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Extractive Metallurgy
SAMPLE
CAV GATE Page 1
 Sr. Chapter name Page No.
No
1 Introduction to Mineral Processing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mineral Beneficiation
1.2.1 Benefits of mineral beneficiation
1.3 Principle steps involved in mineral beneficiation
1.3.1 Unit operations
1.4 Comminution
1.4.1 Comminution energy
1.4.2 Forces involved in comminution
1.4.3 Comminution operations
1.4.4 Types of crushers
1.4.5 Types of grinding mills
1.5 Sizing
1.5.1 Sieve analysis
1.5.1.1 Sieve analysis for Particle size distribution
1.5.1.2 Applications of Particle size distribution data
1.5.2 Screening
1.5.2.1 Purpose of screening
1.5.2.2 Difference between screening and sieving
1.5.2.3 Factors affecting the rate of screening
1.5.2.4 Screen efficiency
1.5.2.5 Capacity of an industrial screen
1.6 Density calculation and settling in fluids
1.6.1 Density calculation
1.6.2 Settling of solids in fluids
1.6.2.1 Principles of settling
1.6.2.2 Types of settling
1.6.2.3 Settling ratio
1.7 Classification
1.7.1 Classifiers
1.8 Concentration
1.8.1 Different methods of concentration
1.8.1.1 Gravity concentration
1.8.1.2 Magnetic Separation
1.8.1.3 Electrostatic Separation

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 1.8.1.4 Froth Flotation
1.9 Dewatering
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-1]
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-2]
Numerical Answer Type Question [SET-3]
Past GATE questions

2 General methods of extraction and refining

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Pyrometallurgy
2.2.1 Unit processes for the preliminary treatment of ores
2.2.2 Unit processes for the extraction of metal
2.3 Hydrometallurgy
2.3.1 Steps involved in hydrometallurgical extraction of metals
2.3.2 Leaching
2.3.3 Leaching techniques
2.3.4 Types of leaching based on medium
2.3.5 Purification of leach liquor
2.4 Methods of refining of metals
2.4.1 Physical methods
2.4.1.1 Selective distillation of impurities
2.4.1.2 Liquation
2.4.1.3 Selective dissolution
2.4.2 Chemical methods
2.4.2.1 Refining of metals via gas phase
2.4.3 Electrochemical methods

NON FERROUS METALLURGY

3 Non-ferrous extraction processes
3.1 Aluminium extraction
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Extraction Process of Aluminium
3.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Aluminium and its alloys
3.1.4 Applications of Aluminiumand its alloys
3.2 Magnesium extraction
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Extraction Process of Magnesium
3.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Magnesium and its alloys

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 3.2.4 Applications of Magnesium and its alloys
3.3 Titanium extraction
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Extraction Process of Titanium
3.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Titanium and its alloys
3.3.4 Applications of Titanium and its alloys
3.4 Nickel extraction
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Extraction Process of Nickel
3.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Nickel and its alloys
3.4.4 Applications of Nickel and its alloys
3.5 Copper extraction
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Extraction Process of Copper
3.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Copper and its alloys
3.5.4 Applications of Copper and its alloys
3.6 Zinc extraction
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Extraction Process of Zinc
3.6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Zinc and its alloys
3.6.4 Applications of Zinc and its alloys
3.7 Lead extraction
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 Extraction Process of Lead
3.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Lead and its alloys
3.7.4 Applications of Lead and its alloys
3.8 Ores of different Non-ferrous metals
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-4]
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-5]
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-6]
Past GATE questions

FERROUS METALLURGY
4 Iron Making
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Blast furnace Iron making route
4.3 Blast furnace charge and its treatment
4.3.1 Ores of Iron

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 4.3.1.1 Requirements on the iron ore quality
4.3.1.2 Sintering
4.3.1.2.1 Types of Sinter
4.3.1.2.2 Sinter properties and requirements on its quality
4.3.1.3 Pelletizing
4.3.1.3.1 Stages in pelletizing
4.3.2 Fluxes
4.3.3 Fuels
4.3.3.1 Functions of metallurgical coke in the blast furnace
4.3.3.2 Coke quality measurements
4.4 Burden quality testing methods
4.5 Working of Blast Furnace
4.5.1 Different regions within a blast furnace
4.5.1.1 Charging system of solids from the top of the blast furnace
4.5.1.1.1 Two-bell charging system
4.5.1.1.2 Bell less top system
4.5.1.2 Lining of the blast furnace
4.5.1.2.1 Attack mechanisms in different regions of blast furnace
4.5.1.2.2 Types of refractory lining in different regions of the blast
furnace
4.5.2 Reactions taking place inside the blast furnace
4.5.2.1 Reduction of Iron oxides
4.5.2.2 Reactions taking place in different zones of the blast furnace
4.5.2.2.1 Reactions in the lower zone
4.5.2.2.2 Reactions in the middle zone
4.5.2.2.3 Reactions in the upper zone
4.5.3 Influence of high top pressure
4.5.4 Pulverized coal injection
4.5.5 Burden descent
4.5.6 Types of blast furnace: Central working and Wall working
4.6 Alternative iron making
4.6.1 Direct Reduction (DR)
4.6.1.1 Available processes to make DRI
4.6.2 Smelting reduction
4.6.1.2 Available processes for Smelting Reduction
Past GATE questions

5 Steel making

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 5.1 Introduction
5.2 Process flow chart of modern steel making
5.3 Primary steel making
5.3.1 Basic Oxygen furnace or Converter steelmaking
5.3.1.1 Pre-treatment of hot metal
5.3.1.2 L.D. Converter
5.3.1.2.1 Working of L.D. converter
5.3.1.2.2 Lance design
5.3.1.2.3 Factors affecting BOF lance performance
5.3.1.3 Science behind steel making
5.3.1.3.1Equilibrium between the phases
5.3.1.3.2Activity of solution
5.3.1.3.3Raoult’s Law
5.3.1.3.4Henry’s Law
5.3.1.3.5Interaction Parameter
5.3.1.3.6 Chemistry of Slag in steel making
5.3.1.4 Steel making reactions and composition and temperature changes during
the blow
5.3.1.4.1 Oxidation of Iron
5.3.1.4.2 Formation of slag
5.3.1.4.3 Oxidation of silicon
5.3.1.4.4 Oxidation of manganese
5.3.1.4.5 Oxidation of carbon
5.3.1.4.6 Oxidation of phosphorus
5.3.1.4.7 Oxidation of sulphur
5.3.1.5 Slag Splashing
5.3.1.6 Slag free tapping
5.3.1.7 Environmental issues in Oxygen Steel making
5.3.1.8Causes of high turnover rates of BOF
5.3.2 Electric Arc furnace steel making
5.3.2.1 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces
5.3.2.2 Arc furnaces operation
5.4 Secondary steel making
5.4.1 Requirements for secondary steel making
5.4.2 The Ladle furnace
5.4.3 Degassing and decarburization of liquid steel
5.4.3.1 Thermodynamics of degassing reactions
5.4.3.2 Side reactions involved

