Principles of Transportation

Engineering

Mara Erna L. Tagupa

CE 4A
A. Types of Road Pavement in Construction
The road pavement is multiple layered surfaces constructed to allow the movements
of vehicles and provide a smooth and comfortable ride to the road users. There are two
primary purposes of road pavement, first to provide a controlled friction level to the running
vehicle, and second to transmit the vehicle load to the underlying ground.

Types of Pavements:

1. Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavement is made of
multiple layers named surface course,
base course, sub-base, capping, and
lastly the Geogrid. The surface layer is
made of Asphalt material. It is further
categorized into two materials named
Thin Surface course System (TSCS)
and Hot Tolled Asphalt (HRA).

 Surface Course
Figure A.1. Cross-section flexible
Surface Course which is made of Asphalt pavement
material is a mix of asphalt cement and
aggregate (5% and 95% respectively).  In surface course treatment, larger size
aggregates are placed in the lower section and small size aggregates are placed in
the upper section.
Asphalt materials are made robust enough to withstand the local climate, which
means in a colder climate, they are made softer and for a hot climate, they are
made harder.
Following are two types of material commonly used as surface Course:
a. Thin Surface course System (TSCS)
b. Hot Rolled Asphalt

 Base Course
Base Course is laid just below the surface course and above the Sub-base layer.
The thickness of the base course varies from 100mm to 160mm. it is laid to
 support the foundation and transmit the load of the vehicle and upper pavement
layer to the sub-base and underlying soil.
 Sub-Base
The sub-base is laid just below the Base-course and above the Capping Layer.
The sub-base is considered as the foundation layer (unbound layer) and made to
bear a load of the above layer plus vehicular load and transmit that to the Capping
and underlying soil.

The thickness of the Sub-Base Course is dependent on the CBR of the existing
adjacent ground. The lower the CBR value, the higher the thickness of the sub-
Base. The sub-base course is an unbound layer and made of material such as
crushed stone or crumpled concrete or slag.
 Capping
Capping Layer is also considered as a part of the Pavement Foundation and
termed as an unbound layer. The aggregate used in Capping is generally of
inferior quality than the sub-base course. It supports the Sub-base and minimizes
the damage of the sub-base from excessive vehicular loading.

The capping layer provides additional strength to the Sub-Base and also shields
the underlying soil from heavy construction vehicles and machine loading during
the construction stage.
 Geogrid
Geogrid is predominantly a Geosynthetics and is made like an open mesh grid
structure. It enhances the tensile strength of the underlying soil and minimizes the
undercutting soil. It holds soil particles but permits the movement of fluids, so
greatly enhances the performance of the Pavement Sub-Base.
2. Rigid Pavement

Rigid pavements are made of a

mix of aggregate and Portland
cement in the form of a concrete
slab. The slab is laid over the
sub-base material which is made
of granulated material or placed
directly over the capping layer.

Figure A.2.1. Rigid pavement

Figure 2.2. Cross-section of rigid pavement

 3. Composite Pavement

Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt.

They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new
construction.

Asphalt overlays are

sometimes laid over distressed
concrete to restore a smooth
wearing surface.

Figure A.3.1. Example of composite pavement

Figure A.3.2.
FigureCross-section of composite
A.3.3. Example of composite pavement
pavement
B. Field Density Test
Various types of field density tests are being practiced in different parts of the world for the
evaluation of in-situ soil compaction and knowing the relative degree of Compaction. FDT,
Full name is Field Density Test, is a Quality Control test carried out at the site for knowing
the increased Compaction or Density or achieved at a site on the soil layer. The FDT is
carried out by Laboratory persons of Contractor under the supervision of the QC team by the
Consultant after completion of the required number of passes by compactor/roller determined
in test fills at the site.

Types of Field Density Test:

1. Sand Cone Method or Sand Replacement Method

The sand replacement test method is utilized to determine the in situ dry density of soil. The
procedures, materials, equipment, and specifications of the test are based

on the Indian Standard. This test is of significant importance, and it’s been widely utilized in
various construction project sites.

Figure B.1. Sand cone method

Procedure:

1. Expose an area of about 450mm square on the top layer of the soil mass. Trim the
surface down to a level surface using a scraper tool.
2. Place the metal tray on the leveled surface.

3. Excavate the soil through the central hole of the tray, using the hole in the tray as a
pattern. The depth of the excavated hole must be about 150mm.

4. Collect all the excavated soil in a metal container and determine the mass of the soil
(M).

5. Remove the metal tray in the excavated hole.

6. Fill the sand pouring cylinder within 10mm of its top. Determine its mass (M1).

7. Place the cylinder directly over the excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out of the
cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the shutter when the hole is completely filled,
and no further movement of sand is observed.

8. Remove the cylinder from the filled hole. Determine the mass of the cylinder (M4).

9. Take a representative sample of the excavated soil. Determine its water content.

10. Determine the dry density of soil, as shown in Below Table.

Table B.1. Observations and Calculations for Dry
Density Test of Soil
2. Water Replacement Method of Field Density Test
The water displacement test method is utilized to determine the dry density of soil. It’s
suitable for evaluating the in-place dry density of cohesive soil because of the nature of the
specimen required. The soil sample ought to be trimmed to obtain a regular shape and then
coated to make it impervious to water. After that, the total volume of this waxed specimen is
found by determining the volume of water displaced from the specimen.

