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Drilling Fluids; Types, Formation Choice and Environmental Impact

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 International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS)
Volume VIII, Issue XII, December 2019 | ISSN 2278-2540

Drilling Fluids; Types, Formation Choice and

Environmental Impact
Ahmed Wedam Ahmed1, Ekrem Kalkan2*
1
AGH-University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Mining Survey and Environmental Engineering, Department of Mining
Areas Protection, Geoinformatic and Mining Surveying, Cracow, Poland
2
Ataturk University, Oltu Earth Sciences Faculty, Geological Engineering Department, Erzurum, Turkey
*
Corresponding author

Abstract—For the successful drilling of oil and gas drilling, the Drilling fluids went through major technological
drilling fluids are essential materials. In the drilling applications, evolution, since the first operations performed in the US,
the most commonly used drilling fluids are water based fluids. using a simple mixture of water and clays, to complex
Water-based fluids are the first fluids of choice for drilling mixtures of various specific organic and inorganic products
applications because of their cost effective, environmental
used nowadays. These products improve fluid rheological
friendly and non-hazardous nature. However, these fluids are
ineffective when dealing with water-sensitive shale that can lead properties and filtration capability, allowing to penetrate
to shale hydration, consequently wellbore instability is heterogeneous geological formations under the best conditions
compromised. The geological occurrences which is water- (Khodja et al., 2010).
sensitive may require oil-based and synthetic-based fluids. A
proper formulation of oil-based drilling fluid can prevent water
Drilling of oil wells occurs by using drilling fluids to
movement from the fluid into the shale occurrence. Despite its remove rock fragments as the drilling progresses (Amorim et
effectiveness, oil-based drilling fluid can give negative impact to al., 2005). Traditionally drilling muds are classified according
environment when the pollutant is discharged and subsequently to the base used to prepare them, which are air, water or oil.
dispersed to the sea. The ester-based drilling fluids take attention Most drilling operations in the world use water-based fluids,
as alternative fluids in the drilling applications of water-sensitive due to their low toxicity. Nevertheless, these have some
geological occurrences such as shale formations. They are a new disadvantages that can be overcome by the use of oil-based
class of materials used to provide safe and cost-effective fluids (Lucas et al., 2009; Cardoso et al., 2010).
technology for drilling oil and gas wells. Their enhanced drilling
performance decreases drilling time and provides advantaged It is commonly understood that drilling is a process of
safety, human health, and, in some cases, environmental creating a borehole, and one of the main technological
performance above diesel oil fluids. elements of drilling, including access holes in subglacial
Keywords— Drilling, drilling fluids, water-based fluids, oil-based environments, is the removal of borehole products when
fluids, geological occurrence cutting or melting the ice. The removal of material is critically
important to all drilling systems, as the presence of excessive
I. INTRODUCTION material at the bottom of the borehole leads to decreasing
penetration rates and even loss of the drill. For intermediate
T he methods and devices for drilling of stones, glasses,
metals, jewels and bones were developed by ancient
people (20-10 thousand years ago) in different regions of the
and deep drilling, it is also necessary to prevent borehole
closure through visco-plastic deformation by filling the
world such as Europe, Asia, Egypt, America. Modern borehole with a fluid (Talalay and Hooke, 2007; Talalay et al.,
engineers may use great experience received from ancient 2014).
ages. At the point reached in drilling applications, Drilling fluids are any fluids which are circulated through
achievements in modern drilling techniques may be applied a well in order to remove cuttings from a wellbore. The fluid
not only to reach deeper wells or drill larger holes, but could is pumped down the drill string, through the nozzles of the bit,
help to drill wells for different purposes in other planets of the and returns back up the annulus between the drill string and
solar system (Moloney, 1995; Kpoey, 2017). the wellbore walls, carrying the cuttings produced by the bit
Petroleum drillingis the primordial step in the success of action to the surface. The main function is to clean the hole
oilfield exploration. This success is based, on the one hand, on while drilling but the drilling fluid also serves to cool the bit,
the important details derived from geological drilled provide power to the mud motor and measuring-while-drilling
formations and, on the other hand, on the good drill-in tool, support the walls of the hole and control the well
reservoir conditions. Thus, paramount drilling objectives are pressure (prevent the well from flowing). An alternative
to reach the target safely in the shortest possible time and at method is called reverse circulation, where the flow of the
the lowest possible cost, with required additional sampling fluid is reversed from the previously mentioned one (Finger
and evaluation constraints dictated by particular application. and Blankenship, 2010; Chemwotei, 2011).