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 5.4.3.3General considerations during degassing operation
5.4.3.4 Stream degassing practice
5.4.3.5 Circulation degassing practice
5.4.3.5.1 RH vacuum degassing
5.4.3.5.2 DH vacuum degassing
5.4.3.6 Ladle or tank degassing practice
5.4.3.6.1 Vacuum degassing (VD) process
5.4.3.6.2 Vacuum Arc degassing (VAD) process
5.4.3.6.3 Vacuum Oxygen decarburization (VOD) process
5.4.4 Deoxidation of steel
5.4.4.1 Elements used in deoxidation of steel and the reactions involved
5.4.4.2 Kinetics of deoxidation
5.4.5 Synthetic slag practice
5.4.5.1 Desulphurisation of steel through synthetic slag practice
5.4.5.2 Design of synthetic slag
5.4.5.3 Issues related to synthetic slag practice
5.4.6 Injection Ladle Metallurgy
5.4.6.1 Desulphurisation mechanism through Injection Metallurgy
5.4.6.2Benefits of ladle desulphurisation by injection of active agents
5.4.7 Clean steel
5.4.7.1 Types of Inclusions
5.4.7.2 Why inclusion control is necessary?
5.4.7.3 Sources of inclusion formations
5.4.7.4 Control of Inclusions
5.4.7.5 Inclusion Engineering
5.4.8 Stainless steel making
5.4.8.1Thermodynamics of decarburization of Chromium melt
5.4.8.2Stainless steel making technology
5.4.8.2.1Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) stainless steel making technology
5.4.8.2.2Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD)
5.4.9 Casting of steel
5.4.9.1 Ingot Casting of steel
5.4.9.2 Continuous Casting of steel
5.4.10 Refractories in steel making
5.4.10.1Emerging trends in steel making refractories
5.4.10.2 Furnace refractory maintenance
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-7]
Multiple Choice Questions [SET-8]

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 Numerical Answer type Questions [SET-9]
Past GATE Questions

6 Introduction to Material balance

6.1 Material balance
6.1.1 Basics of Stoichiometry
6.1.2 Ideal gas law
6.1.3 Excess and limiting reactants
6.1.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions
Solved Examples on Material balance [SET-10]
Past GATE Questions

CAV GATE Page 8

 Chapter-1
Mineral processing

1.1 Introduction

• In the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, also known as ore dressing, is the process of separating
commercially valuable minerals from their ores.
• The major steps involved in processing of ores:

Geological survey

Mining

Beneficiation

Extraction Process(depending
on the type of ore)

1.2 Mineral Beneficiation

• Mineral beneficiation can be defined as processing of raw materials to yield marketable products and waste by
means of physical or mechanical methods in such a way that the physical or chemical identity of the minerals is
not destroyed.

1.2.1Benefits of mineral beneficiation:

• Freight and handling cost is reduced.

• Cost of extraction is reduced
• Loss of metal in slag is reduced.
• Metal grade of ore increases.
• The thermal energy required to separate liquid metal from gangue materials reduces.
• By doing beneficiation, lean ores (low grade ores) can be made technically suitable for extraction of metal.

1.3 Principle steps involved in beneficiation of ores:

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(i) Liberation: Detachment or freeing of dissimilar particles from each other i.e. valuable mineral particles and gangue
mineral particles.

(ii) Separation:Actual separation of liberated dissimilar particles i.e, valuable mineral particles and gangue mineral
particles.

1.3.1 Unit operations:

The operations conducted on any material that involve physical changed are termed as Unit Operations. Mineral
processing/beneficiation can involve four general types of unit operation:

Comminution
Particle size reduction

Sizing
separation of particle sizes by
screening or classification
Concentration
Removal of unwanted
material from ore

Dewatering
solid/liquid separation

In all of these processes, the most important considerations are the economics of the processes and this is dictated by the
grade and recovery of the final product. To do this, the mineralogy of the ore needs to be considered as this dictates the
amount of liberation required and the processes that can occur. The smaller the particles processes, the greater the
theoretical grade and recovery of the final product, but this however is difficult to do with fine particles as they prevent
certain concentration processes from occurring.

1.4 Comminution

• Comminution is the process, in which solid materials are reduced in size, by crushing, grinding and other
processes.
• It occurs naturally during faulting in the upper part of the Earth's crust and is an important operation in mineral
processing, ceramics, electronics and other fields.
• Within industrial uses, the purpose of comminution is to reduce the size and to increase the surface area of
solids. It is also used to free useful materials from matrix materials in which they are embedded, and to
concentrate minerals.

1.4.1Comminution energy

SAMPLE
The comminution of solid materials consumes energy, which is being used to break up the solid into smaller pieces. The
comminution energy can be estimated by:

• Rittinger's law, which assumes that the energy consumed is proportional to the newly generated surface area.
• Kick's law, which relates the energy to the sizes of the feed particles and the product particles.

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 • Bond's law, which assumes that the total work useful in breakage is inversely proportional to the square root of
the diameter of the product particles, implying theoretically that the work input varies with the length of the new
cracks made in breakage.
• Holmes's law, which modifies Bond's law by substituting the square root with an exponent that depends on the
material.

1.4.2 Forces involved in Comminution

Fracture in the particles occurs as a result of application of force. When a force is applied on a particle, stress
will develop within the particle.

Fig 1.1 Forces involved in Comminution

Types of forces:

(i) Compression or normal impact:

Compressive forces can be applied in two ways:

(a) Slow compression:

• Under the condition of slow loading/ compression, energy applied is just sufficient to load comparatively few
regions of the particle to the fracture point and only a few particles result.
• Their size is comparatively close to the original particle size.

(b) Fast/rapid compression:

• Under the condition of rapid loading, such as high velocity impact, many areas in the particle are overloaded and
the result is that comparatively with a wide size distribution. Impact causes immediate fracture with no residual
stresses.

SAMPLE
(ii) Oblique Impact:

• This type of fracture is chipping. In this chipping, the edges or corners of a particle will break due to the
application of oblique forces, generally impact forces on the particle.

(iii) Attrition:

• Attrition or abrasion fracture occurs when a force (shear force) acts parallel to the surface of the particle. Due to
insufficient energy applied on the particle, localised stress occurs and a small area is fractured to give very fine
particles.

1.4.3 Comminution operations:

The comminution operation is divided into two main groups:

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 Crushing

• Crushing is a size reduction operation wherein large lumps

are reduced to fragments or smaller particles. It is generally a
dry operation.

Grinding

• Grinding is considered as size reduction of relatively coarse

particles to the ultimate fringes.

NOTE: The machines used for crushing and grinding are entirely different. The energy required for
unit mass of smaller particles is more than the energy required for unit mass of coarser particles.
However, the energy required to reduce coarser particles is more than that of smaller particles.
Hence, the machines used for crushing (crushers) must be massive and rugged and the machines
used for grinding (mills) must be capable of dispersing energy over a large area.

In crushers, the breaking forces are applied either by compression or impact whereas in grinding
mills, shear forces are predominantly applied.