Figure B.2 Water reference level indicator and water pouring

Procedure:
1. Take the soil specimen.
2. Trim it to a regular shape. Avoid re-entrant corners. Weigh the specimen.
3. Take a paraffin wax and melt it onto a heater. Apply a coating of melted paraffin wax
into the specimen with a brush. When it’s hardened, apply another coat. Take the mass
of this waxed specimen (Mt).
4. Fill the water displacement apparatus with water. After the flow occurs, close the
valve.
5. Place a measuring jar below the overflow tube of the apparatus. Open valve.
6. Immerse the waxed specimen slowly into the water from the apparatus. Water
overflows. Collect the overflowed water from the jar. Determine the volume of the
water collected (Vt).
7. Take out the waxed specimen from the apparatus. Dry it from outside.
8. Remove the paraffin wax by peeling off it.
9. Cut the specimen into two pieces. Take a representative sample to the water content
determination.
3. Core Cutter method
Core cutter method is used for finding field density of
cohesive/clayey soils placed as fill. It is rapid method
conducted on field. It cannot be applied to coarse
grained soil as the penetration of core cutter becomes
difficult due to increased resistance at the tip of core
cutter leading to damage to core cutter.

Procedure:
1. Find the volume of core cutter by measuring its
internal dimensions.
2.   Find the weight of the core cutter (without dolly).
3.    Place the dolly over the cutter   and   drive   the   cutter into the soil with the help of
rammer
4.    Take out the cutter containing soil.
5. Remove the dolly and trim off the excess soil above
Figure B.3. Core cutter
the edges of the cutter.
method apparatus
6. Take the weight of cutter filled with soil.
7. Take some representative sample for water content determination by the oven.
8. Repeat the test at two/three locations and find the average density.

4. Heavy oil Method

In a field density test, using the oil method, the wet mass of soil removed from a small hole in
the fill was 1.65 kg. Thc mass of oil (specific gravity = 0.92) Determine the volume of hole
(V) using the relation; Here, m is the mass of oil, is the specific gravity of oil, and is the
density of water.

Figure B.4. heavy oil method

5. Rubber Balloon Method

Rubber balloon test is a quick method and gives more accurate results compared to other in-
situ methods. In this method, rubber balloons are used to determine the volume of excavated
soil hole. Rubber balloon test is generally suitable for well-compacted soils.

Procedure:

1. Position the density plate on a flat surface and set the volume measuring (A)
apparatus in the recessed hole in the density plate

Figure B.5. Rubber balloon method

 2. Hold the apparatus down firmly in position, open the control valve, pump the balloon
down with the rubber bulb until the water level in the graduated cylinder has reached
its lowest position, and record this volume, which is the initial reading.

3. Pump the balloon back into the cylinder by inverting the rubber bulb, and close the
control valve.

4. Place the density plate in a level position on the material to be tested, dig a test hole
about4 in diameter, and 4 in. Deep, retain all the material which is removed from the
hole, then measure and record the mass of the excavated soil.

5. Set the apparatus in the recess in the density plate, hold it down firmly, open the
control valve, pump the balloon into the hole, and record the lowest point reached by
the water in-cylinder, which is the final reading.

6. Invert the pressure-vacuum bulb and pump the balloon back into the cylinder.

7. Subtract the initial reading from the final reading and obtain the volume of the hole in
cubic feet.

8. Mix the material thoroughly and secure a representative sample of not less than 100
gm for moisture determination.

9. Make density calculations based on the volume of the test hole and dry or wet weight
(as required) of materials removed.

6. Nuclear Moisture Density Meter

A nuclear densometer or soil density gauge is an instrument used in the field for determining
the density of compacted materials. The nuclear densometer measures the interaction of
gamma radiation with the ground to calculate the density. Most densometers use either direct
transmission or measure with the backscatter method to determine density.
Procedure:

1. Equipment required
A nuclear densometer is required for the procedure. These instruments contain radioactive
materials, which may be hazardous if used improperly. It is recommended that users
participate in a radiation safety and applications training program presented by competent
instructors.
Figure B.6. Nuclear density method
2. Site preparation
Clear all loose debris from any site to be measured prior to performing any testing. If
measuring on soil, the area should be leveled using a scraper plate until you have a flat
surface to take the measurement. The scraper plate is used as a guide for the drill rod. Place
the scraper plate over your site and while holding it in place with your foot, drive the rod to a
depth of at least 50 mm (2 inches) deeper than the measurement depth.
3. Positioning the gauge

Carefully place your gauge over the prepared site.

 Backscatter: Make the gauge as flush to the surface as possible. Release the Latch by
pressing the trigger into the handle and pushing the handle down to the first notch
for backscatter.
  Direct Transmission: Release the latch by pressing the trigger into the handle and
pushing the handle down to the correct predetermined depth. Pull the gauge toward
the control panel end to force the source rod against the side of the prepared hole.
This is important since a void could exist between the rod tip and side of the hole.

4. Taking the measurement count

Follow the instruction on the control panel of the Nuclear Density Gauge to take your
measurements. Humboldt Scientific Nuclear Density Gauges provide automatically computed
measurements for direct readouts of wet density, dry density, moisture content, percent
moisture, percent compaction, void ratio and air voids.
5. Repacking the equipment
This equipment using radioactive materials and needs to be stored in accordance with
established safety standards. After each use, the handle should be placed in the “safe”
position and locked. The gauge should be wiped down to remove any soil or moisture and
then placed in its transit case and locked.