Gramática Inglesa II

Grado en Estudios Ingleses

PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

Unit 4 Coordination and Set readings

subordination
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Coordination Greenbaum & Quirk 13.1-16
4.3. Subordination Greenbaum & Quirk, 14.1-10
4.3.1. Nominal clauses Greenbaum & Quirk 15.1-12
4.3.2. Adverbial clauses Greenbaum & Quirk 15.13-33

4.1. Introduction

So far: simple clauses/sentences: 1 clause with constituents (S, O, A, etc) realized by phrases.
From now on: syntactic ways of expanding simple clauses: combinations of clauses.

Traditional usage: compound and complex sentences (or paratactic vs. hypotactic connection)
Paratactic connection: equal status of elements:
Coordination: Syndetic e.g. John bought the tickets and Mary parked the car
Asyndectic e.g. John bought the tickets; Mary parked the car
Apposition: e.g. He has a summer job with a travel agency,
guiding parties of tourists.
Quotation: e.g. She said: “Love me or leave me”
Hypotactic connection: unequal status of elements. One depends on the other (which usually means
that the dependent or subordinate element is a constituent within the superordinate one):
Sub. Cl as S e.g. Why he resigned was never discovered
Sub. Cl as O e.g. She explained that the machine was out of order
Sub. Cl as A e.g. While John bought the tickets, Mary parked the car

4.2. Coordination

The linking of units (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) at the same level of structure:
e.g. gin and tonic
my brother and your sister
I mop the floor and you do the dishes.
We’ll concentrate on clause coordination.

Types of coordination: Asyndetic: no explicit marker

Syndetic: indicated by ‘coordinating conjunctions’: and, or, but

Differences between coordinators and subordinators and conjuncts:

(a)Coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position, subordinators too but not conjuncts
e.g. The car skidded and the lorry couldn't avoid it
The car skidded; the lorry, nevertheless, could avoid it

(b)Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed; true also for conjuncts, not for subordinators.
e.g. *Nevertheless the lorry could avoid it, the car skidded
*And the lorry couldn't avoid it, the car skidded
Although the car skidded, the lorry could avoid it

(c)Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction while subordinators and conjuncts can
e.g. The car nearly crashed, and yet the driver didn't slow down
The driver didn't slow down because he was in a hurry and because he was slightly drunk

UNIT 4 1
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

(d)Coordinators can link clause constituents (so can the conjuncts yet, so, then)
e.g. He could have swerved the wheel or braked but didn't do either, then ran over a cat

(e)Coordinators can link subordinate clauses

e.g. The police arrested the driver before he reached the border but after he had driven into a
herd of sheep

(f)Coordinators can link more than two clauses

e.g. You can take a train or you can drive your our car, or you can walk

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Coordinators Central and, or + + + + + +
Peripheral but + + + + ± −
Conjuncts Peripheral Yet, so, nor + + ± + − −
Central However, therefore − + − − − −
Subordinators Peripheral For, so that + + + − − −
Central if, because + − − − − −
Table 1. Conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating vs. conjuncts)

Semantic implications of the use of coordinators:

AND: Most general coordinator (in meaning and use). The pragmatic-logico-sematic implications of the
combination or two or more clauses by and depend on a number of factors: prepositional content of conjoined
clauses, speakers’ presuppositions, knowledge of the world. Adverbials (conjuncts) are frequently used to
specify connection).
(Pure) Addition: e.g. He has long hair and he often wears a leather jacket
Cause / effect-result-consequence: e.g. We had left the tickets at home, and (so/therefore) there was
nothing we could do.
Temporal sequence: e.g. They spread the cloth on the glass and (then) began unpacking the picnic
things
Contrast: e.g. Robert is rather tall and (in contrast) his brother is rather short
Concession: e.g. He criticizes his colleagues and (yet) relies on them for support
Condition: e.g. You might have an accident and (in that case / then) who would rescue you?
Say that again and you are dead!
Comparison/similarity: e.g. He likes dance music and so does she
Explanation: e.g. There’s one thing you must realize and that is that you can’t always get what
you want
OR: General meaning: second clause presents an alternative to the first one
Exclusive alternative: e.g. (Either) We give the tickets back or (else) we drop everything and go
Inclusive alternative: e.g. We can make an omelette or cook some pasta (or both)
Correction: e.g. They are having fun, or so it seems
Negative condition: e.g. Replace everything in the drawers or (else) something will get mislaid

BUT: General meaning: contrast

Adversative (~ ‘and yet’): e.g. “We are ugly but we have the music” (L.Cohen)
Replacive (~except for, instead): e.g. He didn’t stay even an hour, but returned to London
on the next train
Concession: e.g. The story is certainly strange, but it’s not entirely
unbelievable