Reduction ratio:

• The extent of size reduction achieved by any crushing operation is described by the reduction ratio. It is defined
in a number of ways. Broadly it is defined as the ratio of the maximum size of the particle in the feed to the
maximum size of the particle in the product. Two definitions commonly used are termed as average reduction
ratio and 80% passing reduction ratio which are defined as follows:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

80% 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
80% 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
80% 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

• Reduction ratio is a convenient measure for comparing the performance of different crushers.

1.4.4 Types of Crushers:

• A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock dust. Crushers may be
used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they can be more easily disposed of or
recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of different
composition can be differentiated.

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 • The crushing action in the crushing machines (crushers) results from forces applied to the particles by some
moving part working against a stationary or some other moving part.
• It is the first stage in size reduction.
• It has to crush run-of-mine ore which contains large size particles. It requires greater force to be applied on the
particles.
• It is generally a dry operation and is usually performed in two or three stages.

(i) Jaw crusher

Fig 1.2 Jaw crusher

• A jaw or toggle crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particles.

• A jaw crusher consists of vertical jaws; one jaw is kept stationary and is called a fixed jaw, while the other jaw
called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it.
• The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The movement of the swing jaw is
quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke.
• The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a weighted flywheel that moves a shaft creating an
eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.
• Single and double toggle jaw crushers are constructed of heavy duty fabricated plate frames with reinforcing ribs
throughout. The crusher’s components are of high strength design to accept high power draw. Manganese steel is
used for both fixed and movable jaw faces. Heavy flywheels allow crushing peaks on tough materials. Double
Toggle jaw crushers may feature hydraulic toggle adjusting mechanisms.
• Jaw crushers are classified by the method of pivoting the swing jaw:

i. Blake crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at the top, it has a fixed receiving area and variable discharge
area and is known as a Blake crusher.

ii. Dodge crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at the bottom, it has a fixed discharge area and variable
receiving area and is known as a Dodge crusher.

iii. Universal crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at an intermediate position, it has both variable receiving and
discharge areas and is known as a Universal crusher.

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(ii) Gyratory crusher

Fig 1.3 Gyratory Crusher

• A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a conical
head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces.
• The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an eccentric
arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively
crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.
• A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing plant. Gyratory
crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by the size of the receiving opening.
• Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of
the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed)
mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the
spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis.
• The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the
top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design
in which the eccentric is mounted below the gear

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(iii) Cone crusher

Fig 1.4 Cone Crusher

• A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the crushing chamber and
more of a parallel zone between crushing zones.
• It breaks the rocks by squeezing it between the gyrating spindles. These spindles are fully covered with resistant
mantle and a manganese bowl liner covers the hooker.
• Rocks get squeezed at the same moment when it enters in between the bowl liner and mantle. Only one time
breaking is carried out of larger pieces of rocks from ore.
• Broken pieces of rocks fall down to the next position where it is broken again. The same process continues until
the broken pieces become small enough so that it can pass through the narrow opening that is at the bottom of
the Cone Crusher.

(iv) Roll crusher

Fig 1.5 Roll crusher

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 • Roll crusher consists of two cylindrical rolls revolving towards each other and the feed material is fed in between
the rolls and pulled downward through the rolls by friction.
• In case of role crusher, the material is crushed only ones while it is passing through the crushing chamber.
• Production of fines is minimum. They can handle friable, wet, sticky and less abrasive feeds well.

(v) Impact crushers:

Fig 1.6 Impact crusher

• Impact crushers reduce the particles by impact forces applied through sharp blows of fixed or free swinging
hammers revolving about central rotor at high speed to the free falling particles against stationary surfaces.
• They are used for relatively soft, friable and sticky ones such as phosphates, limestone, clay, graphite and coal.

1.4.5 Type of grinding mill:

• Grinding is the last stage of comminution process. It is performed in rotating steel vessels known as tumbling
mills or grinding mills.
• Grinding mills can be operated wet, dry, batch wise or continuously.

(i) Ball mills:

Fig 1.7 Ball mill

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 • A ball mill also known as pebble mill or tumbling mill is a milling machine that consists of a hollow cylinder
containing balls; mounted on a metallic frame such that it can be rotated along its longitudinal axis.
• As the mill rotates, the balls are lifted to certain height and then dropped. Grinding of ore particles takes place
due to simple rolling of one ball over the other (cascading) and by the free fall of balls (cataracting)
• Cascading leads to fine grinding whereas cataractingleads to coarse grinding
• As the speed of the mill increases, the balls are lifted higher and a stage is reached where the balls are carried
around the shell and never allowed to fall. That means centrifuging occurs. The balls will rotate as they are the
part of the shell. The speed at which centrifuging occurs is known as critical speed.

(The "Critical Speed" for a grinding mill is defined as the rotational speed where centrifugal force equals
gravitational force at the mill shell is inside surface. This is the rotational speed where balls will not fall away
from the mill's shell.)

(ii) Rod mill

Fig 1.8 Rod mill

• The rod mill is a tumbling mill but having a large percentage of its volume (30-40%) loaded with steel rods. The
rods are placed axially in the mill and are loose and free to move within the mill.
• The internal lining of the drum has a series of lifters which raise the rods and drop them at a predetermined point
• The mineral is fed in at one end with a maximum size of about 25mm. The rods crush the rock and as the charge
passes through the mill it is reduced in size to approximately 2 mm to 0.1 mm.
• The mill can be fed from one end with the product removed from the other end or alternatively, the mill can be
fed from both ends with the discharge at the centre.
• The process can be wet or dry but is more commonly carried out wet.
• Maximum rod length is about 6 to 7 metres; otherwise there is a risk of the rods blowing. The drum diameter is
limited to 0.6 or 0.7 times the length of the mill.

Working Principle of rod mill

• The rod mill is a horizontal rotating device transmitted by the outer gear. The materials are transferred to the
grinding chamber through the quill shaft uniformly.

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 • There are ladder liner and ripple liner and different specifications of ceramic ball in the chamber. The centrifugal
force caused by rotation of barrel brings the ceramic ball to a certain height and impact and grind the materials.
The ground materials are discharged through the discharging board thus the grinding process is finished.

(iii) Tube mill or pebble mill

1.5 Sizing
Separation of mineral particles by screening or classification

Size of a particle is an important consideration in mineral beneficiation because of the following reasons:

• Energy consumed for reducing the size of the particle depends on size.
• Size of the particle determines the type of size reduction equipment, beneficiation and other equipment to be
employed.

1.5.1Sieve analysis

• A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of mineral ore by allowing
the material to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount of
material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass.
• Standard test sieves are used in the mineral industry to measure the size of the small and the fine particles.
• Sieve analysis is performed to determine the percentage weight of closely sized fraction by allowing the sample
material to pass through a series of test sieves. Sieving can be done by hand or by machine.
• Sieving is generally done dry. Wet sieving is used when the material is in the form of slurry. When little
moisture is present, a combination of wet and dry sieving is performed by initially adding water.

