expended in moving 8.5 𝑥1018 electrons between
two points in an electric circuit. What potential difference does this establish
between the two points?
BASIC ELECTRICAL IDEAS AND
UNITS
EE -424
MODULE 1 PART 2
ENGR. JEFREY JAY S. CLAUS, RME
states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly
proportional to the impressed emf applied to the circuit and
inversely to the equivalent resistance of the said circuit. Named
after the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm (1787-1854)
𝑽
I=
𝑹

Where:
V= impressed voltage (volt)
I = current drawn (ampere)
R= resistance (ohm)
 The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a potential
difference of 20 V is applied. Determine
the value of the resistance.

Given: I = 0.8 A ,V = 20 V
𝑽
Solution: I=
𝑹
𝑽 𝟐𝟎𝑽
R= = = 25Ω
𝑰 𝟎.𝟖 𝑨
1. Determine the voltage which must be applied to a 2 kΩ resistor in
order that a current of 10 mA may flow.

2. A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a

current of 5 mA to flow. Determine the resistance of the resistor. If the
voltage is now reduced to 25 V, what will be the new value of the
current flowing?
 SOLUTION
𝑽 𝑽
#𝟏 𝑰= #𝟐 𝑰 =
𝑹 𝑹
𝑽𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑹𝟏 =
𝑰𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔(𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨) 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽/ (𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨)
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝟐𝟓𝑽
𝑰𝟐 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W) or J/s, Watt is the unit of Power.
Equivalent to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
• Named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt.
𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑾 Work done = force x distance
P= 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰 R = 𝑷=
𝑹 𝑻
Where:
P= electrical power (watt)
V= voltage (volt)
I= current (ampere)
R= resistance (ohm)
 A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is

done if the machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the

movement takes 25 s?

Given: F = 200 N, d = 20m, t= 25 seconds

Solution:

Work done = force x distance = 200N x 20 m =4000 Nm or 4kJ

𝑊 4000𝐽 𝐽
P= = = 160 = 160 𝑊
𝑡 25 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠
1. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s.
What is (a) the work done and (b) the power developed?
2. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 Ω.What current will flow when
it is connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the
kettle.
SOLUTION #1
SOLUTION #2
𝑽𝟐
𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑰=
𝑹 𝑹
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝟐
𝑷= 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝟑𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 𝑰=
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟎 𝑾 𝟑𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

𝑰 = 𝟖𝑨
Energy is the capacity to do work. 1 calorie= 4.186 joules
W= 𝑷𝒕 1 hp = 746 watts
1 BTU= 252 calories
Where:
1 kWh= 3600 kJ= 3413 BTU =860
W= electrical energy (joule) kcal
P= electrical power (watt) 1 joule= 1 x 𝟏𝟎𝟕 ergs
t= time (second) 1 day = 24 hours
1 month = 30 days = 720 hours
1 year = 365 days = 8760 hours
Kilowatt-hour (kW-hr)
-unit in which electrical energy is sold to
a consumer.
 A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How

much energy is provided in this time?

Given: V = 5 V, I = 3 A, t= 10 minutes

Solution: W = Pt, P= VI = 5V(3A)= 15W

60𝑠𝑒𝑐
W= 𝑃𝑡 = 15𝑊 10𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥 = = 9000𝑊𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐽
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
1. Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V supply.
Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours
each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7 pesos.

2. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for

40 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the
supply.

3. How many calories does an electric heater of 100 watts generate per
second?
SOLUTION # 1
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽(𝟏𝟑𝑨)
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝒌𝑾

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒕
𝟕𝒑𝒉𝒑
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑾 𝟑𝟎𝒉𝒓
𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟔𝟓𝟓. 𝟐 𝑷𝑯𝑷
SOLUTION # 2
𝟔𝟎𝒔
𝑾 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝑴𝑱 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱 𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒔
𝟏 𝑴𝒊𝒏
𝟑. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱
𝑷=
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒔
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟓𝒌𝑾
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑾 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑽(𝑰)
𝑰 = 𝟔𝑨
SOLUTION # 3
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝟏𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 = 𝒙
𝒔 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝑱
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟗𝟏 𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒔
https://www.codrey.com/resistor/types-of-resistors
LAW OF RESISTANCE
• its varies directly as its length (l)
• its varies inversely as the cross-sectional (A) of the conductor
• it depends on the nature of the material
• it depends on the temperature of the conductor
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY (Ρ)
• The resistance of electrical materials in terms of unit dimensions length and cross – sectional area.
• The amount of change of resistance in a material per unit change in temperature.
• The unit is ohm – circular mils per foot

Where: The resistance is directly proportional to the conductor length. The

R = Resistance resistance is inversely proportional to the cross – sectional area.
A = Cross-sectional area
ρ = Resistivity
L = Length
V = Volume
RESISTIVITY OF COMMON ELEMENTS AT 𝟐𝟎℃.
 Calculate the resistance of a copper conductor having a length
of 2 km and a cross-section of 22 𝑚𝑚2 . Assume the resistivity of copper is
1.72 𝑥 10−8 Ω-m.

Given: l = 2km = 2 𝑥 103 m , A= 22 𝑚𝑚2 = 22𝑥 10−6 𝑚2 , ρ =

1.72 𝑥 10−8 Ω-m. Solution:

𝑙 2 𝑥 103 m
R= ρ = 1.72 𝑥 10−8 Ω−m =1.56Ω
𝐴 22𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
1. The substation bus bar is made up of 2 inches round copper bars
20 ft. long. What is the resistance of each bar if resistivity is 1.724 x10-
6ohm-cm.