UNIT 4 2
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

4.3. Subordination

An “asymmetrical” or “hypotactic” relation between clauses: a (‘main’ or ‘superordinate’) clause contains

(an)other (subordinate) clause(s) as constituents.
The analysis should include: Markers of subordination
Function of subordinate clause within main clause
Morphological realization of subordinate clause (finite, non-finite, verbless)
Internal structure.
Markers of subordination:
Subordinating conjunction (‘subordinator’): simple (after, as, because…)
compound (so that, as long as, as if, rather than…),
correlative (as … as, so.. as…)
Wh- element (who, when, where…)
Subject-operator inversion: e.g. Sad though I was…
Had I known you then…
Absence of finite verb

Clauses without clear indicator of subordination: that-clauses without that e.g. I think you are right
some comment clauses e.g. You are right, I guess
Morphological realization of subordinate clause:
Finite cl. e.g. The problem is that they have to choose candidates
Non-finite cl. to-inf cl. e.g. We want (you) to leave early
-ing cl. e.g. Knowing her temper, I didn’t say anything
-ed cl. e.g. Discovered almost by accident, the drug has revolutionized
medicine
Verbless cl.: e.g. Although always helpful, he was not much liked

Functions within the main clause:

S in the superordinate clause: e.g. What this boy needs is a haircut
OD in the superordinate clause: e.g. No business man wants to go bust
OI in the superordinate clause: e.g. They gave whoever visited the stall a present
Cs in the superordinate clause: e.g. The only way out is to put all our eggs in one basket
Co in the superordinate clause: e.g. I call that putting the cart before the horse
A in the superordinate clause: e.g. Give me a call when you get home tonight

[In addition to these functions, clauses can also function at phrase level as postmodifiers within NPs,
complements within PP or AP, etc. However, this is different from ‘subordination’ in the sense we are using
this term in his unit, i.e. referring to clauses functioning as immediate constituents within other clauses.]

UNIT 4 3
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

Classification of subordinate clauses according to structural and functional criteria:

4.3.1. NOMINAL CLAUSES

FUNCTIONS
TYPE OF NOMINAL CLAUSE
S OD OI CS CO App AdjC PreC
That-clause1 +2 + − + − + + −
Wh- Relative clause3 + + +4 + ? - + +
Interrogative clause (yes/no and wh-)3 + + − + − + + +
Exclamative clause + + − − − − + +
To-infinite clause5 + + − + − + + −
-ing clause5 + + − + + + + +
Table 2. Types of subordinate nominal clauses
Notes:
1. that is frequently omitted; omission/retention of that is not random but subject to a number of factors:
Register factors: Conversation: typical omission
Academic prose: omission is unusual
Grammatical factors favouring omission:
the that-cl functions as O, C, or extraposed S
e.g. I think I’ll make a shopping list today
the main clause verb is say/think/know
e.g. You said you wouldn’t.
the subject of the main and that-cl. are co-referential
e.g. It’s a pity you always complain
cf. That you always complain is a pity
Grammatical factors favouring retention:
That-cl is coordinated to another clause
e.g. Everybody could see that something was about to happen and that there was nothing
we could do
Main clause is passive
e.g. I was told that those who support the government’s view had been excluded;
It was reported that the President would resign
Intervening material between main verb and that-cl:
e.g. Everybody could see, I believe, that the bullfighter was terrified; They had
warned him that the bull was dangerous

2. Subject that-cl. are frequently extraposed and replaced in initial position by an anticipatory it (‘end-weight
principle’):
Factors favouring extraposition:
Main clause is exclamatory: extraposition is obligatory:
e.g. How strange it is that no one has complained!
Main clause is interrogative or passive: extraposition is very likely:
e.g. Is it possible that they reach an agreement?, It was thought that they would

Object that-cl. are normally extraposed when accompanied by a CO

e.g. I find it strange that no one has shown up yet

3. Wh-relative and wh-interrogative clauses are easily confused since they share the same subordinatiors (wh-
words: who, what, when, etc.). Clues to distinguish them:
a) Wh-inter. contain a gap of unknown information represented by the wh-element and the main clause
expresses some concern with supplying the missing information
e.g. Do you know what they eat for breakfast?)