1.5.1.1 Sieve analysis for particle size distribution

Important terms related to sieve analysis

I. Test Sieve: It is a circular shell of brass having an 8 inch diameter and is about 2 inch high.
II. Sieve cloth: It is made up of wire, woven to produce nominally uniform cloth apertures (openings). The sieve
cloth is placed in the bottom of the shell so that the material can be held on the sieve.
III. Aperture: It is a distance between two parallel wires.
IV. Mesh number: It is the number of apertures per linear inch. Sieves are designated by mesh number.
V. Mesh size: It is the size of the aperture i.e. the distance between the two parallel lines. As mesh number
increases, mesh size decreases.

Testing method

• The sieves chosen for the test are arranged in a stack or nest, starting from the coarsest sieve at the top and finest
at the bottom.
• A pan or receiver is placed below the bottom sieve to receive the final undersize, and a lid is placed on top of the
coarsest sieve to prevent escape of the sample.
• The material collected on each sieve is removed and weighed. The complete set of values is known as Particle
size distribution.

Particle Size distribution: It refers to the manner in which particles are quantitatively distributed among various sizes
(a statistical relation between quantity and size)

• The weight percentages of the material retained on each sieve are to be calculated to form differential analysis.

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 • Cumulative weight percentage retained is obtained from differential analysis by adding, cumulatively, the
individual differential weight percentages from the top of the table. Cumulative weight percentage passing is
obtained by adding, cumulatively, the individual weight percentages from the bottom of the table.
• All the fractions are fairly closely sized (except first fraction). Hence the size of the particles in each fraction
may be calculated as arithmetic mean of the limiting sizes.

1200 + 710
For example, the size of -14 + 22 mesh fraction is = 955 microns.
2

It means, the particles which pass through 14 mesh and retain on 22 mesh are having the mean size of 955
microns. Similarly the mean sizes of each fraction are to be calculated. Table 4.3 shows all values.
• The average size of the material is determined by using the following simple arithmetic formula
100
 Average size =
w
 di
i

Where w is the weight percent of the material retained by the sieve and d is the mean size of the material retained
by the same sieve.

Mesh Number Retained mesh size in microns Weight of material gm

+14 1200 02.5
-14+22 710 18.0
-22+30 500 18.5
-30+44 355 21.0
-44+60 250 27.5
-60+72 210 36.0
-72+100 150 31.5
-100+150 105 26.0
-150+200 74 18.5
-200 50.5
+ Sign designates particles retained on that sieve.
- Sign designates particles passed through that sieve.

Particle size distribution data from size analysis tests

Mesh Retained Meansize di Weight gm Wt% Cum wt% Cum wt%

Number mesh size microns retained wi retained passing W
microns
100.0
+14 1200 1200 02.5 1.0 1.0 99.0
-14+22 710 955 18.0 7.2 8.2 91.8
-22+30 500 605 18.0 7.4 15.6 84.4
-30+44 355 427.5 21.0 8.4 24.0 76.0
-44+60 250 302.5 27.5 11.0 35.0 65.0
-60+72 210 230 36.0 14.4 49.4 50.6
-72+100 150 180 31.5 12.6 62.0 38.0
-100+150 105 127.5 26.0 10.4 72.4 27.6
-150+200 74 89.5 18.5 7.4 79.8 20.2
-200 37 50.5 20.2 100.0
250.0 100.0
Calculated values for particle size distribution

CAV GATE Page 19

 Graphical presentation of particle size distribution data

Presentation of Particle Size Distribution Data

• Particle size distribution date id best presented for use in the form of graphs. The simplest method is to plot a
histogram of the weight percent of the material in the size interval against the size interval.
• When the size intervals are small enough, the histogram can be presented as a continuous curve taking the
middle points of the histogram. In other words, a graph is plotted between the weight percent of the material as
ordinate and the arithmetic mean size as abscissa. It is called a linear scale frequency plot. It gives the
quantitative picture of the relative distribution of the material over the entire size range.
• In many cases, the data is more commonly platted as cumulative weight percent passing versus actual size of
opening. If is called a linear scale cumulative plot

I.
II.
III.
SAMPLE
1.5.1.2Applications ofparticle size distribution data

Comparative efficiencies of comminution units by relating the work done and the product sizes can be studied.
Particle surface areas can be calculated from size analysis.
Power required to crush and/or grind an ore for a given feed size to a given product size can be estimated from
size analyses of the feed and the products.
IV. The calculation of the sizing efficiency of a classifier or cyclone can be closely estimated from size analyses of
the feed and the products.

1.5.2 Screening

• Screening is an operation used for the separation of particles according to their sizes.
• It is an industrial process.
• In industrial screening, the particles of various sizes are fed to the screen surface. The material passing through
the screen aperture is called underflow (undersize or fines) while the material retained on the screen surface is
called overflow (oversize or coarse).

CAV GATE Page 20

1.5.2.1 Purpose of screening:

Industrial screening is used:

I. To remove oversize material before it is sent to the next unit operation.

II. To remove undersize material before it is sent to next unit operation which is set to treat.

1.5.2.2 Difference between Screening and Sieving:

1.5.2.3 Factors affecting the rate of screening:

Material Factors:

I. Bulk density of the material

II. Size and size distribution of the particles
III. Size of the particle relative to the apertures.
IV. Shape of the particle.
V. Moisture content of the material

Machine factors:

I. Size of the apertures

II. Shape of the apertures
III. Size of the screen surface
IV. Percent opening area
V. Speed at which particles strike the screen surface
VI. Angle of the incidence of the particle on the screen surface.
VII. Type of screening- dry/wet
VIII. Type of motion given to the screen surface.

1.5.2.4 Screen efficiency

• Screen efficiency is a measure of the success of a screen in closely separating oversize and undersize materials.
• Screen efficiency for the oversize material,

Weight of the octual oversize

material present in the feed
=
weight of overflow material
obtained from the screen

• Screen efficiency for the undersize material,

Weight of overflow material

obtained from the screen
=
weight of actual undersize
material present in the feed
CAV GATE Page 21
 • The overall efficiency is defined as the product of the recovery of oversize material into the screen overflow and
the recovery of the undersize material into the screen underflow.
• Expression used for determining the efficiency of an industrial screen.

C ( f − u )(l − u )(c − f )
=
f (c − u ) 2 (l − f )
(or )
u (u − f )(l − c)( f − c)
=
f (u − c) 2 (1 − f )

Where,

f = fraction of oversize material in the feed.

C = fraction of oversize material in the overflow obtained from the screen.
U = fraction of the oversize material in the underflow obtained from the screen.

1.5.2.5 Capacity of an industrial Screen

• The capacity of an industrial screen is defined as the quantity of material screened per unit surface area of the
screen and is expressed as tons/hr/m2.
• The capacity of screen depends upon-
I. Area of the screen surface
II. The size of the screen aperture
III. Characteristics of an ore
IV. The type of screening mechanism used.
• Efficiency and capacity are opposite to each be increased at the expense of efficiency and vice versa. It means
that as the capacity increases, efficiency decreases and as the capacity decreases, efficiency increases.

1.6 Density calculation and Settling in fluids:

Density is an important consideration next to the size of the particle. It is defined as the mass of the particle per unit
volume.

Most of the mineral beneficiation operations are wet. Water is added to the ore particles to aid beneficiation.