2. Determine the resistance of a bus bar made of copper if the

length is 10m long and the cross section is 4x4 cm2. Use 1.724 x10-6
ohm-cm as the resistivity.
SOLUTION #1
𝒍
𝑹 = ρ( )
𝒂
𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝒇𝒕 𝒙 𝒙 = 𝟔𝟎𝟗. 𝟔𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝒇𝒕 𝟏𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
𝟐 𝟐
𝐝 𝟐𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝒄𝒎
a= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 =𝝅 =𝝅 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟑𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉

−𝟔
𝟔𝟎𝟗. 𝟔𝒄𝒎
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎 − 𝒄𝒎( 𝟐
)
𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟑𝒄𝒎
𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
SOLUTION #2
𝒍
𝑹 = ρ( )
𝒂
ρ = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑶𝒉𝒎 − 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝒄𝒎
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎 𝒙 −𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒎
a = 𝟒𝒙𝟒𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎𝟐
−𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎 − 𝒄𝒎( 𝟐
)
𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
1. What is the size in square millimeter of the cable of 250 MCM
size?
2. A 500 MCM ACSR cable has 37 strands. Determine the diameter
in mills of each strand.
3. Using the given particulars, calculate the resistances of the
following conductors at 20℃.
Material – Copper-Annealed, Length- 1000 ft., CM – 3220 circular
mils.
 SOLUTION PROBLEM # 1
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑴𝑪𝑴 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒍 𝟏𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝒎𝒎
𝒅 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝒙 𝒙
𝒂 = 𝒅𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝟏𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝒎𝒎
𝒅= 𝒂
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅𝒙 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝒎𝒎 𝟐
𝒅 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝒊𝒍 𝑨= 𝒅 =
𝟒 𝟒
𝒅 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝟐
SOLUTION PROBLEM # 3
𝒍
𝑹 = ρ( )
𝒂
𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝑶𝒉𝒎 − ( )( ) = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟓 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝒇𝒕 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝑪𝑴
SOLUTION PROBLEM # 2
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪𝑴
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑴𝑪𝑴 =
𝟑𝟕 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟑 𝟓𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑪𝑴
𝒅= 𝒂
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟑 𝟓𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑪𝑴
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒍
• Rise in temperature – increases the R of pure metals
• Rise in temperature – increases the R of alloys
• Rise in temperature – decreases the R of electrolytes and insulators.

Absolute temperature
Where:
𝟏
T= R1 = initial resistance
𝜶𝟎
Where:
R2 = final resistance
𝟏
1 𝜶𝟎 = T = inferred absolute temperature
∝𝑡1 = 𝟏
− 𝒕𝒏
𝑇 + t1 𝜶𝒏
(temperature when resistance of a given material is zero)
ΔT = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 𝜶𝒏 =
𝟏
𝟏
+ 𝒕𝒏 t1 = initial temperature
𝜶𝟎
t2 = final temperature
𝜶 = temperature coefficient of resistance= ohmic change
per degree per ohm of specified temperature.

VIDEO LINK: https://youtu.be/SaXggeH-dEo

INFERRED ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE (T) IN 0C

COPPER ANNEALED = 234.5

SILVER = 243
ALUMINUM = 236
HDC (HARD DRAWN COPPER) = 242

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (@ 20 0C)

COPPER = 0.00393/0C
SILVER = 0.0038/0C
ALUMINUM = 0.0039/0C
 Resistance vs. Temperature

Using Similar Triangles,

R2 R1
=
𝑇 + t2 𝑇 + t1
 If the resistance of a copper wire is 50 Ω at 20℃, what is its
resistance at 100℃ (boiling point of water)?

Given: R1 = 50 Ω , t1 = 20℃ , t2 = 100℃ , R2 = ?

Solution:
R2 R1
=
𝑇 + t2 𝑇 + t1
R2 50Ω
=
234.5°𝐶 +100°𝐶 234.5°𝐶 +20°𝐶

50Ω(334.5°𝐶)
R2 = = 65.72Ω
254.5°𝐶
1. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 62 ohm, at a room
temperature of 24 ℃. What will be its resistance at?
a) 80 ℃ 𝑏) − 20 ℃.
2. The tungsten filament in an incandescent lamp has a
resistance of 9.8 ohm at a room temperature of 20 ℃ and a
resistance of 132 ohm at normal operating temperature.
Calculate the temperature of the heated filament.
∝20℃=0.0045/℃
3. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100Ω when its
temperature is 0°C. Determine its resistance at 70°C if the
temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 0°C is
0.0043/°C.
SOLUTION #1
A. B.
R2 R1 R2 R1
= =
𝑇 + t2 𝑇 + t1 𝑇 + t2 𝑇 + t1

R2 62Ω R2 62Ω
= =
234.5°𝐶 +80°𝐶 234.5°𝐶 +24°𝐶 234.5°𝐶 +(−20°𝐶) 234.5°𝐶 +24°𝐶

R2 = 75.4313 Ω R2 = 51.4468 Ω
SOLUTION #2
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 𝜶=0.0045/°𝐶
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎°𝐶 𝑻𝟐 =? °𝐶 ΔT = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏

𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝜶ΔT)
𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 (𝟏 + 0.0045/°𝐶(𝒕𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎°𝐶)
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟗𝟎. 𝟗𝟖°𝐶
SOLUTION #3
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝜶ΔT)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔 (𝟏 + 0.0043/°𝐶(𝟕𝟎°𝐶 − 𝟎°𝐶)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
 CONDUCTORS UNDERGOING DRAWING PROCESS
(CONSTANT VOLUME, SAME MATERIAL)

- In the process, the waste of the material is assumed negligible (efficiency is

100%), thus keeping the volume to be constant all throughout the process.
1. A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and a
resistance of 0.031 ohm is drawn down so that its diameter is
5.0 mm. what does its resistance become?
2. A one – meter rod of 2 – cm diameter is drawn until its
resistance is 100 times the initial resistance. Its length afterward
is?
3. A copper wire of unknown length has a resistance of 0.80
ohm. By successive passes through drawing lies, the length of
the wire is increased to 2 and ½ times its original value.
Assuming that resistivity remains unchanged during the
drawing process, determine the new value of its resistance.
SOLUTION #1 SOLUTION #2
4 2
𝑅2 𝑑1 𝑅2 𝑙2
= =
𝑅1 𝑑2 𝑅1 𝑙1
4 1
𝑑1
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑑2 𝑙2 = 𝑙1 ( )
𝑅1
4
11.7
𝑅2 = 0.031 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅2 = 100𝑅1
5 1
100𝑅1
𝑅2 = 0.93 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑙2 = 1 ( )
𝑅1

𝑙2 = 10𝑚
SOLUTION #3
2
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 2.5𝑙1 = 𝑙2
=
𝑅1 𝑙1

2
𝑅2 2.5𝑙1
=
𝑅1 𝑙1
2
𝑅2 = 0.8 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 2.5

𝑅2 = 5 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
COLOR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
BLACK 0 1
BROWN 1 101
RED 2 102
ORANGE 3 103
YELLOW 4 104
GREEN 5 105
BLUE 6 106
VIOLET 7 107
GRAY 8 108
WHITE 9 109
GOLD 10-1 ±5%
SILVER 10-2 ± 10 %
NO COLOR ±20 %

TOLERANCE
▪ Tolerance is the amount (in percent) by which the actual ohmic
resistance can be different from the color coded value.
 Brown Black Orange Gold
1 0 103 ±5%

Solution:
CONDUCTANCE (G)
• Conductance is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct electric
current.
• Reciprocal of Resistance
• measured in mho (Ʊ), siemens (S)
𝟏 𝑨 𝜹𝑨
G= = =
𝑹 𝝆𝒍 𝑳

SIEMENS (formerly mho)

• - unit of conductance.
• Named after the german engineer, Earnst Werner von Siemens (1816-1892)
Conductivity (δ)– reciprocal of resistivity

𝟏 𝑨 𝜹𝑨 𝟏
G= = = δ=
𝑹 𝝆𝒍 𝑳 𝝆

Where:
δ = conductivity (siemens per meter)
ρ = specific resistance (resistivity)(ohm- meter)
L = length(meter)
A = cross sectional area(square meter)
G = conductance(siemens)
R = resistance(ohm)
Module 2
Engr. Jefrey Jay S. Claus
• Why it is important to understand?
Series and parallel networks There are two ways in which
components may be connected together in an electric circuit. One
way is ‘in series’ where components are connected ‘end-to-end’;
another way is ‘in parallel’ where components are connected
‘across each other’. When a circuit is more complicated than two
or three elements, it is very likely to be a network of individual
series and parallel circuits.
 At first glance, these circuits may seem very complicated,
but with a methodical analysis approach the functionality of the
circuit can become obvious. This chapter explains with examples,
series, parallel and series/parallel networks. The relationships
between voltages, currents and resistances for these networks are
considered through calculations.
 From Ohm’s law:

V1 = IR1,V2 = IR2,V3 = IR3 and V = IR

where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V = V1 + V2 + V3
then IR =IR1+IR2+IR3
Dividing throughout by I gives:
In a series circuit: R = R1 + R2 + R3
(a) The current I is the same in all parts of
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance
the circuit and hence the same reading is
found on each of the two ammeters shown.
is obtained by adding together the values of
the separate resistances.
(b) The sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is
equal to the total applied voltage, V , i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
 EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Determine (a) the battery voltage V , (b) (a) Battery voltage :
the total resistance of the circuit, and (c) V =V1 + V2 + V3
the values of resistance of resistors R1, =5 + 2 + 6
R2 and R3, given that the p.d.s across =13V
R1, R2 and R3 are 5 V, 2 V and 6 V, (b) Total circuit resistance :
R = V / I = 13V/4 A=3.25 ohms
(c) Resistance R1 = V1/ I = 5V /4a =1.25 ohm
Resistance R2 = V2 /I = 2V /4a =0.5 ohms
Resistance R3 = V3 /I = 6V /4a =1.5 ohms
(Check: R1 + R2 + R3 =1.25 + 0.5 + 1.5 =3.25= R)
 EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
Determine the p.d. across resistor R3. If P.d. across R3,
the total resistance of the circuit is 100, V3 =25 − 10− 4=11V
determine the current flowing through P3 = 11V(0.25A) = 2.75W
resistor R1. Find also the value of Current I = V / R = 25V /100ohms
resistor R2., =0.25 A,

which is the current flowing in each resistor

Resistance R2 = V2/ I = 4V /0.25 A=16 ohms
The voltage distribution for the circuit
shown in Figure 5.5(a) is given by:

The circuit shown in Figure(b) is often referred

to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit
can consist of a number of similar elements in A potential divider is the simplest way of
series connected across a voltage source, producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a
voltages being taken from connections source of higher e.m.f., and is the basic
between the elements. Frequently the divider operating mechanism of the potentiometer,
consists of two resistors, as shown in Figure a measuring device for accurately
5.5(b), where
measuring potential differences
EXAMPLE 1: EXAMPLE 2:
Determine the value of voltage V shown in
Figure Two resistors are connected in series across
a 24 V supply and a current of 3 A flows
in the circuit. If one of the resistors has a
resistance of 2, determine (a) the value of
the other resistor, and (b) the p.d. across
the 2 resistor. If the circuit is connected for
50 hours, how much energy is used?
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
(a) Total circuit resistance Energy used = power× time
RT = V/ I = 24 V/ 3 a =8 ohms =V×I×t
Value of unknown resistance, = (24V × 3a) (50 hr)
Rx =8ohms − 2ohms=6 ohms = 3600Wh
= 3.6 kWh
(b) P.d. across 2 resistor,
V1 =IR1=3 × 2=6 V
V2 = IRx = 3a x 6ohms = 18 V
Figure shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3,
connected across each other, i.e. in parallel,
across a battery source of V volts.
In a parallel circuit:
(a) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal
to the total circuit current, I, i.e. I =I1 +I2 +I3
(b) The source p.d., V volts, is the same across
each of the resistors
From Ohm’s law:

This equation must be used when finding the

total resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the
special case of two resistors in parallel.

where R is the total circuit resistance.

Since I =I1 + I2 + I3
then V/ R = V/ R1 + V /R2 + V /R3
Dividing throughout by V gives:
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, and (b) the value of resistor R2 P.d. across R1 is the same as the supply
voltage V .
Hence supply voltage,
V =8 A× 5ohms=40V
(a) Reading on ammeter,
I3 = V/ R3 = 40V /20ohms =2 A
(b) Current flowing through
I2 =11A−8A−2A=1A
Hence,
R2 = V /I2 = 40 V/ 1A =40 ohms
EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
(a) The total circuit resistance R is given by
Two resistors, of resistance 3 and 6, are
connected in parallel across a battery
having a voltage of 12 V. Determine (a)
the total circuit resistance and (b) the
current flowing in the 2 resistor 1 / R = (2 + 1)/ 6 = 3 / 6 ohms
Hence,
R = 6/ 3 = 2 ohms
Alternatively,

(b) Current flowing in the 2 resistor

I = V/R = 12V/2ohms =6 amp
For the circuit shown, the total Similarly,
circuit resistance, RT , is given by :

Summarizing, with reference to circuit

and

It is important to note that current division can

only be applied to two parallel resistors. If
there are more than two parallel resistors,
then current division cannot be determined
using the above formulae.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
For the series-parallel arrangement shown
in Figure, find (a) the supply current, (b) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in
the current flowing through each resistor parallel is:
and (c) the p.d. across each resistor.

The equivalent resistance RT of R1, Rx and

R4 in series is:
RT = 2.5 + 1.5 + 4 = 8 ohms
Supply current I = V / RT
= 200V / 8ohms
I = 25A
 SOLUTION (c) The equivalent circuit of given is shown below
(b) The current flowing through R1 and R4 p.d. across R1, i.e. V1 =IR1 =(25)(2.5)=62.5 V
is 25 A The current flowing through R2 p.d. across Rx , i.e. Vx =IRx =(25)(1.5)=37.5 V
p.d. across R4, i.e. V4 =IR4 =(25)(4)=100 V
Hence the p.d. across R2 =p.d. across R3 =37.5 V

The current flowing through R3

(a) (Note that the currents flowing through R2 and

R3 must add up to the total current flowing
into the parallel arrangement, i.e. 25 A)
EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
For the circuit shown ; calculate (a) the
value of resistor Rx such that the total (a) Power dissipated P =VI watts,
power dissipated in the circuit is 2.5 kW, hence 2500= (250)(I)
and (b) the current flowing in each of the i.e. I = 2500W/ 250V = 10A
four resistors. From Ohm’s law, RT = V / I = 250/ 10 =25,
where RT is the equivalent circuit resistance.
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in
parallel is
(15 × 10) /(15 + 10) = 150 / 25 = 6 ohms
The equivalent resistance of resistors R3 and
Rx in parallel is equal to 25 − 6, i.e. 19.
There are three methods whereby Rx can be
determined.
SOLUTION
Method 1 Method 2 Since the equivalent resistance of
The voltage V1 =IR, where R is 6, R3 and Rx in parallel is 19,
from above,
i.e. V1=(10)(6)=60V 19 = (38Rx)/(38+Rx) i.e. product sum
Hence Hence
V2=250V − 60V=190V 19(38 + Rx ) = 38Rx
190V =p.d. across R3 722 + 19Rx = 38Rx
=p.d. across Rx 722 = 38Rx − 19Rx
I3 = V2 / R3 = 190 /38 =5A. = 19Rx
Thus I4 =5A also, Thus Rx = 722 /19 = 38 ohms
since I =10A
Thus Rx = V2/ I4 = 190/5a
=38 ohms
SOLUTION
Method 3
When two resistors having the same
value are connected in parallel the
equivalent resistance is always half
the value of one of the resistors. Thus,
in this case, since RT =19 and R3
=38, then Rx = 38 could have been
deduced on sight.
 Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors
are neither in parallel nor in series. These are the wye (Y) or tee
(T) network shown in the figure (a) and the delta or pi network
shown in the figure (b). These networks occur by themselves or as
part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase networks,
electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest here is
in how to identify them when they occur as part of a network and
how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that
network.
To obtain the conversion formulas for
Each resistor in the delta network is the sum of
transforming a wye network to an
all possible products of Y resistors taken two at
equivalent delta network.
a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Transform the circuit Y to delta