UNIT 4 4
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

Wh-rel do not contain a gap in information

e.g. I always eat what I like
Cf. Inter. e.g. What caused the accident is to be discovered
Rel. e.g. What caused the accident was an electrical fault
Inter. e.g. Who caused the accident is a complete mystery
Rel. e.g. Whoever caused the accident was very careless

b) In wh-inter. the wh-word is normally stressed

e.g. I wonder ‘who stole my cheese

c) When wh-rel. function as Subject they show agreement with verb

e.g. What I have is yours
What were left behind were five empty bottles

d) Wh-interr. are always singular:

e.g. Which movie I prefer is not your business
Which movies I saw is not your business

e) In wh-rel prepositions are always at the end

e.g. Whoever you vote for will disappoint you
cf. *For whoever…

Wh-inter. allow a choice in the placement of the preposition:

e.g. Who(m) I will vote for is my business
For whom I will vote is my business

f) In wh-rel who, whom and which only appear with a small semantic class of verbs: choose, like,
please, want, wish.
There are no restrictions in wh-inter.
g) -ever forms tend to appear only in wh-rel
e.g. I read whatever I could find about Malcolm-X
cf. ??She asked me whatever was doing
Some nominal wh-clauses are genuinely ambiguous and will allow both a relative and an interrogative
interpretation: e.g. Do you remember when we got lost?
Rel. interpretation: Do you remember that occasion, how scared we were, etc.?
Inter. interpretation: Do you remember the date?
4. Nominal clauses (actually, all clauses) are semantically abstract: they represent ‘propositions’, ‘states of
affairs’ rather than concrete objects, entities, etc., which are typically represented by NPs: that’s why they do
not normally function as OI, since the OI typically represents a concrete, animate entity). The fact that
nominal wh-relative clauses are the only ones that appear with this function is due to their quasi-NP character.

5. Although to-inf and -ing clauses (and some wh-clauses: those introduced by when, where, how, why) are
classified here as ‘nominal’ clauses (since they perform typical nominal functions: S, O, etc.) they should also
be included among adverbial clauses since they can also have adverbial functions:
e.g. I did it to please her
We had an accident driving home

UNIT 4 5
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

4.3.2. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Syntactic functions:
Minor:
Subjunct, Viewpoint: restricted set of verbs: be concerned, go, consider, look at view
e.g. If we look at it from an historical point of view, the next six months are critical
Looking at it objectively, he is a disaster
Conjunct: Reinforcing: What is more,…; What is more worrying…
Listing, summative: to begin (with), to conclude, to continue, to sum up
Major: Adjunct and Disjunct. Sometimes difficult to distinguish:

Adjunct Content Disjunct

I haven’t seen her since she move to Reason Since we live near the sea, we often go
Bristol sailing
Time
She arrived while I was sunbathing Contrast I teach contemporary history, while she
teaches art
Purpose We paid him immediately so that he Result We paid him immediately, so that he left
would leave contented contented
Condition They’ll send it to you if you ask them Condition I’ll get lost, unless I can find my compass
politely
Reason I like him because he’s always helpful Reason I like him, since he’s always helpful
Style Disjunct
Direct If you put the baby down she won’t Indirect She and I are just good friends, if you
Condition scream Condition know what I mean
Direct We have no electricity, because there’s a Indirect Yellow is her favourite, because she told
Reason power failure Reason me so
Table 3. Adjunct vs. disjunct

Semantic roles:
Complex issue: the same subordinator can introduce adverbial clauses with very different meanings
some clauses combine several meanings:
Time+Result: e.g. She massaged him until he began to feel better
Time+Purpose+Result: e.g. I had to put my complaint in writing
before they would take any action
Time+(Implied)Condition: e.g. Go before I call the police
Time+Cause: e.g. My heat leaps whenever I see you
Time+Concession: e.g. They were gossiping, when they should have
been working
Condition+Concession: e.g. Even if you dislike ancient monuments,
Warwick Castle is worth a visit

Major types: TIME, PLACE, CONDITION/CONCESSION, REASON AND CAUSE, CIRCUMSTANCE, PURPOSE, RESULT
Minor types: MANNER, COMPARISON, PROPORTION, PREFERENCE, CONTRAST

MAJOR ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

(i) Time
Great variety of subordinators: when, while, after...
Most common position is initial: e.g. After arriving at Gatwick, we took a coach to London.
Adverbial clauses of time with future reference are usually in simple present though in some cases we can find
present perfect in time sequences.

UNIT 4 6
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

(ii) Place
Subordinators: where, wherever e.g. Leave your hat wherever you can
Not all clauses introduced by these linkers are A of place:
e.g. Home is where the heart is (Nominal relative clause as Cs)
Wherever you go, you find Japanese (Adverbial universal concessive clause)