Important terms:

I. Pulp: The mixture of water and solid particles is known as pulp.

II. Suspension: When the solid particles are held up in water, the pulp is called suspension.
III. Slurry: A mixture of fine solids (slime and water)
IV. Sludge: Thick pulp i.e. pulp with less quantity of water.

1.6.1 Density calculation

• Pulp or slurry density is usually measured in terms of the weight of the slurry per unit volume (g /cc or kg/cc)

 mass 
 Density = 
 volume 

CAV GATE Page 22

 • The composition of slurry is often represented as the fraction (or percent) of solids by weight.

Now, let

(I) Fraction of solids particles by weight ,x pw

(II) Fraction of solids particles by volume, (Xpv)

weight of particles
X pw =
weight of slurry
Volume of particles
X pv =
Volume of slurry

(III) Density of water 𝜌𝑤

(IV)Density of dry solids particles 𝜌𝑝

(V) Density of slurry 𝜌𝑠𝑙

Volume conservation:-

Now the total volume of the slurry is equal to the total volume of the solids plus the volume of the water, then for unit
volume of slurry.

V p + VW = Vse
X pw 1− X p 1
+ =
p w  Sl
 1 1  1 1
X pw  − + =
  P  w   w  sl

P − w
  Sl =
 p + X pw (  w −  P )
 P (  sl −1)
and X pw =
 sl (  p −1)

𝑔
(𝜌𝑤 = 1 𝑜𝑟 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑐𝑐

1.6.2Settling of solids in fluids:

One of the most effective techniques used for the separation of fine particles is sedimentation. (Sedimentation is the act
of settling of solid particles in a fluid medium under the force of gravity)

1.6.2.1Principles of settling

• Consider a single homogeneous spherical particle of diameter ‘d’ density (𝜌𝑝 ) falling under gravity in a viscous
fluid of density ‘(𝜌𝑓 )’ and viscosity ‘𝜇𝑓 ’.Let the particle is falling in a stationary fluid extending in all directions
to infinity in a uniform field of force.
CAV GATE Page 23
 • There are three forces acting on a particle:-
(I) Gravity force (mass of the particle m pg)
(II) Buoyant force ( mass of the fluid m fg)
(III) Drag force (R) i.e. resistance to the motion (drag force depends on the velocity of the particle)
• Now according to Newton’s second law of motion, the equation of motion of the particle is,
Force = mass  acceleration
dv
mp g − m f g − R = mp
dt
Where V is the velocity of the particle
dv
is the acceleration due to gravity.
dt
• If the drag, or resistance force becomes equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the resultant of the other
two forces (gravity and buoyancy) acting on a particle in a fluid, the acceleration of the particle will be zero and
the velocity becomes constant. This velocity is the maximum velocity attained by the particle. It is known as
maximum velocity or terminal velocity.
• When acceleration is zero, the particle attains the terminal velocity.
dv
Hence, =0 (1)
dt
dv
 mpg - mfg - R = mp (2)
dt
mpg - mfg -R =0 (3)
 R = g (mp - mf)
  
R = g  dp3  p − dp3  f 
6 6 
Since, the particle is assumed to be sphere

R= g d 3p (  p −  f ) (4)
6

Assumptions:-
(a) When dp< 50  m (Viscous force)

Now by Stoke’s law

R = 3 d p  f V (5)
Replace V by Vt
From 4 and 5
Vt = terminal velocity of the particle
3 d p  f Vt =  g d p3 (  p −  f )
6
gD 2 (  P −  f )
→ Vt = (6)
18 

The nature of the resistance (or drag) depends on the velocity of descent. At low velocity, motion is smooth because
the layer of fluid in contact with the body moves with it, while the fluid, a short distance away, is motionless. Between

CAV GATE Page 24

these two positions is a zone of intense shear in the fluid all around the descending particle. Hence, the resistance to
the motion is due to the shear force or viscosity of the fluid and is called viscous resistance.

(b) When dp< 2 mm (turbulent force)

As the size of the particle increases, settling velocity increases. At high velocity, the main resistance is due to the
displacement of fluid by the particle and is known as turbulent resistance.

By Newton’s equation
R = 0.055 d p2 V 2  f (7)
Now by replacing V by Vt we get,

0.055 d 2 Vt 2  f = g d 3p (  P −  f )
6

3gd p (  P −  f )
Vt = (8)
f
The coarser, heaving and rounder particles settle faster than the finer lighter and more angular particles.) If two
particles have same specific gravity(𝝆𝒑 ),than the particle having larger diameter ( d p ) has higher terminal velocity

(Vt ) . If two particles have the same diameter, than the heavier particle has higher terminal velocity.

CAV GATE Page 25

1.6.2.2 Types of Settling

Types of
Settling

Hindered
Free Settling
Settling

Fig 1.9 (a) Free settling (b) Hindered Settling

(i) Free Settling (classification is based on size)

• In a large volume of fluid, when the particle settle by its own specific gravity, size and shape and is not
influenced by the surrounding particles as the particles are not crowded. Such a settling process is called free
settling.
• Free setting predominates in well dispersed pulps where the percent of solids by caught is less than 10%.

(ii) Hindered settling(classification is based on densities)

• When the particles settle in a small volume of fluid, they are crowded in the pulp and are very close to each
other. As a result, the influenced by particles is influenced by surrounding particles. Such a settling process is
called hindered settling.
• In this type of settling, the particles collide with each other during their settling and this collision affects their
settling velocities. Thus, lower settling velocity is predominant and occur.
• Hindered settling predominates when the percent of solids by weight is more than 15%.
• It is evident that heavier or lighter particles can be separated when they settle by hindered settling. This is
possible because hindered settling reduces the effect of size and increases the effect of specific gravity.

Equal settling particles:-Particles are said to have equal settling if they have the same terminal velocity in the
same fluid and in the same fluid of force.

CAV GATE Page 26

1.6.2.3 Settling ratio
• Settling ratio is the ratio of the sizes of two particles of different specific gravities that falls at equal rates (same
terminal velocity)
• Under free settling conditions settling ratio is known as free settling can can be obtained by equating the terminal
velocity of different sizes.
• Now let dp1 and dp2 be the diameter of lighter and heavier particles and (𝜌𝑝1 ) and(𝜌𝑝2 ) be the densities of lighter
and heaving particles respectively.

(a) By Stoke’s law of settling[when d  50  m (fine particles)]

Vt1 = Vt2 =Vt ( say )

gd p12 (  p1 −  f ) g d p22 (  p 2 −  f )
Vt = =
18  f 18  f
gd 2
P1 ( P1 −f ) =
gd 2
P2 ( P2 −f )
18  f 18  f
d 2
P −  f
 =
P1 2

d 2
2 P −  f
1

Free Settling ratio

1
d P1  P −  f  2

= 2  (9)
d P2  P −  f 
 1 

(b) By newton’s law of settling [When d< 2 mm (coarse force)]

Vt1 = Vt2 = Vt ( say )

(
3g d P1  P1 −  f ) =
(
3gd P2  P2 −  P1 )
f f

d P1 P −  f
 = 2

d P2 P −  f
1

d P1 P −  f
Hindered Settling ratio = 2
(10)
d P2 P −  f
1

Note:- The general equation deduced from equation (9) and (10) is
n
d P1   P2 −  f 
=  
d P2  P −  f 
 1 
 when n = 1 (for course particles → Newton’s law)
 when n = 0.5 (for fine particles Stoke’s law)

1.7 Classification

CAV GATE Page 27

Classification is a method of separation of different sizes, densities and specific gravities into two or more products on the
basis of the velocity with which the particles fall through a fluid medium i.e. settling velocity.