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Volume VIII, Issue XII, December 2019 | ISSN 2278-2540

Water is also used as a circulation medium in hot-water such as high temperature and pressure, tight gas and shale-gas
drilling systems. In this case, water has two main functions: reservoir, (2) increasing technical demands, such as increased
(1) to convey heat to the bottom of the hole to melt the ice and lubricity requirements in air drilling and (3) growing
(2) to remove melted water by mixing with pumped hot water. restrictions on oil-based systems, such as environmental
The main advantages of exploration of the subglacial remediation.
environment with hot-water drilling systems are that the
The drilling fluids with specific physical and chemical
equipment can provide cleaner samples of subglacial water
properties are multi-component and dispersion-colloidal
and sediments and that access to the ice-sheet base is rapid
systems and serve several important tasks in borehole drilling.
(Talalay et al., 2014).
These tasks depend on the kind of drilled rock, the formation
II. DRILLING FLUIDS thickness, the existence of formation water and its salinity, the
existence of producing formations, the formation pressure,
There are many papers on the subject of drilling fluids, but
and the temperature depending on borehole depth. The
they are primarily oriented towards petroleum drilling. There
success of borehole penetration rates depends to a great extent
are some papers on geothermal drilling fluids, but biased
on the drilling mud quality circulating in the well, and on the
towards drilling mud and the modifications and treatments
proper control of its properties (Uliasz et al. 2006; Steliga and
done to it for use in drilling high temperature reservoirs. The
Uliasz, 2014).
drilling fluids commonly used for the drilling of geothermal
wells, and the advantages and disadvantages of each was Generally, two or three kinds of water-based drilling muds
highlighted. The use of water for geothermal drilling was are used bentonite drilling mud, polymer drilling mud without
described for the first time (Janson, 1975; Hole, 2008; clays that diminish shale formation hydration, and a drill-in
Chemwotei, 2011). The flow of drilling fluid on the drilling fluid that prevents permeability damage as well as possesses
system is shown in Fig. 1. inhibitory properties depending on the borehole’s depth and
the formations drilled at the time of borehole drilling. The
main ingredient of bentonite drilling mud is the bentonite,
which acts as a structural building component (Lewicka et al.
2008). However, in clay-free mud the structure and viscosity
is built by biopolymer-XCD, high viscosity, plant-derived
organic polymers or their mixtures (Steliga and Uliasz 2012;
Steliga and Uliasz, 2014).
One of the main drilling fluid additives used to achieve the
required density to overbalance formation pressure during
drilling operations and prevent any loss of well control is
weighting material (Caenn et al., 2011; Hossain and Al-
Majed, 2015; Mohamed et al., 2019). Also, the drilling fluids
have many functions, such as circulating the drilled cuttings to
the surface and suspending the cuttings while drilling
operation is stopped and cooling and lubricating the drill bit to
ease the drilling operation (Gordon et al., 2008; Fink, 2012).
A special drilling fluid formulation is required to meet the
critical downhole conditions in high-pressure high-
temperature applications. In such cases, drilling fluids should
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of drilling system (Sen, 2019)
have a high density to suppress the high formation pressure
with good stability at that elevated temperatures (Mohamed et
The drilling fluids are complex mixtures formed from al., 2017; Mohamed et al., 2019).
solids, liquids, chemicals, and sometimes even gases. From
the chemical point of view, they can assume aspects of In the drilling operations, drilling fluids have many key
suspension, colloidal dispersion or emulsion, depending on functions, and almost all problems encountered are directly or
the physical state of the components. The drilling fluids called indirectly related to drilling fluid properties (Adams 1985;
drilling muds, can often be defined as liquid compositions to Chilingarian and Vorabutr 1983; Plank and Gossen 1991). In
help the process of drilling petroleum wells and they depend the minimizing drilling time and cost , optimum selection of
on the particular requirements of each perforation (Tomas, drilling fluid is a key factor (Mokhtari and Ozbayoglu 2010;
2001; Barbosa, 2006; Oliveira et al., 2016). Salih et al. 2016). The water-based drilling fluids are more
preferable and attractive option than oil and synthetic fluids
Drilling fluid technology is in constant evolution due to for drilling oil and gas wells in sensitive areas where oil base
(1) rapidly expanding needs due to more severe conditions, fluids are not desired, due to cost and environmental effects.