20
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of
the resistors in the two adjacent delta branches,
divided by the sum of the three delta resistors.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Transform the circuit from delta to Y
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Obtain the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑎𝑏 for In this circuit, there are two Y networks and
the circuit shown, and use it to find current
one delta network. Transforming just one of
𝑖.
these will simplify the circuit. If we convert the
Y network comprising the 5-Ω, 10-Ω, and
20-Ω resistors, we may select
𝑅1 = 10 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑅2 = 20 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑅3 = 5 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
Thus, the equations are,
SOLUTION Combining the three pairs of resistors in
parallel, we obtain
70 ∗ 30
70 Ohms || 30 Ohms = = 21 Ohms
70 + 30

With the Y converted to delta, the 12.5 ∗ 17.5

12.5 Ohms || 17.5 Ohms =
equivalent circuit (with the voltage source 12.5 + 17.5
removed for now) is = 7.2917 Ohms

15 ∗ 35
15 Ohms || 35 Ohms =
15 + 35
= 10.5 Ohms
SOLUTION
Hence, we find
So that the equivalent circuit is,
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 7.292 + 10.5 ||21

17.792 ∗ 21
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = = 9.632 Ohms
17.792 + 21

𝑣𝑠 120
𝑖= = = 12.358𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑏 9.632
You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-Xy2_3tIUE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQYRc9UibKk&pbjreload=101
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kLjrS4krO2E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0-nHbGQZqo
Get the total resistance of the circuit
Get the total resistance of the circuit
Get the total resistance of the circuit
Get the total resistance of the circuit
Get the total resistance of the circuit
 EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Consider the circuit below, which is
an approximation of a high-voltage dc The equivalent circuit of the high voltage dc
transmission facility. Assume that the bottom facility is shown below,
portion of the transmission line is a perfect
conductor. The load can be represented by a
resistor of value 183.5 Ω, determine both the
power delivered to the load and the power
losses in the line.

𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.04125 𝑥400𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 16.5 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼 = 400𝑘𝑉(2𝑘𝐴)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 800𝑀𝑊
SOLUTION
The input power is 800 MW and the Since power is proportional to
power transmitted to the load is the square of the current, there would be a
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 large increase in the power loss in the line
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 2𝑥103 2 (183.5) and, therefore, the efficiency of the facility
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 734 𝑀𝑊 would decrease substantially. That is why,
in general, we transmit power at high
Therefore, the power loss in the voltage and low current.
transmission line is

𝑃𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 800𝑀𝑊 − 734𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥103 2 (16.5)
𝑃𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 66𝑀𝑊
EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
Find 𝑖0 and 𝑣0 in the circuit shown. (a) The 6-Ω and 3-Ω resistors are in
Calculate the power dissipated in the 3-Ω
resistor.
parallel, so their combined resistance is

6∗3
6 Ohms || 3 Ohms = = 2 Ohms
6+3
Thus, our circuit reduces to
SOLUTION Also, voltage 𝑣0 can be solve using voltage
division; 2
Notice that 𝑣0 is not affected by the 𝑣𝑜 = 12 = 4𝑉
combination of the resistors because the 4+2
resistors are in parallel and therefore
To solve for 𝑖0, Ohm’s law or current division
have the same voltage 𝑣0. Applying
can be used.
Ohm’s law,
By Ohm’s Law:
4
12 𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑖𝑜 ; 𝑖𝑜 = 𝐴
𝑖= = 2𝐴 3
4+2
By current division:
and hence 6 2 4
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖= 2 = 𝐴
6+3 3 3
𝑣𝑜 = 2𝑖 = 2 ∗ 2 = 4𝑉 By p.d at 3ohms:
4
𝑝𝑜 = 𝑖𝑜 𝑣𝑜 = ∗ 4 = 5.33𝑊
3
EXAMPLE 3: SOLUTION
Find Req in the circuit below. (a) To get the Req, combine resistors in series
and parallel. The 6Ω and 3Ω resistors
are in parallel, so their equivalent
resistance is
6∗3
6 Ohms || 3 Ohms = = 2 Ohms
6+3

(The symbol ∥ is used to indicate a parallel

combination.) Also, the 1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors
are in series; hence their equivalent resistance
is
1 𝑂ℎ𝑚 + 5 𝑂ℎ𝑚 = 6 𝑂ℎ𝑚
SOLUTION The equivalent circuit now is represented by
Thus, the circuit is reduced to