The basic principle of classification is:

The coarser, heavier and rounder particles settle faster than the finer, lighter and more angular particles.

Classifiers

The units in which the separation of solids in fluid medium is carried out are known as classifiers.

Types of
Classifiers

Sizing Sorting Centrifugal

Spiral Hydraulic
Rake Classifier Hydrocyclone
Classifier Classifier

(i) Sizing Classifiers

Sizing classifiers employ the free settling conditions to increase the effect of size.

Types of sizing classifier:

(a) Spiral Classifier:

• The spiral classifiers consists of a semi-cylindrical trough (a trough which is semi-circular in cross-section)
inclined to the horizontal.
• The trough is provided with a slow-rotating spiral conveyor and a liquid overflow at the lower end.
• The spiral conveyer moves the solid upwards (those solids which settle at the bottom) towards the top of the
trough.
• Slurry is fed continuously near the middle of the trough.
• The slurry feed rate is so adjusted that fines do not have time to settle and are carried out with the overflow
liquid.
• Heavy particles have time to settle, they settle at the bottom of the trough and the spiral conveyor moves the
settled solids upward along the floor of the trough towards the top of the trough from a sand discharge chute.

CAV GATE Page 28

 Fig 1.10 Spiral Classifiers

(b) Rake Classifiers:

Fig 1.11 Rake classifiers

(Rake classifiers are same as Spiral classifiers; instead of spiral, rakes are placed)

(ii) Sorting classifiers:

Sorting classifiers employ the hindered settling conditions to increase the effect of density rather than size.

SAMPLE
CAV GATE Page 29
Hydraulic Classifier:

Fig 1.12 Hydraulic Classifier

• The feed slurry is introduced centrally near the top of the first sorting column. A current of water is introduced at
the bottom of the sorting column at a velocity slightly less than the velocity of the smallest heavy particle among
the particles required to be discharge in the first sorting column.
• All those particles having settling velocity less than the velocity of the rising water velocity will not settle and
rise to the top of the column and fed to the second column.
• The particles having the settling velocity more than that of the rising velocity will fed to the bottom of the first

SAMPLE
column and discharge through the spigot.
• The velocity of the hydraulic water in the second sorting column is less than that of the velocity in the first
sorting column so the particles will settle at the bottom of the second column.
• Similarily, the particles with still low velocity will settle in the third column and remaining particles are obtained
as overload from the third sorting column.

CAV GATE Page 30

(iii) Centrifugal classifiers

Fig 1.13 Hydrocyclone

• The principle of operation of the hydrocyclone is based on the concept of the terminal settling velocity of a
solid particle in a centrifugal field. The feed enters tangentially into the cylindrical section of the
hydrocycloneand follows a circulating path with an inward flow of fluid from the outside to the vortex finder on
the axis.
• The circulating velocities are very high and these generate large centrifugal fields inside the hydrocyclone. The

SAMPLE
centrifugal field is usually high enough to create an air core on the axis that often extends from the spigot
opening at the bottom of the conical section through the vortex finder to the overflow at the top. In order for
this to occur, the centrifugal force field must be many times larger than the gravitational field
• Particles that experience this centrifugal field will tend to move outwards relative to the carrier fluid because of
their relatively greater density. The larger, heavier particles will migrate rapidly to the outside walls of the
cylindrical section and will then be forced to move downward on the inside of the conical wall.
• Small, light particles, on the other hand will be dragged inwards by the fluid as it moves toward the vortex
finder. The drag force experienced by any particle will be a complex function of the hydrodynamic conditions
inside the hydrocycloneand the shape and size of the particle.

CAV GATE Page 31

1.8Concentration

The process of removal of unwanted material from the ore is known as concentration.

1.8.1Different methods of concentration

Concentration
methods

Gravity Magnetic Electrostatic Froth

concentration Separation separation flotation

Heavy media
Jigging Tabling
separation

1.8.1.1Gravity Concentration

(a) Heavy media separation

Fig 1.14 Schematic representation of Heavy media separation

• The sink and float method or separation process is known as Heavy Media Separation.
• This process is used for separating a mixture of two products having differentials in specific gravity by

SAMPLE
immersing the sample in a heavy liquid having a gravity intermediate to those of the products to be separated.
• The medium used is a suspension in water of a finely ground heavy mineral such as magnetite or ferrosilicon.
When ground ores are fed into the suspension, the gangue particles having a lower density tend to float and are
removed as tailings whereas the particles of valuable minerals having higher density sink and are also removed.

(b) Jigging

Fig 1.15 Jigging process

• Jigging is a method of gravitational preparation of ores, based on separation of mineral mixture on density in
vertically oscillating water stream of variable direction.
• In this process, a water stream is pulsed or moved by pistons upward and downward, through the material bed.
Under the influence of this oscillating motion, the bed is separated into layers of different densities, the heaviest
concentrate forming the lowest layer and the lightest product the highest.

(c) Tabling

CAV GATE Page 32

1.8.1.4Froth flotation

Fig 1.19 Froth flotation

• Froth flotation is a process for selectively separating hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic.
• This process is extensively used for the concentration of fine particles.
• The majority of the ores mined at present require fine grinding for a high degree of liberation of valuable
minerals and thus the flotation becomes the only possible means of higher grades and recoveries.
• Flotation treatment is extensively applied to the concentration of metalliferrous minerals, both sulphides and

SAMPLE
oxides. Ores of lead, zinc and copper are upgraded by flotation operation.

Contact angle:

• Contact angle (  ) is an angle of contact of an air bubble with the surface of a solid measured across the water. It
is a convenient measure of the forces of adhesion between the bubble and the solid surface.
• The contact angle marks the position of equilibrium between the solid – water and water – air surface on a
wetted surface i.e., it is the position of equilibrium between three tension forces; the surface tension of water
TWA, surface tension of solid mineral TMA and interfacial tension TMW between the solid mineral and water.
• If the surface tension of the solid mineral T MA is more, the water is pulled over the solid till an acute angle  is
reached, when the component of water tension T WAtogether with the interfacial tension TMW is sufficient to bring
about equilibrium. Under these conditions, the solid shows a preference for water.
• If the interfacial tension TMW is greater, the water will be drawn back and an obtuse angle will form. Under these
conditions, the solid shows a preference for air.

CAV GATE Page 33

 Fig 1.20 Contact angle and the three-phase contact in a captive bubble system

When the solid shows affinity for water TMA = TMW + TWAcos 
When the solid shows affinity for air TMW = TMA + TWAcos 

Therefore, TWA cos  is a measure of degree of wetting.