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 International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS)
Volume VIII, Issue XII, December 2019 | ISSN 2278-2540

Therefore, water base fluids are desirable due to the offshore drilling operations, but without sacrificing the cost-
development of high performance and more environmental effectiveness of oil-based systems. Field data gathered since
friendly (Salih et al. 2016; Saboor et al., 2018). the early 1990s confirm that the synthetic-based drilling fluids
provide exceptional drilling performance, easily equaling that
III. CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING FLUIDS
of diesel and mineral oil-based fluids.
In geotechnical engineering, drilling fluid is a fluid used to
In many offshore areas, regulations that prohibit the
drill boreholes into the earth. In drilling rigs, drilling fluids
discharge of cuttings drilled with oil-based drilling fluids do
help to do drill for exploration of oil and natural gas. Liquid
not apply to some of the synthetic-based systems. The
drilling fluid is often called drilling mud (Mukherjee,
synthetic-based drilling fluids are formulated with linear alpha
2013).The drilling fluids are generally classified under three
olefins and isomerized olefins exhibit the lower kinematic
distinct classes such as water-based drilling fluids, oil-based
viscosities that are required in response to the increasing
drilling fluids and synthetic-based drilling fluids.
importance of viscosity issues as operators move into deeper
Water-based drilling fluids account for 80% of the total waters.
drilling operation carried out due to their environment friendly
IV. FORMATION CHOICE
nature and they are highly cost-effective as compared to the
synthetic or oil-based drilling fluids. The choice of the drilling In the proper selection of the drilling fluid, there are some
fluid depends on the factors (Medhi et al., 2019). These governing agents such as the type of formation encountered,
factors are (1) the location and the type of formation which is temperature and pressure of the formation, ecological and
to be drilled, (2) the variation in the pressure and temperature environmental considerations and cost need to be put into
of the wellbore, (3) the nature of the formation fluids i.e. consideration when a proper selection of the drilling fluid
strength, porosity and permeability and (4) the other important (Bourgoyne et al., 1985; Khodja et al., 2010). The basically
factors considered while making the selection of the drilling three types of drilling fluid can be used in any mud system.
fluids are production factors, environmental factors and Water base mud comprises water as the continuous phase and
safety. is the most commonly used drilling fluid. Oil base mud
consists of oil as the continuous phase and diesel oil is the one
The water-based fluids are used to drill approximately 80
used largely. Gas is composed of either air or natural gas and
% of all wells. These fluids may be fresh water, seawater,
foaming agents are sometimes used (Darley and Gray, 1988;
brine, saturated brine, or a formate brine. The type of fluid
Annis and Smith, 1996; Rabia, 2002). Drilling operations can
selected depends on anticipated well conditions or on the
be greatly improved by choosing an appropriate type of
specific interval of the well being drilled. Some commercial
drilling fluid. An appropriate selection of the drilling mud has
bentonite or attapulgite also may be added to aid in fluid-loss
always been a big challenge to the crew working on the rig
control and to enhance hole-cleaning effectiveness. The
site (Dhiman, 2012; Hamoodia et al., 2018).
water-based fluids fall into two broad categories such as no-
dispersed and dispersed. The rheology of drilling fluid determines its effectiveness
in drilling a well (El Fakharany et al., 2017a). The
The oil-based drilling fluids were developed and
effectiveness or the performance of the drilling fluid is
introduced in the 1960s to help the drilling problems. They
measured by the capability of the fluid to accomplish its job.
are formulated with diesel, mineral oil, or low-toxicity linear
The prime use of the drilling fluid is to remove the formation
olefins and paraffins. Barite is used to increase system
cuttings within the well. The designed fluid should carry and
density, and specially treated organophilic bentonite is the
suspend the cuttings while in circulation and transmitted
primary viscosifier in most oil-based systems. The emulsified
securely through the annulus incurring minimum losses and
water phase also contributes to fluid viscosity.
environmental impact (Walker et al., 2016).
Organophiliclignitic, asphaltic and polymeric materials are
added to help control HP/HT (High pressure/High The selection and formulation of the fluid is done by the
temperature). mud engineer, who determines the required viscosity, density,
fluid loss control, chemical composition and many other
The surfactants used for oil-wetting also can work as
properties of the fluid (Bland et al., 2006). The selection of
thinners. Oil-based systems usually contain lime to maintain
the type of the drilling fluid is based on three important
an elevated pH, resist adverse effects of hydrogen sulfide and
factors; the cost, technical performance and the environmental
carbon dioxide gases, and enhance emulsion stability. Shale
impact of the fluid on the formation. The selection of the best
inhibition is one of the key benefits of using an oil-based
suiting type is important as it defines the success of the
system. The high-salinity water phase helps to prevent shales
drilling operation. In recent years, researchers have focused
from hydrating, swelling, and sloughing into the wellbore.
on formulating a biodegradable oil base-mud that would save
The synthetic-based drilling fluids were developed out of on cost of disposal, and simultaneously have less of a negative
an increasing desire to reduce the environmental impact of