Thus, Req is equal to the series combination of

The two 2-resistors are in series, that
4Ω, 8Ω, and 2. 4Ω
resulted to 4Ω. The equivalent 4Ω
resistor is now in parallel with the 6Ω 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 8 + 2.4 = 14.4 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
resistor. The equivalent resistance is
4∗6
4 Ohms || 6 Ohms = = 2.4 Ohms
4+6
EXAMPLE 4: SOLUTION
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in The 3-Ω and 6-Ω resistors are in parallel
the circuit
because they are connected to the same two
nodes c and b. Their combined resistance is

6∗3
6 Ohms || 3 Ohms = = 2 Ohms
6+3

Similarly, the 12-Ω and 4-Ω resistors are in

parallel since they are connected to the same
two nodes d and b. Hence
12 ∗ 4
12 Ohms || 4 Ohms = = 3 Ohms
12 + 4
SOLUTION
Also the 1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors are in
series; hence, their equivalent resistance
is
1 𝑂ℎ𝑚 + 5 𝑂ℎ𝑚 = 6 𝑂ℎ𝑚

With these three combinations, we can Thus, equivalent circuit is given in figure
replace the original circuit with that in (b). In figure (b), 2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors
figure (a). In figure (a), 3-Ω in parallel are in parallel,
with 6-Ω gives 2-Ω. This 2-Ω equivalent 2∗3
resistance is now in series with the 1-Ω 3 Ohms || 2 Ohms = = 1.2 Ohms
2+3
resistance to give a combined resistance This 1.2-Ω resistor is in series with the
of 10-Ω resistor, so that
1 𝑂ℎ𝑚 + 2 𝑂ℎ𝑚 = 3 𝑂ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 1.2Ω+10Ω=11.2Ω
Module 3
Engr. Jefrey Jay S. Claus
1. Describe an electric circuit and Ohm’s Law
2. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the voltages and currents in
electric circuits.
3. Analyze single-loop and single-node-pair circuits to calculate
the voltages and currents in an electric circuit using Kirchhoff's
Law.
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law , Kirchhoff’s voltage law and
Maxwell Analysis to determine the voltages and currents in an
electric circuit.
 Since the elements of an electric circuit can be
interconnected in several ways, there are basic terms and
concepts of network topology to be understood. To differentiate
between a circuit and a network, we may regard a
Network as an interconnection of elements or devices
whereas a
Circuit is a network providing one or more closed paths
 The convention, when addressing network topology, is to
use the word network rather than circuit. This is done even though
the words network and circuit mean the same thing when used in
this context. In network topology, we study the properties relating
to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric
configuration of the network. Such elements include branches,
nodes, and loops
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or
a resistor
• In other words, a branch represents any two- terminal
element. The circuit has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage
source, the 2-A current source, and the three resistors
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches
A node is usually indicated by a
dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a
connecting wire) connects two nodes, the
two nodes constitute a single node. The
circuit in the figure has three nodes a, b,
and c. The three points that form node b
are connected by perfectly conducting
wires and therefore constitute a single
point. The same is true of the four points
forming node c.
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A loop is a closed path formed by
starting at a node, passing through a set of
nodes, and returning to the starting node
without passing through any node more than
once. A loop is said to be independent if it
contains a branch which is not in any other
loop. Independent loops or paths result in
independent sets of equations. For
example, the closed path bcb contains 3-Ω
resistor and a 2A current source.
 In 1845, German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff
first described two laws that became central to
electrical engineering- the Kirchhoff's Current Law (also
known as Kirchhoff's Junction Law, and Kirchhoff's First
Law) and the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

These laws are extremely useful in real life

because they describe the relation of values of currents
that flow through a junction point and voltages in an
electrical circuit loop. They describe how electrical
current flows in all of the billions of electric appliances
and devices, as well as throughout homes and
businesses, that are in use continually on Earth
 This first law states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering
any node is zero. In mathematical form the law appears as

where 𝑖𝑗(𝑡) is the 𝑗𝑡ℎ current entering the node through branch 𝑗 and 𝑁 is the
number of branches connected to the node.
 To understand the use of this law, consider node 3 shown in the
figure;
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) to this node,

𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟓 − 𝒊𝟒 − 𝒊𝟕 = 𝟎

We have assumed that the

algebraic signs of the currents entering the
node are positive and, therefore, that the
signs of the currents leaving the node are
negative.
Alternately, we can write the equation as

𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟓 = 𝒊𝟒 + 𝒊𝟕

which states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the node. Both of these italicized expressions
are alternative forms of Kirchhoff’s current law.
EXAMPLE 1:
Considering the circuit diagram shown, find the unknown current in the network.
Solution:
Assuming that the currents leaving a junction
is positive.
By KCL
at node 1
𝐼1 − 60𝑚𝐴 − 20𝑚𝐴 = 0;80 mA
At node 4
30𝑚𝐴 + 20𝑚𝐴 − 𝐼5 = 0;50mA
at node 3
60𝑚𝐴 + 𝐼5 − 𝐼4 − 40𝑚𝐴 = 0;70mA
at node 2
𝐼4 - 𝐼1 - 𝐼6 = 0;-10 mA
EXAMPLE 1:
Considering the circuit diagram shown, find the unknown current in the network.