• When the contact angle is nil,  = 0, cos  = 1, the degree of wetting is maximum.
• When the contact angle is 180O,  = 180O, cos  = -1, the water will contract its extent and the degree of wetting
is at a minimum.
• Since there is always some adhesion between solids and liquids in contact, there is no such thing as complete
non-wettability, i.e a contact angle of 180O.
• Adherence of the mineral particle to the air bubble depends on contact angle. As the contact angle increases,
adherence increases and hence floatability increases. Minerals with high contact angle are called aerophilic
(hydrophobic), i.e. they have higher affinity for air than for water. Most minerals are aerophilic (hydrophobic) in

SAMPLE
their natural state.
• To make the valuable mineral particles aerophilic, reagents called collectors are added to the pulp which adsorb
on mineral surfaces, increases contact angle and facilitates bubble attachment. Many freshly formed mineral
surfaces exhibit a natural contact angle of a few degrees. Graphite and some coals have high contact angle to
float without aid of a collector. They are said to have natural floatability.

CAV GATE Page 34

Flotation reagents

Flotation reagents are substances added to the ore pulp prior to or during flotation in order to make it possible to float
valuable mineral particles and not to float the gangue mineral particles.

Flotation
Reagents

Collectors Frothers Modifiers

Depressant pH
Activators
s regulators

SAMPLE

CAV GATE Page 35

 Multiple Choice Questions (Chapter- 1)
SET 1

1. Ore concentration by Jigging is based on the difference in the ________ of the particles.
(a) Specific gravity (b) Wettability
(c) Shape (d) Size

2. The process of tabling is based on the principle of

(a) Difference in density (b) modification of surface tension
(c) differential lateral movement (d) differential initial acceleration

3. Heavy media separation is based on the principle of

(a) Difference in density (b) modification of surface tension
(c) differential lateral movement (d) differential initial acceleration

4. Froth flotation is based on the principle of

(a) Difference in density (b) modification of surface tension
(c) differential lateral movement (d) differential initial acceleration

5. In froth flotation, which of the following acts as activator?

(a) Xanthate (b) Dithiophosphates
(c) Copper sulphate (d) Sodium Cyanide

6. In froth flotation, which of the following acts as depressant?

(a) Sodium Cyanide (b) Copper sulphate
(d) Pine oil (d) Amines

7.

8.
(c) Pine oil SAMPLE
In froth flotation, which of the following acts as pH regulator?
(a) Lime (b) Amines
(d) Eucalyptus oil

In froth flotation, which of the following acts as collector?

(a) Xanthates (b) Copper sulphate
(c) Potassium Cyanide (d) Lime

9. In froth flotation, which of the following acts as frother?

(a) Pine oil (b) Copper sulphate
(c) Potassium Cyanide (d) Lime

CAV GATE Page 36

10. Match the following processes involved in Mineral Processing.
Column I Column II

P. Over flow 1. course particles

Q. Dewatering 2. fine particles

R. Underflow 3. cyclone

S. Vortex finder 4. thickener

(a) P-2, Q-4, R-1, S-3 (b) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3
(c) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4 (d) P-2, Q-3, R-1, S-4

Answers [SET-1]

(1) (a) Specific gravity

(2) (c) differential lateral movement

(3) (a) difference in density

SAMPLE

CAV GATE Page 37

1. Which law is based on the assumption that the energy consumed is proportional to the newly generated
surface area?
(a) Rittinger’s law (b) Bond’s law
(c) Kick’s law (d) Holme’s law

2. Which of the following is an example of a Jaw Crusher?

(a) Blake crusher (b) Cone crusher
(c) Gyratory crusher (d) Roll crusher

3. Which of the following crusher works on the principle of compression and impact?
(a) Jaw crusher (b) Fine crusher
(c) Gyratory crusher (d) Tramp crusher

4. Which of the following involves impact and attrition operations?

(a) Rod mill (b) Jaw crusher
(c) Hammer mill (d) Timber mill

5. The stationary and moveable jaw in a Jaw Crusher is known as

(a) cramp and anvil (b) moving and stay
(c) anvil and swinging (d) trace and find

6.

7.
(c) bigger SAMPLE
For a ball mill, what will happen to the product, if the weight of the ball increases?
(a) Coarser (b) finer
(d) no change

Which of the following ore dressing process requires finest size of ore?
(a) Froth flotation (b) Gravity Separation
(c) Magnetic (d) All of these

8. In the froth flotation process for the beneficiation of ores, the ore particles float because
(a) They are light
(b) Their surface is not easily wetted by water
(c) They are insoluble
(d) They bear electric charge

9. In the froth-flotation process, the sulphide ores are concentrated by mixing the ore with
(a) Water, pine oil and sodium ethyl xanthate
(b) Water, wax and benzene
(c) Water, benzene and sodium ethyl xanthates
(d) Water, matrix and air

CAV GATE Page 38

 Numerical Answer type (Chapter- 1)
SET 3

1. A mixture of quartz and magnetite with an average particle size of 300 microns is being processed by
sedimentation in water. The specific gravity of quartz is 2.65 while that of magnetite is 5.175. Determine the free
settling ratio of these two minerals.

2. A copper ore with a high grade of 0.72% Cu is processed by flotation yielding a concentrate of 36.5 % Cu and a
tailing of 0.0151%. What is the recovery of Cu?

3. A flotation plant treats feed whose grade is 0.8% Cu. The plant produces concentrate and tailings. The copper
grade of concentrate is 26% and that of tailings is 0.16%. Calculate the fraction of feed in concentrate.

4. Calculate the specific gravity of slurry containing 65 wt% lime. Specific gravity of lime is 2600 Kg/m3.

SAMPLE
5. Calculate how many Kg of magnetite must be added to 100 kg of water to make up a slurry with specific
gravity of 1.4 g/cm3. Given density of magnetite is 5.2 g/cm3.

6. A particle of 1 mm in diameter and density of 2500 kg/m3 is settling in a stagnant fluid in the Stoke’s flow
regime. Calculate the viscocity (Pa.s) of the fluid if the fluid density is 1000 kg/m 3 and the particle falls at a
terminal velocity of 2 mm/s.

7. Determine the settling rates (m/s) of 40𝜇𝑚size spherical quartz particles in stagnant water using Newton’s
law. The density of quartz and water are 2650 kg/m 3 and 1000 kg/m3 respectively and viscosity of water is
0.001 Pa s.

CAV GATE Page 39

Answers [SET-3]

1. 2.53

 heavy − liquid medium

Free settling ratio =
light – liquid medium

5.175 − 1
=
2.65 − 1
4.175
=
1.65
= 2.53

2. 93.05

C ( f −t)
Recovery =
f (c − t )

36.5 ( 0.72 − 0.051)

= 100
0.72 ( 36.5 − 0.051)

=
( 36.5 )( 0.669 ) 100
( 0.72 )( 36.449 )
24.4185
= 100
26.2432

= 0.93046 x 100

= 93.046

= 93.05

SAMPLE
CAV GATE Page 40
 Past GATE Questions

(1 mark questions)

1. In froth flotation, the primary purpose of adding collectors is to [GATE 2018]

(a) makes the surface of the mineral hydrophobic
(b) makes the surface of the mineral hydrophilic
(c) stabilize the froth
(d) adjust the pH

2. The sieve analysis of ground quartz particles is given in the table below [GATE 2012]
Sieve size (mm) Mass fraction of ground product
retained on each sieve

4.76 0.0

3.36 0.2

2.38 0.4

1.68 0.3

1.19 0.08

<1.19 0.02

The cumulative mass fraction of particles of size less than 1.68 mm is ______ (answer up to two decimal
places).