(iii) Condition:
- Subordinators: Positive condition: if, provided that, as long as, in the event of
Negative condition: unless, but for, without
Concessive condition: even if, although, in spite of, without
- Semantic-Syntactic types of conditional clauses:
 Direct condition: the situation in the matrix clause is contingent on the situation in the subordinate
clause; syntactically, they are Adjuncts).
- Possible (or ‘open’): IF + PRESENT (SHOULD)/[IMPERATIVE/FUTURE]
e.g. If you want to park here, pay the parking meter
If we should miss the train, we'll be late
- Hypothetical: what is said in the matrix clause is an imaginary consequence of the fact expressed
in the if-clause. IF + SIMPLE PAST/CONDITIONAL
e.g. If we caught that train, we might get there in time
If you won the pools, you wouldn't know what to do with the money
Contrary to present facts : IF + PAST PERFECT/CONDITIONAL PERFECT
e.g. If you had listened to my advice, you wouldn't have had an accident
 Indirect condition: the condition is not related to the situation in the main clause, but to the implicit
speech act of the utterance: syntactically: Style Disjuncts
e.g. She is too clever, if I may so (syntactically, these are style disjuncts).
 Rhetorical condition: not real conditions but implicit strong assertions
e.g. If they’re Irish, I’m the Pope (Implied assertion: ‘They are not Irish’)

(iv) Concession:
The situation in the main clause is unexpected in the light of the situation in the concessive clause. In
conditional sentences we have a potential meaning: one set of circumstances depends on the other. In
concessive clauses the feature is reality
e.g. Though he is ill, he will come to class
We establish a sort of contrast between two statements. In conditional sentences we can use and/or, in
concessives, but. In the former we can find a reinforcing element: if... then. Even if/though is between
condition and contrast. If... at least/at any rate is closer to concession.

Subordinators: although, though, while, whereas, even though, even if

Alternative and Universal Conditional/Concessive clauses:

Alternative: whether … or (whether), no matter whether
e.g. Whether you like it or not, I’m leaving
Universal- Wh-element + -ever
e.g. Don't believe her, whatever she says
Whatever is stated in the main clause is true in any of the conditions covered by the subordinate clause:
e.g. However he tries, he never succeeds
No matter how I try, I can't float

UNIT 4 7
 Gramática Inglesa II
Grado en Estudios Ingleses
PROF. JUAN SANTANA LARIO

(v) Reason
- Subordinators: because, since, as, for; compound subordinators: considering that, now that, in that, in as
much as.
- Position: because clauses are usually final and occasionally initial; as/since clauses are usually initial; for
clauses are always final.
- Semantic-Syntactic types of reason clauses:
 Direct reason: the subordinate clause expresses the situation that directly causes o explains the
situation expressed in the matrix clause. Semantic subtypes:
a) Cause and effect: inherent objective connection in the real world between situation in main and
subordinate clause; syntactically: Adjuncts. e.g. She knows so much because she reads a lot
b) Reason and consequence: speaker’s inference of a connection; syntactically: Adjuncts.
e.g. She watered the flowers because they were dry
c) Motivation and result: intention of an animate being with a subsequent result; syntactically:
Adjuncts. e.g. You’ll help me because you’re my friend
d) Circumstances and consequence; syntactically: Content Disjuncts. e.g. Since the weather has
improved, we can take a walk tomorrow
These adverbial meanings can also be realised by non-finite or verbless clauses
e.g. Being a teacher, I believe in higher standards of education (reason and cause)
 Indirect Reason: the reason expressed by the subordinate adverbial clause is not related to the situation
in the matrix clause, it is rather a motivation for the implicit speech act of the utterance);
subordinators: since, as; syntactically: Style Disjuncts; e.g.: John is in Washington, for he phoned me
from there; Since you are so clever, what is the answer?

(vi) Purpose
- Syntactically: Adjuncts
- Formal types:
a) non-finite: to-infinitive clauses: e.g. We are working hard to improve food production
(Not to be confused with objects realized by to-inf.e.g. We want to improve food production
Subordinators: so as to, in order to
b) finite: so that, in order that, lest (+modal verb in the subordinate) the order is not fixed
e.g. He shut the window so that the neighbours wouldn't hear the noise

(vii) Result
- Syntactically: Content Disjuncts
- Same linkers as in purpose clauses, but there is no modal and the subordinate is always postponed e.g.
He shut the windows, so that the neighbours didn't hear

MINOR ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Similarity – comparison: as, as if/though, like, much as, also the way that, in a way that
e.g. We did it as we had been taught
He speaks as his father does
Is she often rude and cross like she's been this last month?
Hypothetical comparison: They ran as if their lives depended on it
Proportion: semantic implication of proportion: circumstances are compared in terms of equivalent
tendencies: the more (-er)...the more (-er)
e.g. As time went on, things got worse; The more she thought about it, the less she liked it.
Preference: Subordinadtors: rather/sooner than (+ bare infinitive): Rather than go by air, I’d take a train
(cf. I’d rather take a train than go by air)
Contrast: whereas, while, whilst e.g.I teach physics, while she teaches chemistry

UNIT 4 8