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 International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS)
Volume VIII, Issue XII, December 2019 | ISSN 2278-2540

impact on the environment (Hussein and Amin, 2010; El impact qualities of water-based fluids (Burke and Veil, 1995,
Fakharany et al., 2017b). Cobby and Craddock, 1999; Chuma, 2011).
The drilling fluid, also called drilling mud, is a heavy, The formation which is water-sensitive may require oil-
viscous fluid mixture used in oil and gas drilling operations to based fluid and synthetic-based fluid. A proper formulation of
carry rock cuttings to the surface and also to lubricate and oil-based fluid can prevent water movement from the fluid
cool the drill bit. The drilling mud, by hydrostatic pressure, into the shale occurrence. However, in the formulation of the
also helps prevent the collapse of unstable strata into the oil-base drilling fluids, the recognized the American
borehole and the intrusion of water from water-bearing strata Petroleum Institute (API) specifications must not be
that may be encountered (Anon, 2014a). Three key factors compromised. Table 1 shows the API standard for drilling
usually determine the type of fluid selected for a specific fluids rheology requirements. API was formed in 1919 as a
formation such as cost, technical performance and standards-setting organization and is the global leader in
environmental impact (Anon, 2014b). convening subject matter experts across segments to establish,
maintain, and distribute consensus standards for the oil and
Some researchers have gone as far as comparing the role
gas industry.
played by drilling fluid in oil exploration and exploitation
activities to that of the blood circulation in the human body. In Table 1. API (13B) specificationsforoil-basedrillingfluids (DarleyandGray,
this analogy, the fluid pump functions as the heart; the 1988; Mohammed, 2012)
cuttings that are transferred from the borehole by drilling fluid Numerical Value
represent the waste products excreted out of the body through Parameter
Requirement
the blood vessels, and the kidney and lungs function as the Basic OilCharacteristicsRequirements
system for cleaning the mud (Al-Yasiri and Al-Sallami,
Flash Point 150 °F (66 °C)
2015). It has been estimated that in oil exploratory and
extraction activities, the cost of drilling operations is Fire Point 200 °F (93 °C)
responsible for 50 to 80% of exploration finding costs, and Aniline Point 140 °F (60 °C)
about 30 to 70% of other field development costs (Khodja et FluidProperties
al., 2010; Orji et al., 2016).
Density 7.5 toover 22.0 (lb/gal)
Drilling fluids are suspension of solids in either water or
PlasticViscosity < 65 (cP) or ALAP
oil, which can be mixed with other substances, called
additives (Apaleke et al., (2012).The principal functions of the Yield Point 15-45 (lb/100 ft2))
drilling fluids are to: (1) carry cuttings from beneath the bit, PV/YP Ratio 0.8-1.5
transport them up the annulus, and permit their separation at Gel Strength 10 seconds 3-20 (lb/100 ft2)
the surface; (2) cool and clean the drilling bits; (3) reduce
Gel Strength 10 minutes 8-30 (lb/100 ft2)
friction between the drilling string and the side of the hole; (4)
maintain the stability of uncased sections of the borehole; (5) CalciumChloride 20-25 % byweight
prevent inflow of fluids from permeable rocks penetrated; (6) Excess Lime 1-3 ppg
form a thin, low permeable filter cake which seals pores and
ElectricalStability > 400 (volts)
other openings in formations that penetrated by the bit, and
(7) assist in the collection and interpretation of information HPHT Filtratebeforerolling 10-25 Millilitres (ml)
available from drilling cuttings, cores and electrical logs HPHT Filtrateafterrolling (350 oF -500
o < 10 (ml/30 min)
(Apaleke et al., 2012, Hossain and Al-Majeed, 2015; F)
Behnamanhar et al., 2014). API Fluidloss 15.0 ml (maximum)
Oil/WaterRatio 65/35 to 95/5
V. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
EPA MysidShrimp Test 30 000 ppm LC50 (minimum)
Drillers use specialized drilling fluids referred to as muds
pH 8.5-10
when drilling exploration and production oil and gas wells to
help maintain well control and to remove drill cuttings from
the drill hole (Burke and Veil, 1995). Recently, in response to In as much as oil based fluids are efficient in areas prone
the current global environmental challenges in addition to to shale swelling they tend to pose adverse impact to
strict international and local regulations on drilling waste environment when the pollutant is discharged and
discharge requirements, the drilling industry has developed subsequently dispersed to the sea. This becomes highly
several types of synthetic-based fluids or synthetic-based unfourable for aquatic bodies, both plants and fishes. In a long
fluids that combine the desirable operating qualities of oil- run damaging the ecosystem. Moreover, the fishes tend to be
based drilling fluids with the lower toxicity and environmental toxic and harmful when consumed by man. Also, these
pollutants during onshore drilling may have drastic impact on

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 International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS)
Volume VIII, Issue XII, December 2019 | ISSN 2278-2540

soil quality; thus has serious effects on the chemical rheological properties. Cerâmica, 51, 128-138.
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