3. In froth flotation, hydrophobic mineral particles ascend with air bubbles preferentially over hydrophilic
mineral particles. The figure below shows a schematic of a water droplet placed on the surfaces of two
minerals P and Q [GATE 2015]

Given this formation, pick the correct statement from the following
(a) Mineral P ascends with air bubbles preferentially over mineral Q
(b) Mineral Q ascends with air bubbles preferentially over mineral P
(c) Both minerals P and Q ascend with the air bubbles without preference
(d) Both minerals P and Q sink to the bottom

CAV GATE Page 41

4. Flotation beneficiation is based on the principle of [GATE 2012]
(a) mineral surface hydrophobicity (b) gravity difference
(c) chemical reactivity (d) particle size difference

5. In froth flotation, collector refers to the reagent which primarily [GATE 2011]
(a) promotes bubble break-up and stabilizes the foam
(b) adsorbs on the surface of the minerals and makes it hydrophobic
(c) promotes separation of the particles from the froth
(d) adsorbs on the unwanted mineral and makes it sink

6. Cyclones are primarily used for [GATE 2007]

(a) Comminution (b) Concentration
(c) Dewatering (d) Classification

7. A typical collector used in sulphide mineral flotation is [GATE 2007]

(d) magnetic separator

(2 marks questions)

10. SAMPLE
The terminal velocity (v) of a spherical inclusion of diameter D =
Take, density of liquid steel = 7900kg m–3, viscosity of liquid steel = 0.0079 Pa-s density of the inclusion
=2500kg m–3 acceleration due to gravity = 9.8ms–2. [GATE 2018]

11. The figure below shows the cumulative size distribution of particles of a crushed mineral. 10 kg of this material
is first passed through a sieve of size 400 micron and then through a sieve of size 300 micron.
[GATE 2015]
The weight of mineral (in kg) that is retained on the 300 micron sieve is________

12. Match the unit operation in Group I with its corresponding principle in Group II. [GATE 2013]

Group I Group II

P. Jigging 1. Modification of surface tension

Q. Tabling 2. Difference in density

R. Heavy media separation 3. Differential initial acceleration

S. Flotation 4. Differential lateral movement

(a) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 (b) P-2, Q-3. R-1, S-4
(c) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1 (d) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4

13. The aperture size (in 𝜇𝑚) of a 200 mesh sieve having a wire diameter of 53 𝜇𝑚 is ________.
[GATE 2013]

CAV GATE Page 42

atch the processes in Group I with the physical principles in Group II. [GATE 2008]

SAMPLE
Codes
P Q R S
a] 4 1 2 3
b] 4 1 3 2
c] 2 3 4 1
d] 1 3 4 2

16. A flotation plant treats 100 ton of chalcopyrite containing 2 % Cu and produces 6 ton of concentrate. The
concentrate has 25% Cu. The percentage of Cu in the tailing is [GATE 2008]
(1) 0.35 (b) 0.53 (c) 0.86 (d) 0.93

17. Deoxidation of liquid steel with ferrosilicon produces spherical silica particles. The particles (a) 30
(b) 300 (c) 960 (d) 3000

18. The recovery of gold in the following operation is [GATE 2007]

(a) 8.25% (b) 22.26%

(c) 85.80% (d) 91.80%

19. What is the volume % solid in a pulp containing 65 wt% solids? Average specific gravity of solids is 2.70?
[GATE 2007]
(a) 72.9% (b) 65% (c) 59.3% (d) 40.7%

CAV GATE Page 43

20. Match the type of reagent used in floatation in Group I with the reagent in Group II.
[GATE 2006]
Group I Group II
P. Collector 1. Pine oil
Q. Regulator 2. Copper sulphate
R. Activator 3. Sodium enthylxanthate
S. Frother 4. Lime

Code
P Q R S
(a) 2 3 4 1
(b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 3 4 2 1
(d) 1 3 2 4

21. Match the reagents in Group I win their properties in Group II, in the context of froth floatation.
[GATE 2005]
Group I Group II
P. Frother 1. Alters the chemical nature of mineral surfaces
so that they become hydrophobic due to action of
collector
Q. Activator 2. Absorbs on air-water interface and reduces
surface tension to stabilized the bubble
R. Regulator 3. Increases the selectivity of floatation by
rendering certain minerals hydrophilic
S. Depressant 4. Modifies the action offing collector either by
intensifying or reducing its water-repellent effect

Code
P Q R S
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 4 2 3 1
(d) 3 2 4 1

22. Identify the correct statements [GATE 2004]

P. Transgent could be a collector for one system and a frother for another
Q. Usage of a collector makes the bubbles stable
R. Usage of a frother makes the mineral surface hydropbhobic
S. Some mineral floatation processes will not require any collector
(a) P, Q (b) Q, R (c) P, S (d) P, R

23. 1 ton of chalcopyrite containing 2% copper is floated to obtain a concentrate containing 25% copper. If the mass
of the concentrate is 60 kg, the percent of copper in the tailing is [GATE 2003]
(a) 0.834% (b) 0.642% (c) 0.0983% (d) 0.532%

CAV GATE Page 44

24. Match Group I with Group II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the groups.
[GATE 2003]
Group I Group II
P. Flotation 1. Separation on the basis of density
Q. Electrostatic concentration difference
R. Comminution 2. Reduction in size
S. Heavy media separation 3. Surface charge is induced in particles
4. Modification of surface tension

Code
P Q R S
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 4 3 2 1

25. Electrostatic separation of minerals from each other is based on their differences in the following property
[GATE 2001]
(a) densities (b) magnetic permeability
(c) electrical conductivities (d) hardness

26. Role of a collector in flotation is [GATE 2000]

(a) to form a water repelling film on the mineral surface
(b) to create and stabilize the froth
(c) to act as a surface
(d) to collect the minerals according to their specific gravity

CAV GATE Page 45

Answers

1. (a) makes the surface of the mineral hydrophobic

2. 0.1

Sieve size (mm) Mass fraction of ground product Cumulative mass fraction of
retained on each sieve particles

4.76 0.0 1.0

3.36 0.2 1.0 - 0.2 = 0.8

2.38 0.4 0.8 - 0.4 = 0.4

1.68 0.3 0.4 – 0.3 = 0.1

1.19 0.08 0.1 – 0.08 = 0.02

<1.19 0.02 0.02 – 0.02 = 0.0

So, the cumulative mass fraction of particles of size less than 1.68 is 0.1

SAMPLE

CAV GATE Page 46