The first equation yields 𝐼1 and

the last equation yields 𝐼5. Knowing 𝐼5, we
can immediately obtain 𝐼4 from the third
equation. Then the values of 𝐼1 and 𝐼4 yield
the value of 𝐼6 from the second equation.
The results are 𝐼1 = 80 𝑚𝐴, 𝐼4 = 70 𝑚𝐴,
𝐼5 = 50 𝑚𝐴, and 𝐼6 = −10 𝑚𝐴.
1. Given the networks shown, find (a)I1 in network ; and (b)IT in network

2. Find the current ix in the circuit given.

 1. Given the networks shown, find (a)I1 in network ; and (b)IT in network

SOLUTION
(a) I1 = 50 mA

(b) Thru parallel characteristic:

It = 10 mA + 40 mA + 20mA
It = 70 mA
 2. Find the current ix in the circuit given.
Node A

Node B

(a) @ Node A:
+44 mA –Ix -10x = 0
Ix = 4 mA

(b) @ Node B
+Ix – 10Ix + 120 mA – 12 mA =0
Ix = 12 mA
 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law describes the distribution of
electrical voltage within a loop, or closed conducting path, of an
electrical circuit. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law states that: the
algebraic sum of the voltage (potential) differences in any loop
must equal zero. The voltage differences include those
associated with electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and resistive
elements, such as resistors, power sources (batteries, for
example) or devices—lamps, televisions, and blenders—
plugged into the circuit. Picture this as the voltage rising and
falling as you proceed around any of the individual loops in the
circuit.
 Using the Voltage Rule requires some sign conventions,
which aren't necessarily as clear as those in the Current Rule.
Choose a direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) to go along
the loop. When traveling from positive to negative (+ to -) in an
EMF (power source), the voltage drops, so the value is negative.
When going from negative to positive (- to +), the voltage goes
up, so the value is positive.
 Remember that when traveling around the circuit to apply
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, be sure you are always going in the same direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise) to determine whether a given element
represents an increase or decrease in the voltage. If you begin jumping
around, moving in different directions, your equation will be incorrect. When
crossing a resistor, the voltage change is determined by the formula:

𝑽= 𝑰 ∗ 𝑹

where I is the value of the current

R is the resistance of the resistor
EXAMPLE 1:
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. If VR1 and V R2 are known quantities, find VR3.

SOLUTION
By KVL:
VR1-30V+VR3-15V+VR2-5=0
𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑅3 = 50 + 15 + 30
Now suppose that VR1 and V R2 are known to
be 18V and 12v, respectively.
18V+12V+Vr3=50+15+30
VR3= 65V
EXAMPLE 2:
Consider the network in the figure. Let us apply KVL to determine the voltage between
two points. Specifically, in terms of the double-subscript notation, find Vae and Vec.

SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn in figure b. Since points a and e as well as e and c are
not physically close, the arrow notation is very useful. Our approach to determining the
unknown voltage is to apply KVL with the unknown voltage in the closed path. Therefore,
to determine Vae we can use the path aefa or abcdea.
EXAMPLE 2:
Consider the network in the figure. Let us apply KVL to determine the voltage between
two points. Specifically, in terms of the double-subscript notation, find Vae and Vec.

SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn in figure b. Since points a and e as well as e and c are
not physically close, the arrow notation is very useful. Our approach to determining the
unknown voltage is to apply KVL with the unknown voltage in the closed path. Therefore,
to determine Vae we can use the path aefa or abcdea.
SOLUTION
The equations for the two paths in which Vae is the only unknown are
-𝑉𝑎𝑒 - 10 + 24 = 0
and
-16 + 12 - 4 - 6 + 𝑉𝑎𝑒 = 0

Note that both equations yield Vae = 14 V. Even before calculating Vae, we
could calculate Vec using the path cdec or cefabc. However, since Vae is now known, we
can also use the path ceabc. KVL for each of these paths is
- 4 - 6 + 𝑉𝑒𝑐 = 0
-𝑉𝑒𝑐 - 10 + 24 - 16 + 12 = 0
𝑉𝑒𝑐 = 10 V
each of these equations yields
𝑉𝑒𝑐 = 10 𝑉
 As discussed in the previous module (Module 1), the dependent sources
generate a voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or current at a specified
location in the circuit. These sources are very important because they are an integral part
of the mathematical models used to describe the behavior of many electronic circuit
elements.

Problem-Solving Strategy for solving Circuits with dependent sources

1. When writing the KVL and/or KCL equations for the network, treat the
dependent source as though it were an independent source.
2. Write the equation that specifies the relationship of the dependent source
to the controlling parameter.
3. Solve the equations for the unknowns. Be sure that the number of linearly
independent equations matches the number of unknowns.
EXAMPLE 1:
Given the network containing a dependent source, write the KVL equations for the two
closed paths abda and bcdb.
SOLUTION
The two KVL equations are

-𝑉𝑅1 - 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑆 = 0

-20𝑉𝑅1 - 𝑉𝑅3 + 𝑉𝑅2 = 0

EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
Determine the voltage Vo in the circuit

and the units of the multiplier, 2000, are

ohms. Solving these equations yields
EXAMPLE 3: SOLUTION
The network shown contains a voltage-
controlled voltage source. Find 𝑉0
 The solution of complex network are
frequently be simplified by using a system of loop or
mesh current instead of branch currents of the
frequently (Kirchhoff’ Law) procedure. First proposed
by James clerk Maxwell, the method involved a set of
independent loop current assigned to as many meshes,
as exist in the circuit and those current assigned are
employed in the connection of appropriate resistance
when the KVL equation are written the arbitrary
assumed loop current may or may not exist in the
various resistors but when determined will readily yield
the desired by simply algebraic conditions. The scheme
as will be shown offers the advantages that fewer of
equations need be written to solve a given problem.
 Mesh Analysis (sometimes called as Loop Analysis, Mesh Current Analysis,
Maxwell Mesh Analysis) is another general procedure for analyzing circuits, with the use of
mesh currents as the circuit variables.
This is applicable to planar
circuits (see Figure 3.11). A circuit is
said to be Planar if it can be drawn
in two-dimensional space without
wires crossing over other wires. We
are interested in finding the mesh
currents in the planar circuit, and from
these mesh currents, we will be able
to find the current on each branches.
And from the branch currents, we will
be able to compute for the voltage
across the branches by applying
Ohm’s Law.
 In the previous topic, we have defined a mesh as a loop that does not contain
any other loop.

For example, in Fig. 3.12, paths abefa and bcdeb. The current flowing through
the mesh is known as the mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are concerned in applying the
KVL to find the mesh currents of a given circuit
 In this section, we will be dealing with planar circuits having voltage sources
only. And the next section will be planar circuits with current sources.
If we are given a circuit with n meshes, the following steps are to be
considered to solve for the unknown values
EXAMPLE 1 : SOLUTION
Find the current through each branch. Select the close loop current direction
I1 and I2.Apply Kirchoff's voltage law to each
I2 closed loop
I1
For first loop it will be defined:

For the second loop:

EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Find the current through each branch. Changing second loop in terms of I1
I1 = 3I2 – 0.2
Substitution on loop 1; and solving for I2
60(3I2 – 0.2) – 50I2 = 10
180I2 – 12 -50I2 = 10
130I2 = 22
I2 = 22/130
= 0.1692 A
Substituting the value of I2 to get I1
-50I1 + 150I2 = 10
-50I1 + 150(22/130) = 10
-50 I1 = 10 - (3300/130)
I1 = 0.3078 A
EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
Find the voltage across the R6.

I3

I1 I2
EXAMPLE 3: SOLUTION
Find the voltage across the 10 ohm
resistor

I3

I1 I2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r
1m4NJ2WniA&t=9s
EXAMPLE 4: SOLUTION
Obtain the mesh currents of the In this example, we can see that we
network and solve for 𝑣𝑜 as shown have 3 loops, therefore there will be 3 mesh
in the figure below. currents. We will assign the mesh currents 𝑖𝑎, 𝑖𝑏
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑐 in each of the loop in the circuit. The
direction of the current may be clockwise or
counterclockwise.
Considering the given problem, we
will assign clockwise direction for the mesh
currents as shown in Figure 3.14.
SOLUTION
Now, we will apply KVL to each of the loop. To do this we will consider the
following:
1. The mesh currents will take a negative sign.
2. The neighboring mesh currents will take a positive sign; and
3. The sign of the voltage source will depend on the terminal it leaves.

To come up with the equations, that will be the mesh currents multiplied by the
sum of the resistances around the loop minus the neighboring mesh current multiplied by
the common resistance of the two mesh currents plus or minus the voltage source.
SOLUTION Solving simultaneous linear equation, we will arrive
at the following values.

To solve for 𝑣𝑜, the branch current in the 8𝛺

resistor in the direction of the voltage drop is 𝑖𝑎 −
𝑖𝑏. Therefore using Ohms law:
Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or independent)
may appear complicated. But it is actually much easier than what we encountered in the
previous section, because the presence of the current sources reduces the number of
equations. Consider the following two possible cases.

Case 1 : When a current sources exists Case 2: When a current sources exists
only in one mesh between two meshes.
 EXAMPLE 5: SOLUTION
Solve for 𝐼𝑜 in the given circuit using
mesh analysis.

To solve this, we have already

assigned mesh currents 𝐼1,𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 on
each of the loop of the given circuit.
We have to find 4 equations, 3
for the mesh currents and another equation
for 𝐼𝑜.
SOLUTION Solving the system of linear equation using equations 1, 2
Considering Node A, we can derive and 5, we will arrive at the following values of mesh
an equation using KCL. currents:

Using equation 4 to solve for 𝐼0;

Substituting equation 4 to equation
3, we have:
 If the circuit contains current sources, the mesh analysis requires some
additional manipulations. Figure 3.16 shows this scenario.

In the figure above, we have

already assigned mesh currents 𝑖𝑎, 𝑖𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑖𝑐 to the loops of the given circuit. The next
step is to derive mesh-current equations by
applying KVL. If we are going to look
closely in the figure, KVL will not be possible
because of the 5A current source. Hence, we
have to do something and find another way
to derive our working equations. And since
there are 3 loops, we have to derive 3
equations.
This is where we introduce the concept of
supermesh. By definition, a supermesh
results when two meshes have a (dependent
or independent) current source in common.
Considering Figure 3.16, we can see that
mesh a and c have a common independent
current source.
 EXAMPLE 6:
Solve for the mesh currents

5A Now, we will establish an equation by

considering the relationship between the mesh
currents and the current source. Considering the
node b, applying KCL we have:
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Solving simultaneous linear equations,
we will arrive at the following values: