Chapter III

OF IDENTIFICATION
the determination of
or thing.
of Identification of Person:
In the prosecution of the criminal offense, the identity of the
offender and that of the victim must be established, otherwise it
will be a ground the dismissal of the charge or acquital the
accused.
2. The identification of a person missing or presumed dead will
facilitate settlement of the estate, retirement, insurance and other
social benefits. It vests on the heirs the right over the properties
of the identified person.
If identity cannot be established, then the law on presumption
of death (Art. 390, Civil Code) must be applied which requires the
lapse of seven years before a person can be presumed dead. In
special instances, the seven years period may be reduced to four
years (Art. 391, Civil Code).
3. Identification resolves the anxiety of the next-of-kin, other rela-
tives and friends as to the whereabouts of a missing person or
victim of calamity or criminal act.
4. Identification may be needed in some transactions, like cashing of
check, entering a premise, delivery of parcels or registered mail in
post office, sale of property, release of dead bodies to relatives,
parties to a contract, etc.
Rules in Personal
The greater the number of points of similarities and dissimilarities
of two persons compared, the greater is the probability for the
conclusion to be correct. This is known as the of
city of Evidence in Identification.
2. The value of the different points of identification varies in the
formulation of conclusion. In a fresh cadaver, if the fingerprints
on file are the same as those recovered from the crime scene, they
will positively establish the identity of the person while bodily
marks, like moles, scars, complexion, shape of nose, etc. are
merely corroborative. Visual recognition by relative or friends
may be of lesser value as compared with fingerprints or dental
comparison.
41
42 LEGAL MEDICINE
3. The longer the interval between the death and the examination
of the remains for purposes of identification, the greater is the
need for experts in establishing identity. The process of taking
fingerprints and its examination under a magnifying lens
the services of an expert. When putrefaction has set in, the
ternal bodily marks useful in identification might be destroyed
so that it is necessary to resort to an anatomical or a
examination of the body which requires knowledge of
and dentistry.
4. Inasmuch as the object to be identified highly perishable, it is
necessary for the team to act in the shortest time special-
ly in cases of mass disaster.
5. There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure of identi-
fication of persons.
Methods of
comparison — Identification criteria recovered during investi-
gation are compared with records available in the file, or post-
mortem finding are compared with ante-mortem records.
Examples:
a. Latent fingerprints recovered from the crime scene are com-
pared with the fingerprints on file of an investigating agency.
b. Dental findings on the skeletal remains are compared with the
dental record of the person in possession of the dentist.
By exclusion — If two or more persons have to be identified and
all but one is not yet identified, then the one whose identity has
not been established may be known by the process of elimination.

IDENTIFICATION OF PERSONS
The bases of human identification may be classified as:
Those which laymen used to prove identity — No special training
or skill is required of the identifier and nc instrument or
cedure is demanded.
which are based on scientific knowledge — is
made by trained men, well-seasoned by experience and
vation, and primarily based on comparison or exclusion.

L ORDINARY METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

Points of Identification Applicable to the Living Person Only:
Characteristics which may easily be
Growth of hair, beard or mustache — This may easily be shaved
or grown within a short time. Arrangement may be changed.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

artificial hair may be worn or ornamentation may be placed to

changed its natural condition.
— A person may have special preference for certain
form, texture, or style. Certain groups of people are required
to have specific cut, color or design, as in uniforms, worn by
students, employees of commercial or industrial establishment,
or groups of professionals.
place of visit — A person may have a special desire or
to be in a place if ever he has the opportunity to do so.
"Sari-sari" stores, barber shops, coffee shops, beer gardens and
recreation halls are common venues of visit of certain class of
people. A wanted criminal may suddenly prevent himself from
going to the place he used to visit for fear that he may be
apprehended.
of profession — A medical student of the upper clinical
year may be recognized by the stethoscope; a graduate or
student nurse by her cap, a mechanic by his tools, a clergyman
by his robe, etc. A change of grade, trade, vocation or profes-
sion may be resorted to as a means of concealing identity.
ornamentations — Earrings, necklaces, rings, pins, etc.
worn by persons may be points to identify a person
from the rest.

that may not easily be

a. Mental memory — A recollection of time, place and events
may be a clue in identification. Remembering names, faces
and subjects of common interest may be initiated during inter-
view to see how knowledgeable a person is.
b. Speech — A person may stammer, stutter or lisp. However,
if the manner of talking is due to some physical defects, like
harelip and cleft palate, that have been corrected by surgery,
there may be a change in his manner of speech.
The manner of talking and the quality of the voice are
dependent on the vocal cavities (throat, mouth, nose and
and his manner of manipulating the teeth, tongue,
soft palate, and jaw muscles. The chances of two or more
having the same size of vocal cavities and the same
manner of articulation are remote and unlikely. Whispering,
muffling and nose-holding do not change the speech charac-
teristic. The speech may be recorded and preserved in a good
tape recorder. A known standard may also be recorded for
purposes of comparison. Identification can be achieved through
the sound analysis.
 LEGAL MEDICINE
Gait — A person, on account of disease or some inborn traits,
may show a characteristic manner of walking.
(1) Ataxic gait — A gait in which the foot is raised high, thrown
forward and brought down suddenly is seen in persons
suffering from tabes
(2) Cerebellar gait — A gait associated with staggering
ment is seen in cerebellar diseases.

(3) gait — A swaying movement due to knock-knee.

(4) Paretic gait — Gait in which the steps are short, the feet are
dragged and the legs are held more or less widely apart.

(5) Spastic gait — A gait in which the legs are held together and
move in a stiff manner and the toes dragged.

(6) gait — Involuntary movement in short accele-

rating steps.

(7) gait — A hopping gait resulting from infantile paralysis.

(8) Waddling gait — Exaggerated alternation of lateral trunk

movement similar to the movement of the duck.

In the normal process of walking the rear portion of the

heel is placed on the ground. This is subsequently followed by
the other parts of the heel and the sole of the foot is pressed on
the The toes are the last to be pressed followed by the
lifting of the foot making another step forward. The pressure at
the rear portion of the heel and in the region of the toes is the
most forceful, hence the impression is the most.
During the process of running the foot marks are less dis-
tinct because of the slipping of the foot and the sand or soil
thrown into the marks by the pressure of the tip of the toes.
Gait Patterns:
A scientific investigation of the gait pattern may be useful
for purposes of identification and investigation of the crime
scene. Gait pattern is the series of foot marks by a person
walking or running. Examination of the gait includes the
direction line, gait line, foot angle, principal angle and the
length and breadth of the
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

Gait pattern. A: direction line; B: gait C: foot line; D: foot angles;

E: principal F: length of step; G: breadth of step.

(A) line — Expresses the path of the individual.

(B) Gait line — The straight line connecting the center of the
succeeding steps. It is more or less in zigzag fashion es-
pecially when the legs are far apart while walking. Stout,
elderly people and those who want stability while walking
have a more zigzag gait line.
(C) Foot line — The longitudinal line drawn on each foot mark.
There may be a difference in the foot line of the left and
right foot.
angle — The angle formed by the foot line and the
direction line. In normal walking the foot angle is very
characteristic of a person and cannot be altered immediate-
ly. However, it may be altered when a person is running,
carrying a heavy weight or moving on a rugged terrain.
angle — The angle between the two succeeding
angles.
(F) Length of step — When the distance between the center
points in two successive heel prints of the two feet exceeds
40 inches, there is a strong presumption that the person
is running.
(G) Breadth of — The distance between the outer contours
of two succeeding foot marks or steps. The more apart the
legs are while walking, the greater is the breadth of the step.
(Crime Detection by Svensson & Otto Wendel, p. 58)
— Stereotype movement or habit peculiar to an
individual. be:
Way of sitting.
(2) Movement of the hand.
(3) Movement of the body.
(4) Movement of the facial muscles.
(5) Expression of the mouth while articulating.
(6) Manner of leaning.
46 MEDICINE

e. Hands and feet — Size, shape and abnormalities of the hands

and feet may be the bases of identification. Some persons have
supernumerary fingers or toes far apart with bony prominence.
Some fingers or toes are with split nails.
Foot or hand marks found in the investigation of the crime
scene may
(1) Foot or hand impression — This develops when the foot or
hand is pressed on mouldable materials like mud, clay,
cement mixture, or other semi-solid mass. The impression
can be preserved by making a cast of it with of Paris.
(2) Footprint or handprint — This is a footmark or
on a hard base contaminated or smeared with foreign
matters like dust, flour, blood, etc.
t. Complexion — Complexion can be determined when the whole
body is exposed preferably to ordinary sunlight. Dark com-
plexion may be found fair with the use of bleaching chemicals,
while fair complexion may temporarily be made dark with the
use of an ointment with a dark pigment. Exposed parts of the
body usually appear darker than those covered with clothing.
Changes in the eyes — A person identified because he is
sighted, far-sighted, color blind, astigmatic, presbyopic, or
eyed. The eye may have arcus senilis, pupils, irregular
marks of the spectacles or cataract. Color of the iris, shape
of the eyes, deformity of the eyeball and the presence of
disease are useful bases of identification.
— There are different kinds of facial expressions brought
about by disease racial influence.

Hippocratic facies— The nose is pinched, the temple hollow,

eyes sunken, ears cold, lips relaxed and skin livid. The
appearance of the face is indicative of approaching death.
(2) Mongolian facies — Almond eyes, pale complexion, pro-
minence of cheek bones.
(3) Facies Leonine — A peculiar, deeply furrowed, lion-like
appearance of the face. This may be observed in leprosy,
elephantiasis and ossia.
(4) Myxedemic facies — Pale face, edematous swelling which
does not pit on pressure, associated with dullness of in-
tellect, slow monotonous speech, muscular weakness and
tremor.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 47

Base up Base down

Triangular face

The face may be round, oval, triangular or slightly

square.
Distinct identifying marks may be present on the face,
such as, peculiarly attractive scars, moles, hair, nose and con-
dition of the skin which an identifier may specially
i. Left— or — The preferential use of one hand
with skill to the other in voluntary motor acts. Ambidextrous
people can use their right and left hands with equal skill.
The best way to determine whether a person is or
right-handed or ambidextrous is to observe him during his
unguarded moments.
j. Degree of nutrition — The determination must be in relation
to the height and age. A person may be thin, normal or stout.
This point of identification easily changes by refraining from
intake of fatty foods. Some persons are inherently skinny
of heavy intake of nutritive food.
of Identification Applicable to Both Living and Dead
of
— Certain occupations may result in some
characteristic marks or identifying guides:
48 LEGAL MEDICINE
a. A shoemaker develops depressed sternum.
b. Painters have stains on the hands and
Engineers and mechanics may have grease on their
d. A dressmaker develops multiple punctured marks on finger
tips.
e. Baker and miller may have flour dust on their clothings and
on their bodies.
Mason have callosities on the palms of the hands.
g. Scars caused by burns produced by scales or sparks or red hot
iron may be seen at the back of the hands of blacksmiths.
h. Involuntary tattooing of particles of coal may be seen on the
hands of miners.
i. Chemical stains may be present on the hands of dyers, photo-
graphic developers and printers.
2. Race — In the living, race may be presumed in:
Color of the skin:
Caucasian Fair
Malayan —
Mongolian — Fair
Negro — Black
b. Feature of the face:
Caucasian — Prominent sharp nose
Malayan — Flat nose with round face
Mongolian — Almond eyes and prominent cheek bone
— Thick lips and prominent eyes
Shape of the skull:
Caucasian — Elongated skull
Malayan — head
Mongolian — Round head
Indians and Eskimos — Flat head
d. Wearing apparel — Casual and customary wearing apparel
may indicate race as well as religion, nationality, region and
custom.
- A person ceases to increase in height after the age of
There is apparent shrinkage in height after a long standing
debilitating disease. There is actual shrinkage in old age on
account of the compression of the inter-vertebral and also the
curvature of the spinal column. The growth of a person rarely
exceeds five centimeters after the age of
The rate of growth is variable but it is most active from 5 to
7 and from 13 to 16 years When the rate of growth is
increased, the horizontal growth is relatively retarded.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION
of Approximating the Height of a Person:
If the body is complete the height can be determined by actual
measurement. Sometimes some part of the body is missing and
the actual measurement may not be possible. The following are
the methods to be used to approximate the
a. Measure the distance between the tips of the middle fingers of
both hands with the arms extended laterally and it will ap-
proximately be equal to the height.
b. Two times the length of one arm plus 12 inches from the
clavicle and inches from the sternum is the approximate
height.
Two times the length from the vertex of the skull to the pubic
symphysis is the height.
d. The distance between the supra-sternal notch and the pubic
symphysis is about one-third of the height.
e. The distance from the base of the skull to the coccyx is about
of the height.
The length of the forearm measured from the tip of olecranon
process to the tip of the middle finger is 5/19 of the height.
g. Eight times the length of the head is approximately equal to
the height of the person.
4. Tattoo marks — of coloring pigments in the layers
of the skin by multiple puncture. Tattoo marks may be in the
form of initials, names, images or views.

Tattoo marks
 l e g a l medicine

Importance of Tattoo Mark:

a. It may help in the identification of the person. The image
inscribed may reflect the name, date of birth, language spoken,
religion, name of spouse, etc.
b. It may indicate memorable events in his life.
It may indicate the social stratum to which the person belongs.
Generally, tattooing is practiced by the members of the lower
economic class.
d. Lately, the presence of tattoo implies previous commitment
in prison or membership in a criminal gang.
Factors Responsible for the Permanency of Tattoo:
a. Whether the punctures are superficial or deep to reach the true

b. Nature and solubility of the pigment used. Ordinary pen ink

disappears in a short time while carbon introduced to the true
skin layer is usually permanent. Soluble pigments easily dis-
appear and may be seen in the lymph glands.
Methods of Removing Tattoos:
a. By surgical excision - Shallow tattoo may disappear by simple
rubbing or superficial incision and may leave no scar. Deep-
seated tattoo may be excised and usually leaves a scar.
b. By electrolysis — The needle is inserted into the tattoo mark in
a sufficient number of times using a current of 5 to 8
peres. This forms a superficial eschar, which drops off in a
week or so taking the pigment with it and leaving a superficial
scar.
By application of caustic substance — The caustic substance is
applied to the tattoo mark and the pigment is removed with
the eschar after inflammatory
This is not a good point of identification for it is
changed from time to time.
6. Deformities — Congenital or acquired — deformities may cause
-of walking, body movement, facial expression,
mannerisms, etc. Deformity like clubfoot, harelip, cleft palate,
cystic conditions, bony prominence, etc., may be corrected
surgically.
Acquired deformities in the form of amputation, improper
union of bones, depressed fracture, deforming scars may be
the bases for
— Birth marks may be a spot naevi, port wine, or a
spot. They may be removed by carbon dioxide
snow, electrocautery, or by excision. The marks must be
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

as to shape, location, dimension, color and degree of

pigmentation.
permanent — improper
union of fractured bones.
— they are permanent but can be removed by
by radium or by carbon dioxide snow.
mark after healing of the wound. The
fibrous tissue takes the place of the original tissue which has
been injured or destroyed. A scar is devoid of specialized tissues
so it does not contain pigment, sweat or sebaceous glands. Its
number, exact location, size and shape, and whether it is elevated
or depressed should be noted.
Faint scars may be made visible by making the surrounding
skin red upon applying friction with hand or by heat.
Scar which develops after a secondary infection is usually
marked.
Scar increases in size in proportion with the growth of the
person.
Age of the Scar — A recently formed scar is slightly elevated,
reddish or bluish in color, and tender to touch.
In a few weeks to two months, the scar has inflammatory
redness and it is soft and sensitive.
Two to six months later, it becomes brownish or coppery red
in color, free from contraction and corrugation, and soft.
When the scar is white, glistening, contracted and tough, it
is not less than six months.
The period of scar formation may be delayed by sepsis, poor
vascularity of the part involved, age, depth of the wound, mo-
bility, presence of foreign body and health condition of the
victim. Scar may or may not develop if the wound is small,
superficial and healed by first intention.
Characteristics of the scar may show the cause of the previous
lesion:
a. Surgical operation — Regular form and situation with stitch
marks.
b. and — Scars are large, irregular in shape, and may
be keloid. Scar of scald may show stippled surface.
— Disc-like, depressed at center and may be adherent
to the underlying tissue.
d. Tuberculosis — Irregular in shape furrowed, with edges
hardened and uneven.
 LEGAL MEDICINE

e. Flogging — Fine white lines diagonally across back, depressed

small spot at interval.
Gumma — Depressed scar loss of tissue.
g. — Bluish-white scar.
h. Venesection — At bend of elbow, on dorsum of foot, or on
temporal region.
i. Wet cupping — Short parallel scars on lower part of the back
and loin.
Tribal marks — Marks on the skin by tattooing or branding. In
metal is pressed on the skin and during the
healing process a scar develops as a mark. The tribal marks are
placed in the exposed parts of the body and used to identify
person or membership of a tribe or social group.
12. Sexual organ may show previous circumcision. In
uterus and breasts may show signs of previous preg-
nancy. Previous gynecological operation may be seen in the
abdomen.
13. Blood examination — Blood type, disease, parasitic infection or
substances be utilized to distinguish one per-
son from another.

Alphonse a French criminologist, devised a scheme

utilizing measurement of the human body as the
basis of identification.

the Bertillon System of Identification:

human skeleton is unchangeable after the twentieth year. The
igh bone continues to grow somewhat after the period, but this
compensated by the curving of the spine which takes place at
the same age.
2. impossible to find two beings having bones exactly
like.
necessary measurement can easily be taken with the aid of a
simple instrument.

Information Included in the

Descriptive data — Color of the hair, eyes and complexion, shape
the nose, ear,
— moles, scars, tattoo marks, deformities, etc.
3 ts:
- width of outstretched and
sitting height.
 ASPECTS OF

Side-view of noses

b. Measurement of the head — Length and breadth of head,

diameter, and length of the right ear.
the left foot, length of
the left middle and left little fingers, and length of arm and
hand from the elbow to the tip of the middle
finger.

In many instances an investigator does not have a picture of the

wanted or missing person. The only way to have an idea of the
prominent physical features is for the witnesses or someone who has
to tell him.
picture) is a verbal, accurate and pictures-
person Such may be
given by the witness, relatives, or other persons who are acquainted
with the physical features of the person to be identified.
The following basic requirements must be included in the verbal

General type, personality, apparent social status

Age and sex
3. Race or color
4. Height
5. Weight
6. Built — Thin, slender, medium or stout
Posture — Erect, slouching, round shoulder
8. Head — size, shape
9. Hair — Color, length, baldness
10. Face — General impression
a. Forehead — High, low, bulging or receding
b. Eyebrows — Brushy or thin, shape
54 LEGAL MEDICINE

Mustache — Length, color, shape

d. Ears — Size, shape, size of lobe, angle of set
e. Eyes — Small, medium or eyeglasses
Cheeks — High, low or prominent medium cheek bones; flat or
sunken.
g. Nose — Short, medium or big; or long; straight, aquiline or
flat or pug.
h. Mouth — Wide, small or general impression
i. Lips — thickness; color
j. Teeth — Shade, condition, defect; missing elements
k. Chin — Size, shape, general impression
1. Jaw — Length, shape, lean, heavy or medium
Neck — shape, thickness, apple
Shoulder — Width and shape
13. Wrist — Size, shape
14. Hands — size; hair; condition of the palms
15. Fingers — Length; thickness; stains; shape of nails; condition
of the nails.
16. Arms — Long, medium or short; muscular; normal or thin;
thickness of the wrist.
17. Feet — Size, deformities
If a skilled investigative illustrator is available, a picture of the
person to be identified may be drawn or sketched. As a check to
the sketch or drawing made, it must be shown to the person(s) who
gave the information to see whether it tallies with the person to be
identified.
If available, the investigator may look at what is commonly
called or photographic files of wanted or missing
persons for comparison with the cartographic sketch.

EXTRINSIC FACTORS IN IDENTIFICATION

1. Ornamentations — Rings, bracelet, necklace, hairpin,
lapel pin, etc.
2. Personal belongings — Letters, wallet, license, residence
certificate, personal cards, etc.
Wearing apparel — Tailor marks, laundry printed name of
owner, size, style, and texture, footwear, socks.
4. Foreign — Dust in clothings, cerumen in the ears, nail
scrapping may show occupation, place of residence or work, habit,
etc.
5. Identification by close friends and relatives.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

6. Identification records on file at the police department,

gration bureau, hospitals, etc.
7. Identification photograph.

LIGHT AS A FACTOR IN IDENTIFICATION

1. Clearest moonlight or starlight:
Experiments have shown that the best known person cannot be
recognized by the clearest moonlight at a distance greater than
to 17 yards and by starlight any further than to 13 yards.
a. Broad
A person can hardly recognized another person at a distance
farther than one hundred yards if the person has never been
seen before, but persons who are almost strangers may be
recognized at a distance of twenty-five yards.
Flash of firearm:
Although by experiment, letters of two inches high can be
read with the aid of the flash of a caliber firearm at a
distance of two feet it is hardly possible for a witness to see the
assailant in case of a hold-up or murder
Usually the assailant is hidden.
The assault is unexpected and the attention of the person or
witness is at its minimum.
The flash of lighting produces sufficient light for the identifi-
cation of an individual provided that the person's eye is fo-
cused towards the individual he wishes to identify during the
flash.
d. In case of artificial light, the identity is relative to the kind and
intensity of the light. Experiments may be made for every
particular artificial light concerned.
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION
Aspects Identification Requiring Scientific

Identification

of Skeleton
of Sex

of Blood and Blood Stains

Identification of Hair and Fibers
 LEGAL MEDICINE

A. FINGERPRINTING
Fingerprinting is considered to be the most valuable method of
identification. It is universally used
1. There are no two identical
Fingerprints show unlimited and infinite varieties of form.
Two or more fingerprints may grossly appear to be seemingly
alike but under a microscope or the magnifying lens, the dif-
ference may be proven. The chances of two fingerprints being
the same are calculated to be 1 to 64,000,000,000 which is ten
times the number of fingers existing in the world.
2. Fingerprints are not changeable:
Fingerprints are formed in the fetus in the fourth month of
pregnancy. During the latter stage of pregnancy as well as after
birth, the pattern enlarges, but no changes take place in the number
and arrangement of the friction ridges.
The finger may be wounded or but the whole pattern with
its details will reappear when the wound heals. If the injury is
deep or beyond the layers of the skin and scar develops, it will not
deter identification. On the contrary, the scar will make a much
deeper impression of the pattern. It can be said that fingerprints
are an indelible signature which a person carries from the cradle to
the grave.

Practical Uses of Fingerprints:

establish identity in cases of dead bodies and unknown
or missing persons.
2. Prints recovered from the crime scene associate person or weapon.
3. Prints on file are useful for comparative purposes and for the
knowledge of previous criminal records.
illiterates, right thumbprint is recognized as a substitute
for signature on legal documents. Countries differ as to which
finger is used for the purpose. India uses the left thumb, Spain
uses the right pointing finger.
Dactylography is the art and study of recording fingerprints as a
means of identification.
is the art of identification by comparison of
prints. It is the study and utilization of
is the study of the pores found on the or
friction ridges of the skin for purposes of identification.
 of 57
Advantages of Using Fingerprinting as a Means of Identification:
1. Not much training is necessary for a person to take, classify and
compare fingerprints.
2. No expensive instrument is required in the operation.
3. The fingerprint itself is easy to classify.
4. Actual prints for comparative purposes are always available and
suspected errors can easily be checked.
Methods of Producing Impressions:
Plain method — The bulbs of the last phalanges of the fingers and
thumb are pressed on the of the paper pressing them
an ink pad or ink plate with printing
Rolled method — The bulbs of the thumb and other fingers are
rolled on the surface of the paper after being rolled on an ink pad
or ink plate with printing ink.
Kinds of Impressions:
1. Real — Impression of the finger bulbs with the use of
in k on the surface of the paper. Other coloring materials
may be used but they are less visible and indelible.
k 2. Chance — Fingerprints which are impressed by mere
chance without any intention to produce it. Chance impression

A Fingerprint
58 LEGAL MEDICINE

a. print — Impression made by chance is

out previous treatment. Impression made by the fingers smeared
with some colored substances, like black ink, vegetable juice,
may be visible immediately after impression.
b. Plastic print — Impression made by chance by pressing the
finger tips on melted paraffin, putty, resin, cellophane, plastic
tape, butter, soap, etc.
Latent print — Prints which are not visible after impression but
made visible by the addition of some substances. Latent prints
develop because the fingers are always covered with colorless
of oil and perspiration which when pressed on smooth
and non-absorbent material will cause the production of the
prints.
How to Develop Latent Prints:
(1) Application of fine powder — The choice of substance to
be used to make the latent prints visible depends upon the
texture and color of the material where the suspicious prints
are located. The color of the substances to be used must be
contrast with that material.
Characteristics of a good powder:
(a) It should be adhesive to the extent that it clings readily
to the edges of the fingerprints.
It should not absorb water.
(c) It should provide good contrast to the place where the
latent print is impressed.
The following substances are commonly used to make
latent prints visible:
(a) Graphite for spraying
Aluminum powder
(c) of Paris
Copper powder for latent prints on leather
(e) Metallic antimony
(2) Chemical development by fuming and immersion:
Fuming by iodine or arsenic acid or immersion in a
solution of silver nitrate may develop latent
How to Get Fingerprint Impressions on Dead Bodies:
In cases of fresh dead bodies, the fingers are unclenched and each
one is inked individually with the aid of a small rubber roller. The
paper where the print will be impressed will be placed in a spoon-
shaped piece of wood and slowly and evenly rolled over the pattern.
If the fist is too tightly clenched, a small incision may be made at
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

the base of the fingers. The contraction may also be overcome by

dipping the hands in hot water.
If the so-called washerwoman's skin is not too marked on the
fingerprints of dead bodies recovered shortly from bodies of water
(floaters), the fingers may be dried off with a towel and glycerin is
injected with a syringe under the skin of the finger tips in order to
smoothen the surface. The fingerprints are then taken like that of a
fresh dead body.
If the has been in a body of water for a longer time and
the friction ridges have disappeared, the skin of the fingertips is cut
away. This area of skin from each finger is placed in a small labelled
test tubes containing formaldehyde solution. If the papillary ridges
are still preserved on the outer surface, the person taking the prints
places a portion of the skin on his right index finger protected by a
rubber glove and then takes the print after inking the finger tip.
The same procedure as described may be applied to putrefied or
burned bodies according to circumstances.

of Patterns:
1. Arches — The ridges go from one side of the pattern to another,
never turning back to make a
a. Plain arches — The ridges on one side of the impression and
flow or tend to flow out the other side with rise or wave in the
center.
b. Tented arch — One or more ridges at the center to form a
definite angle of 90 degrees or less than 45 degrees from the
horizontal plane.
2. Loops — One or more ridges enter on either side, recurves and
terminate or tend to terminate on the same side from which it
entered.
a. Ulnar loop — Recurves towards the ulnar side of the hand or
little finger.
b. Radial loop — Recurves towards the radial side of the hand or
thumb.
3. Whorls — Patterns with two deltas and patterns too irregular in
form to
a. Simple whorls — Consist of two deltas with a core consisting of
circles, ellipses, or spiral turning to the right or left.
b. Central pocket — It is like simple loop but in the core, one
may find one ridge which forms a convex towards the opening
of the loop.
Lateral pocket loops — There are at least two loops opening at
the same side.
 LEGAL MEDICINE

Four Primary of Fingerprint

Whorl Composite

d. Twin loop — There are at least two loops opening at the

ferent sides.
e. Accidentals — are no rules that can be made in this pat-
tern. They are rare and often with more than two
method of identification):
Examination of the ridges of the hands and fingers reveal to be
studded with minute pores which are the openings of ducts or sweat
glands. These pores are permanent as the ridges are and differ in
number and shape in a given area in each person. Poroscopy, as a
means of identification, is applied when only a part of the
print is available for proper means of identification.
Can fingerprints be effaced?
John a notorious gangster and a police character at-
tempted to erase his fingerprints by burning them with acid, but as
time went by, the ridges were again restored to its feature.
The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the
bulbs of his fingers.
As long as the dermis of the bulbs of the finger is not completely
destroyed, fingerprints will always remain unchanged and
destructible.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 61
Can fingerprints be forged?
There is a considerable controversy regarding the possibility of
forging fingerprints or making a simulated impression or a perfect
replica of impression of fingers. Various experiments were con-
ducted by authorities and although they could almost make an
accurate still there is no case on record known or
have been written that forgery of fingerprints has been a complete
success. The introduction of modern scientific equipment, new
techniques and knowledge in crime detection will always
foil the attempt.

role of the teeth human identification is important for the

following
The possibility of two persons to have the same dentition is quite
remote. An adult has 32 teeth and each tooth has five surfaces.
Some of the teeth may be missing, carious, with filling materials,
and with abnormality in shape and other peculiarities. This will
lead to several combinations with almost infinite in number of
dental characteristics.
2. The enamel of the teeth is the hardest substance of the human
body. It may outlast all other tissues during putrefaction or
physical destruction.
3. After death, the greater the degree of tissue destruction, the
greater is the importance of dental characteristics as a means of
identification.
4. The more recent the ante-mortem records of the person to be
identified, the more reliable is the comparative or exclusionary
mode of identification that can be done.
In order to make an accurate dental record available for purposes
of comparison with that of the person to be identified, Presidential
Decree No. 1575 was promulgated, requiring practitioners of dentist-
ry to keep records of their patients. It provides the following:
the identification of persons is a necessary factor in
solving crimes and in settling disputes such as claims for
insurance, and
Whereas, in these cases where the identification of persons
cannot be established through the regular means, identification
through dentition has been proven to be necessary and effective;
Whereas, however, records of dentition of persons are often
not available due to the lack of systematic recording of dental
practitioners of the dental history of their patients.
62 LEGAL MEDICINE

NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President

of the Philippines, by virtue of the powers vested in me by the
Constitution, do hereby order and decree the following:
Section 1. It shall be obligatory upon all practitioners of
dentistry to keep and maintain an accurate and complete record
of the dentition of all their patients which shall include a
history and description of the patient's dentition and the
treatment made thereon.
Section 2. Upon the lapse of ten years from the last entry,
dental practitioners shall turn over the dental records of their
patients to the National Bureau of Investigation for record
purposes: Provided, that the said practitioner may retain
copies thereof for their own files.
Section 3. Any violation of the provisions of this Decree
shall be punishable by a fine of not less than one hundred
pesos but not more than one thousand pesos.
Section 4. This Decree shall take effect immediately.
Done in the City of Manila, this day of June, in the year of
Our Lord, nineteen hundred and
However, the absence of dental records will not absolutely negate
dental identification. Members of the family, close associates and
friends may be witnesses to prove identity of dentition.
Causes of Unreliability of the Dental Records:
An ante-mortem dental record may be available but may be in-
sufficient, and in some instances unreliable for purposes of com-
parison with the post-mortem findings
1. The dentist, in the course of diagnosis and treatment of the
patient, may only concern himself with the affected teeth and
may not care to have a detailed examination of the other teeth.
There may be no uniformity in nomenclature of the location and
condition in the charting of the teeth.
Although there may be a law obliging dentists to have a record of
their patient, the law does not mention the agency which will
enforce it.
4. The dentist may have a record but may no longer be reliable on
account of the lapse of time. There may be changes in the teeth
which are not seen by the dentist.
For purpose of uniformity, the following are the description of
location for dental identification:
1. Teeth
a. — From cuspid to cuspid inclusive (it includes cuspid,
lateral and central
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

b. Posterior — All bicuspid and molar teeth.

2. Surface:
Occlosal — O — Surface which is in contact with the opposing
teeth when jaws are in occlusion (closed).
Mesial — M — Surface in direct contact with the adjacent
tooth towards the midline.
Distal — D — Surface in direct contact with the adjacent
teeth away from the midline.
Buccal — B — Surface the lip or
Lingual — L — Inward directed surface of the teeth.
3.
Amalgam (silver filling), gold inlay, gold foil, silicate, acrylic,
temporary cement, crown.
4.
a. Fixed prosthesis — bridge
b. Removable
Complete denture
(2) Partial denture
5. Root canal treatment
Dental Features Which May Be Included in the Description for
Identification:
Malposition, overlapping, crowding and spacing
2. Number and location of deciduous or permanent
3. Missing or extracted) or supernumerary teeth.
4. Peculiar shape, size, direction of growth of individual teeth.
5. Missing piece or fragment due to decay or trauma.
6. Restoration, prosthesis (surface, morphology, configuration
and material).
Root canal therapy on x-ray
8. Bone pattern on x-ray examination.
9. Complete denture (type, shade and
10. Relationship of
Oral pathology (tore, gingival
64 LEGAL MEDICINE

Dental Chart

c - Caries AB - Abutment
X — Indicated for Extraction P Pontic
RF — Retained Root Fragment Gold Clasp
AM — Amalgam Filling -
- Gold Inlay
S - Silicate Filling M - Missing due to Extraction
CG — Gold Crown U N - Unerupted

Other Aspects of Identification Which May Be Reflected in Dentition:

Personal, occupational and cultural traits:
a. Cigarette smokers may have smoke marks mainly on the lingual
surface of the anterior upper teeth.
b. Seamstress, carpenter, cobblers may hold pins or nails between
and may cause formulation of groove.
Wind instrument musicians may have altered position of their
teeth due to mouth formation necessary for playing the instru-
ment.
d. Pipe smokers may develop an oval-shape notch at the occlusal
surface or irregular gaps located at the angle of the mouth.
e. and stone mason may cause abrasions on the
labial or occlusal surface of their teeth.
f. Poor oral hygiene, with many decayed teeth and no restorations
infers individual of low economic status. Extracted teeth are
also not replaced by bridgework.
g. Excessive fruit juice drinker or carbonated drinks may cause
dissolution of the enamel structure of the front teeth.
h. Mutilation of teeth by filing or inlaying with precious metals
or stone, not done professionally, may indicate tribal customs
and cultural peculiarities.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

Age
9 yrs 12 permanent teeth (8 incisors and 4 molars).
11 yrs 20 permanent teeth (8 incisors, 8 premolar
and 4
yrs 28 permanent teeth and no deciduous
8 to 10 yrs Calcification begin at the 3rd molar.
25 yrs Root-ends of 3rd molar completely calcified.
Beyond 25 yrs. Ends of the root of the 3rd molar have been
completely calcified.
After 30 yrs Carries frequently develop at the
There may be gingival recession, decay attack
of the root surface.
3. Sex
Examination for the presence of bodies from palatal

HANDWRITING
A person may be through his handwriting, handprinting
and
Sec. 23, Rule Rules of Court — Handwriting, how proved:
The handwriting of a person may be proved by any witness who
believes it to be the handwriting of such person, and has seen the
person write, or has seen writing purporting to be his upon which
the witness has acted or been charged, and has thus acquired know-
ledge of the handwriting of such person. Evidence respecting the
handwriting may also be given by a comparison, made by the witness
or the court, with writings admitted or treated as genuine by the
party against whom the evidence is offered, or proved to be genuine
to the satisfaction of the judge.
The of any disputed writing may be proven by any of
the following
Acknowledgement of the alleged writer that he wrote it;
Statement of witness who saw the writing made and is able to
identify it as
By the opinion of persons who are familiar with the handwriting
of the alleged or
the opinion of an expert who compares the questioned writing
with that of other writings which are admitted or treated to be
genuine by the party against whom the evidence is offered.
Sec. 44, Rule 130, Rules of Court — Opinion of ordinary witnesses:
The opinion of a witness regarding the identity of handwriting of
a person, when he has knowledge of the person or handwriting; the
opinion of a subscribing witness to a the validity of which is
 LEGAL MEDICINE

in dispute, respecting the mental sanity of the signer; and the opinion
of an intimate acquaintance respecting the mental sanity of a person,
the reason for the opinion being given, may be received as evidence.
In order for an ordinary witness to be qualified to express his
opinion, it must be shown that he has some familiarity with the
handwriting of the person in a way recognized by law.

Some Practical Uses of Handwriting

crimes (bogus checks, card fraud, embezzlement).
investigation (suicide notes, hotel registration cards, letter

obberies (pawnshop notes, cashing of stolen

with ransom (demand note, threatening letter).
threatening letters.
of documents (deeds of conveyance, receipts).
is the science of handwriting analysis. It is the study of
documents and writing materials to determine its or
authorship. One who had acquired special knowledge of the science
of handwriting for purposes of identification is known as
or more commonly known as handwriting expert or qualified ques-
tion document examiner.

is the study of handwriting for the purpose of deter-

mining the writer's personality, character and aptitude. It is a
pseudo-science and merely explains the characteristics of the
writing reflecting the character, weakness, personal
mannerisms and ambition of the writer. It must not be confused
with bibliotics.
Handwriting is a complex interaction of nerves, memory and
muscular movement. It is influenced by several factors and may be
changed or modified during the life-span of a person.

Writing is a conscious act, but on account of a repeated act it

becomes habitual and unconscious. The writer concentrates more
on the subject-matter of the writing than on the way the letter are
formed which make up the writing.
of insecurity, and drunkenness
may cause variation of a handwriting.
Movements in Writing:
Finger movement — The letters are made entirely by the action of
the thumb, the pointing and middle fingers. Such is found among
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 67

children, illiterates and those to whom writing is an unfamiliar

process.
2. Hand movement — The letters are produced by the action of the
hand as a whole with the wrist as the center of action and with some
action of the fingers. Most of the illegible, and angular
writings of women are produced by such movement.
3. Arm movement — The movement in writing is made by the hand
and arm supported with the elbow at the center of the lateral
swing. Many of the good writings are written in this manner.
There is more speed, rhythm and freedom in this way of writing.
4. Whole arm movement — The action is produced by the entire
arm without any rest. The source of motion comes from the
shoulder. Writing on a blackboard is a good example of whole
arm movement.
The Form, Style and Characteristics of the Handwriting of a Person
are Basically Determined By:
factors:
Survival of the letters are formed when a person begins to write.
Children who were under the same tutelage during their initial
period of learning how to write have the tendency to develop
similar writing habits.
2. Inclusion of some characteristics due to admiration of a peculiar
design in writing.
3. Identifying characteristics may be the result of the great volume
of writing done.
4. The presence or absence of physical abnormalities or defects
originating from illness, injury, psychological variations and
other similar conditions.
B. Secondary factors:
The position of the writer, e.g. sitting, standing, lying, arm
high or low, and other similar variations not normally ob-
served in his ordinary writing habit.
2. Temporary physical or psychological disturbances, such as
excitement, fear, pain, exhaustion, injury to hand or arm,

3. Other external temporary variables, such as writing without

glasses, bad lighting, irregular surface, external interference.
4. Physical and chemical factors:
a. Writing instrument:
Ballpen — It. usually leaves rounded line showing no tip
separation even when pressed heavily. Smudge may be
deposited on the line. The ink, not being a true liquid,
 LEGAL MEDICINE

does not flow into the fibers and spread in the same way
as fluid ink does.
(2) Fountain pen — The lines are more or less round but
when pressure is increased there is separation of the nib
which is easily detected. There is in the flow
of ink.
(3) Steel pen — There is in the flow of ink and
leaves a scratchy appearance.
(4) Pencil — Lead of pencils is compose of graphite and
clay with kaolin as binder. Soft pencils have greater
proportion of graphite while hard ones have relatively
more clay. Cheap quality pencils have frequently gritty
impurities which scratch the paper, while
pencils are free from such grit.
Paper:
Color — Color can be well appreciated with a good light.
Dirt, stain or fading condition may not show the true
color of the paper.
Surface appearance — may be smooth or rough. The
surface may be damaged or wrinkled.
(3) Watermarks - Exposure of the paper to a strong light may
reveal the watermarks of the manufacturer or the type of
paper.
(4) Weight and thickness — The may be measured
by means of the paper micrometer. Papers are designated
in weight which is in turn related to the thickness of the
sheet.
Ink:
Iron ink — Commonly used in
ink and still the basis of the greatest number of commer-
cial ink. The changes in the paper may provide some
indications of the age of the writing.
(2) It may be a solution of a single or a mixture of dyes.
This is a common constituent of inks.
(3) Logwood ink — Made of logwood extract with salts of
iron, copper, or chromium.
(4) Carbon ink — It is a fine suspension in water of carbon
with stabilizing agent. India ink is an example of this
type of ink.
(5) Ballpoint ink — A thick suspension of dye in a liquid
which is usually a drying oil (Crime Phy-
Evidence and the Police by Paul L. Kirk,
p. 446).
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 69

Necessary in Document Examination:

Photographic are primarily used to view the writing
in sufficient magnification for detail examination and preparation
of evidence for presentation in an investigative or judicial body.
lens and stereoscopic binocular microscope — These
two instruments are useful to determine line quality, quaver,
uncertainty, patching, over-writing, crowding, and other unusual
appearances of writing. Presence of obvious obliteration, erasure
or alteration may become more visible.
lamp and infra-red — Chemical erasures may
be made visible, invisible writing may be made legible, iden-
tification of paper and of the envelopes with different
mucilage can be seen through these

lighting facilities.
>se of Handwriting Examination:
the document was written by the suspect.
Whether the document was written by the person whose signature
it bears.
the writing contains additions or deletions.
the document such as bills, suicide notes or
checks are genuine or a forgery.
Points to be Considered in Questioned Document Examination:
Size, slant, spacing, proportion of the letters, speed and rhythm in
writing, shading and change of position in pen hold, pressure, pen-
lift, initial and terminal strokes, alignment, etc.
Inasmuch as handwriting examination is basically comparative,
the standard for such comparison must be suitable and sufficient.
The greater the variation in a way of writing, the greater is the
amount of standard writing needed to form a reliable impression.
Handwriting examination by comparison with known standards:
To determine whether a certain instrument or document has been
written by a certain person, it is necessary to compare the writings
on such instrument or document with some standard writings of
the same person for the purpose of comparison and determine the
similarities.
The standard (exemplar) writings with which the questioned
writing has to be compared are of two types:
1. Collected (procured) — These consist of handwriting
by the person who is suspected to have written the questioned
document. It may be found in the private or public records of
 LEGAL MEDICINE

the person or from other possible sources. Provided it is clear

and sufficient, it is the most appropriate standard.
2. Requested standard — are standards made by the alleged
writer of the document in question upon request of the examiner
or the persons interested in the examination. Inasmuch as one
of the characteristics of good exemplar is that it must be con-
temporaneous with the date the questioned document was made,
the use of the requested standards is applicable only to recently
 ASPECTS OF

written questioned documents, like extortion letter, "poison"

notes, letter of threat or ransom, etc.
Considering that it is a request from a suspected maker of the
questioned document, there is a strong possibility for it to be
written in a disguised way.
Steps to be Undertaken to Minimize Conscious Efforts to Disguise
the Requested
The writer should be allowed to write sitting comfortably at a
desk or table and without distraction.
2. The suspect should not, under any condition, be shown the
questioned document or be provided with instructions on how
to spell certain words or what punctuation to use.
The suspect should be furnished with a pen and a paper similar
to those used in the questioned document.
4. The dictated text may be the same as the contents of the ques-
tioned document, or at least should contain many of the same
words, phrases, and letter combinations found in the document.
In handwriting cases, the suspect must not be given any instruction
on whether to use (capital) or lower-case lettering.
Dictation of the test should take place at least three times. If the
writer is making a deliberate effort to disguise his writing,
able variations should appear between the three repetitions. Dis-
covering this, the must insist upon continued repe-
titive dictation of the text.
6. Signature exemplars can best be obtained when the suspect is
required to combine other writings with a signature. For example,
instead of compiling a set of signatures alone, the writer must be
asked to completely fill out twenty to thirty separate checks or
receipts, each of which includes a signature.
Before requested exemplars are taken from the suspect, a docu-
ment examiner should be consulted and shown the questioned
specimens by Richard p. 336).
Handwriting Characteristics of Illiterates:
They seldom follow any rule or baseline although at the beginning
a position above the baseline is taken which continues in an
ascending or descending course. Baseline is the ruled or ima-
ginary line upon which the writing rests.
2. The tendency of the writing is to be raised involuntarily in the
last letters of the word made by the extension of the fingers
while the hand is being held in a fixed position.
3. The loop letters are often slanted too much because the up-
strokes are made too long or nearly straight.
72 LEGAL MEDICINE

4. Very unlikely to produce facsimile signatures in size, arrange-

ment and proportion of parts.
5. The writing is not rhythmic, but made up of disconnected un-
skilled movement impulses which are not likely to be related in
an exactly identical way.
6. Tremor or involuntary trembling is seen due to inability to
control the pen in motion because of not being familiar with and
self-conscious to the process of writing.
7. Formation and angle of letters are irregular and definitely show
lack of knowledge of size and proportion.
8. Same speed is utilized from beginning to end and seldom is the
pen raised to get a new adjustment.
9. Illiterate pencil-writing is usually produced with pressure
and may show the habit of wetting the pencil lead frequently.
10. In anonymous writing, illiteracy is indicated by faulty arrange-
ment of words, lines, paragraphs and pages.
Combination of script forms and Roman capitals, or pen or
pencil printing, containing freak forms, abbreviations or punc-
tuation marks are individual creations.
Handwriting Characteristics of Old Aged Persons:
to lack of muscular control, the handwriting will not usually
show fine lines continuously but the strokes are mostly rough
and made with considerable pressure.
the presence of tremor, the changes of direction are nume-
rous and omission of parts of letters of strokes are common.
Z. The concluding parts are often made with a nervous haste and
carelessness and they may be much distorted.
Even with much tremor, the handwriting will usually show free
connecting and terminal strokes made by the momentum of the
hand.
Often shows very uneven alignment and may disregard entirely a
line near which they are written.
Usually shows an unusual and erratic departure from its intended
movement, particularly in the downward strokes.
There is a loss of individual departure from its intended move-
ment, particularly in the downward strokes.
is a loss of individual rhythm as indicated by malformation
and irregularity of speed in the writing of small letters.
Disguised Writing:
Disguised writing is the deliberate attempt on the part of the
writer to alter his writing habit endeavoring to invent a new writing
style or by imitating the writing of another person.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 3

Physical Methods of Disguising Handwriting:

a. By changing the direction of the slant. The forger may employ
a backhand slant, instead of the usual forehand slant.
b. By increasing or decreasing the speed in writing.
By deliberate carelessness that will produce inferior style of
writing.
d. By making the letters unusually large or small.
e. The forger may use the left hand instead of the right hand.
f. Hand printing may be substituted for script.
Characteristics of Disguised Writing:
a. Inconsistent slant
b. Inconsistent letter formation
Change of capital letters
d. Lack of movement
e. Lack of rhythm
Unnatural starts and stops
Irregular spacing
h. Writing with unaccustomed hand (Criminalistics by Richard
p. 692).
Signature forgery:
Signature forgery examination is the most common activity of a
questioned document examiner. A signature may be found on a
document which appears that a person has participated in its exe-
cution and the person denied that he had signed it. Such signature
may be found in checks, deeds of conveyance, anonymous letters,
receipts, etc.
Classification of Signature Forgery:
a. Traced forgery — The outlining of a genuine signature from one
document onto another where the forger wishes it to appear.
Traced forgery is basically drawing and consequently lacks free
natural movement inherent in a person's normal writing.
Ways of Achieving Traced Forgery
The paper wherein the signature is to be copied is placed
on top of the document containing the signature. By means
of a strong light underneath, the forged signature is traced
from the genuine, either directly or lightly by a pencil
outline and then over-writing the pencil outline.
(2) By placing the paper to receive the signature tracing under-
neath the document bearing the genuine signature and by
indented outline on the underneath page, or by inter-
weaving the documents with carbon paper to produce a
carbon outline on the forged paper.
74 LEGAL MEDICINE

b. Simulated forgery — An attempt to copy in a freehand manner

the characteristics of a genuine signature either from memory of
the signature or from a model. It is accomplished without
outline.
The quality of the simulated signature varies with the writer's
skill as a penman, the difficulty of the signature being imitated,
the writer's ability to recognize and incorporate the details, his
ability to concentrate on the important feature of the signature
and his ability to discard all of his own natural habit of
Spurious forgery — One prepared primarily in the forger's own
handwriting wherein little or no attempt has been made to copy
the characteristics of the genuine writing.
(Modern Legal Medicine, Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine by
et p. 1235).
The principle of identification of handwriting is also applicable to
handprinting and
Typewriter
The identification of the typing machine used in a questioned
document, like that in ballistics examination, may be on the basis
1. Class characteristics — those characteristics which serve to dis-
tinguish it from any other machine, such
a. Manufacturer's characteristics
b. Size and design of the type
Line and letter spacing
2. Individual characteristics:
a. Defects in the type face — Unusual manner of letter formation
due to factory defect, misuse of the machine or wear and tear.
b. Defects in the alignment — spacing and align-
ment may be modified by loosening of the hinges and position-
ing of the letters on account of wear and tear and changes in
the spring pressure.
Other machine defects:
Skipping space
(2) Irregular margin stops
Improper letter spacing
(4) Improper ribbon actions
A typewriter has 44 keys with 88 characters, each operating
independently of one another and each being capable of damage or
having inherent defects. Consequently, a variety of combinations of
these defects may be the basis of typewriter identification.
The questioned document may be compared with those made by
the suspected typewriters.
 Examination of Bones — Complete lay-out of the bones to determine duplicity
and missing ones.

D. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKELETON

Occasionally, before a physician is called to examine a dead body,
the soft tissues have already disappeared and only the skeletal system
remains. Ail the external identifications have already disappeared.
In this particular case we resort to the study of bones.
the examination of the following points can be determined
approximately:
Whether the remains are of human origin or not.
2. Whether the remains belong to a single person or not.
3. Height.
4. Sex.
5. Race.
6. Age.
7. Length of interment or length of time from date of death.
8. Presence or absence of ante-mortem or post-mortem bone
9. Congenital deformities and acquired injuries on the hard tissues
causing permanent deformities.
How to Determine Whether the Remains Are of Human Origin or
Not:
The shape, size and general nature of the remains, especially that
of the head, must be studied. The oval or round shape of the skull
and the less prominent lower jaw and nasal bone are suggestive of
76 LEGAL MEDICINE

human remains. A complete of the whole bones found and

placing each of them on their corresponding places in the human
body will be helpful. The presence of dental rings on the
fingers, earrings in the case of women, hair and other wearing ap-
parels, together with the remains are strong presumption of human
remains.
How to Determine Whether the Remains Comes from a Single
Individual or Not:
A complete lay-out of the bones on a table in their exact locations
in the human body is necessary. Any plurality or excess of the bones
after a complete lay-out denotes that the remains belong to more
than one person. However, congenital deformities as
fingers and toes must not be forgotten. The in sizes,
especially of the limbs may be ante-mortem.
Height:
Several formulae using different constants have been forwarded in
the approximation of the height of a person by measuring the long
bones of the body.
Actual measurement of the skeleton — To the actual length of the
skeleton add 1 to in. for the soft tissue.
B. Pearson's Formulae for the reconstruction of the living stature of
long bones, whose animal matters have disappeared and which are
in a dry state.
Males Females
S 81.306 plus 1.880 F S 72.844 plus 1 . 9 4 5 F
70.641 plus 2.894 H 2.754 H
78.664 plus 2.376 T 74.774 plus 2 . 3 5 2 T
89.925 plus 3.271 R 81.224 plus 3 . 3 4 3 R
S Stature
F Femur
H Humerus
T Tibia
R Radius
Remarks:
The femur is measured from the head to the apex of the inner
condyle. If the femur has been measured in the oblique position
and not straight, add 0.23 for male and 0 . 3 3 for female to the
length before using the above formulae.
The tibia is measured from the upper articular surface to the tip of
the malleolus. the has been measured with, and not with-
out, the spine, subtract 0.96 for male, and 0 . 8 7 cm. for female,
from the length before using the above formulae.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 77

3. The humerus and radius are measured in their greatest length.

(Taylor's and of Medical S.
Smith, 10th Vol 1, p. 155).
4. Inasmuch as the formulae for male and female skeletons are
different, it is necessary to determine the sex of the skeleton
before the formulae may be applied.

Stature from bone:

and Hadden's General Formulae For Reconstruction of
Stature From Lengths of Dry Long Bones Without Cartilage (Con-
stant Terms in Metric and Adapted to English System)
Constant term to be
added after calculations
in previous column
length
Centimeters Inches
Male
(a) 2.238 (femur) 69.089 27.200
(b) 2.392 (tibia) 81.688 32.161
(c) 2.970 (humerus) 73.570 28.965
3.650 (radius) 80.405 31.655
(e) 1.255 (femur tibia) 69.294 27.281
1.728 (humerus radius) 71.429 28.112
(g) 1.422 (femur) 1.062 (tibia) 66.544 26.198
(h) 1.789 (humerus) 1.841 (radius) 66.400 26.142
(i) 1.928 (femur) 0.568 (humerus) 64.505 25.396
(k) 1.442 (femur) 0.931 (tibia)
0.083 (humerus)
0.480 (radius) 56.006 22.050
Female
(a) 2.317 (femur) 61.412 24.178
(b) 2.533 (tibia) 72.572 28.572
(c) 3.144 (humerus) 64.977 25.581
3.876 (radius) 73.502 28.938
(e) 1.233 (femur tibia) 65.213 25.674
1.984 (humerus radius) 55.729 21.941
(g) 1.657 (femur) 0.879 (tibia) 59.259 23.330
2.164 (humerus) 1.525 (radius) 60.344 23.757
(i) 2.009 (femur) 0.566 (humerus) 57.600 22.677
1.644 (femur) 0.764 (tibia)
0.126 (humerus)
0.296 (radius) 57.495 22.636
78 LEGAL MEDICINE

(From: Forensic Medicine by Keith Simpson, 7th p. 25.)

and Rollet, two French devised a formula
the determination of the height for and females.
Male Female
Length of Femur x 3.66 or 3.71 equals height
Length of Humerus x 5.06 or 5.22 equals height
Length of Tibia x 4.53 or 4.61 equals height
Length of Radius x or equals height
(These formulae do not hold good in mixture of races.)
E. Table:
Humphrey made a table of the different height of bones for
different ages and their corresponding statures.
F. made the following coefficient for the determination
of height:
Bone Male Female
Femur 3.66 3.71
Tibia 4.53 4.61
Fibula 4.58 4.66
Humerus 5.06 5.22
Radius 6.86 7.16
Ulna 6.41 6.66
made a formulae based on length of tibia,
and ulna for the determination of height.
STATURE TABLE FOR FEMALES
ftbula Tibia Femur Cadaver Humerus Radius Ulna
Length
Mm. Mm. Mm. Cm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
283 284 363 140.0 263 193 203
288 289 142.0 266 195 206
293 294 144.0 270 197 209
298 299 378 145.5 273 199 212
303 304 383 147.0 276 201 215
307 309 388 148.8 279 203 217
311 314 393 149.7 282 205 219
316 319 398 151.3 285 207 222
320 324 403 152.8 289 209 225
325 329 408 154.3 292 211 228
330 334 415 155.6 297 214 231
336 340 422 156.8 302 218 235
341 346 429 158.2 307 222 239
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

346 352 436 159.5 313 226 243

351 358 443 161.2 318 230 247
356 364 450 163.0 324 234 251
361 457 165.0 329 238 254
366 376 464 167.0 334 242 258
371 382 471 169.2 339 246 261
376 388 478 171.5 344 250 264
Coefficients for smaller bone lengths than given above.
x4.88 x4.85 x3.87 x5.41 x7.44 x7.00
Coefficients for greater bone lengths than given above.
x4.52 x3.58 x4.98 x7.00 x6.49
STATURE TABLE FOR MALES
Fibula Tibia Femur Cadaver Humerus Radius Ulna
Length
Mm. Mm. Mm. Cm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
318 319 153.0 295 213 227
323 324 398 155.2 298 216 231
328 330 404 157.0 302 219 235
333 335 410 159.0 306 222 239
338 340 416 160.5 309 225 243
344 346 422 162.5 313 229 246
349 351 428 163.4 316 249
353 357 434 164.4 320 236 253
358 362 440 165.4 324 239 257
363 368 446 166.6 328 243 260
368 373 453 167.7 332 246 263
373 378 460 168.6 336 249 266
378 383 467 169.7 340 252 270
383 389 171.6 344 255 273
388 394 482 173.0 348 258 276
393 400 490 175.4 352 261 280
398 405 497 176.7 356 264 283
403 410 504 178.5 360 267 287
408 415 512 181.2 364 270 290
413 420 519 183.0 368 273 293
Coefficient for smaller bone lengths than given above.
x4.82 x4.80 X3.92 x5.25 x7.11 x6.66
for greater bone lengths than given above.
x4.37 x4.32 x3.53 x4.93 x6.26
(From: Medical by Gordon, Turner and Price, 3rd
pp.
80 LEGAL MEDICINE

F. of Total Foetal Length from One or More (C.H.

length)
of femur x Total height
of tibia x 7.63 Total height
of humerus x Total height
Diaphysis of radius x 9.2 Total height
Diaphysis of clavicle x 11.3 Total height
Diaphysis of lower jaw x 10.0 Total height
(The lower jaw is measured from the symphysis to the
tip of the condyle, the whole breadth of the mandibular
surface placed flat along the blade of the calipers; Smith,
1943).
These ratios been checked against the material recently
obtained and have been found useful; they are not accurate during
the early stage of embryonic life (Practical Forensic Medicine by
Camp and Purchase, 1957, p. 29).
Determination of the Sex of the
In determining the sex of the skeleton, the following bones must
be
A. Pelvis D. Femur
B. Skull E. Humerus
Sternum
A. Pelvis:
Differences Between a Male and a Female Pelvis:
Male Female
Heavier construction wall Lighter construction wall less
more pronounced. pronounced.
Height greater and flays off 2. Height lesser and flays off its
its wall more pronounced. wall less pronounced.
3. Pubic arch narrow and less 3. Pubic arch wider and
round. rounder.
4. Diameter of the true pelvis 4. Diameter of the true pelvis
less. greater.
5. Curve of the iliac crest 5. Curve of the iliac crest is of
reaches a higher level. the lower level.
Narrow greater sciatic notch. 6. Wide greater sciatic notch.
Body of the pubis narrow. 7. Body of the pubis wider.
line 8. Iliopectineal line rounded.
9. Obturator foramen egg- 9. Obturator foramen tri-
shaped. angular.
10. Sacrum short and narrow. 10. Sacrum long and wide.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

B.
Length of body
Length of manubrium x 100 46.2 (male and
54.3 (female)
Femur:
Pearson and Bell made a study of the sex difference in the
femur:
Male Female
Right Left Right Left
width 80.147 79.404 70.123 69.886
2. Vertical diameter
head 47.059 46.769 41.123 40.765
3. External condyle
oblique length 61.846 61.048 55.804 55.176
Vertical diameter
of neck 33.849 34.337 29.337 29.520
D. Humerus:
Dwight gives the following measurement for male and female
bones
Male Female
1. Vertical diameter of head 48.7 42.6
2. Transverse diameter of head 44.6 38.9
E.
Male Female
Less curve of shaft. More curve of shaft.
2. Mastoid process larger. 2. Predominance of cranial roof
over cranial base Mastoid pro-
cess smaller.
3. Cranium placed horizontally 3. Cranium placed horizontally
rests on mastoid process. rests on the occipital and
bones.
4. Styloid process shorter. 4. Styloid process longer and
slender.
5. Forehead higher and more 5. Forehead less high and more
oblique. vertical.
6. Superciliary ridges less sharp 6. Superciliary ridges
or more rounded.
7. Zygomatic arches and frontal 7. Zygomatic arches and frontal
sinuses more prominent. less prominent.
8. Lower jaw larger and wider. 8. Lower jaw narrower and
lighter and chin not
82 LEGAL MEDICINE

9. Face larger in proportion to 9. Face smaller in proportion to

the cranium. cranium.
Determination of the Race of the Skeleton:
It is becoming more to determine the race because of the
amalgamation of races. For practical consideration there is hardly no
race that is absolutely pure.
The following points may be used in determining the race in the
remains of a
A. Extrinsic Factors:
1. Color of the skin
2. Facial features
3. Nature of the hair
4. Mode of dressing
B. Indices:
1. Skull:
Maximum width of the skull
Cephalic Index length of the
Below 70 —
70 — 74.9 — — — Caucasian
75 — 79.0 — Mesaticephalic — Mongolian
80 — 84.9 — Brachycephalic — Malayan
of the orbit
b. Orbital Index 100
of the orbit
Above 89 — Megasemes — Mongolian
84 — 89 — Mesosemes —
Below 84 — Microsemes — Malayan
Breadth of the base
Nasal Index x 100
Length of the nose
Above 53 — — Malayan
48 — 53 — — Mongolian
Below 48 — — Semato — Caucasian
Height of the skull
Height Index 100
Length of the skull
2. Pelvis:
Pelvic Index
Transverse diameter
Below 85 — — Semato — Caucasian
86 — 95 — Dolicopellic — Malayan
Above 95 — Mesopellic — Negroes
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 83

Pubis length x 100

b. Ischium-pubis Index
Ischium length
Caucasians (200 cases): Female
Negroes (100 cases): Male; 84-88=Sex? 88= Female.
Legal Medicine by Camps, Lucas &

3. Extremities:
Length of the lower leg
a. Crural Index x 100
Length of the upper leg
95 — 98 —
98 — Mongolian and Malayan
Length of humerus of radius x 100
b.
Length of femur Length of tibia
(Modi p. 22)
Indian — 67.27
European - 70.4
Negroes
Length of humerus
Index x 100
Length of femur

Other Differential Racial Characteristics of Skeletons:

Caucasian Mongolian Negro
Skull Elongated Square Narrow and elongated
2. Forehead Raised inclined Small and compressed
3. Face Proportion- Small Malar bones and jaw
ately small projecting; teeth set
obliquely
4. Upper Small Small Long in proportion to
Extremity body; forearm large in
proportion to arm;
hand small

5. Lower Normal Small Leg6 large in propor-

Extremity tion to thighs; feet
wide and flat, heel-
bones projecting back-
wards.
AGE:
Aside from the size of the bones and dental examination, the age
of the person to whom the skeleton belongs may be determined
84 LEGAL MEDICINE

1. Appearance of the centers:

External capitate, heads of
1 year humerus, femur, tibia.
Lower epiphysis of tibia, lower epiphysis of fibula,
2 years capitulum of humerus, first four metacarpal
Internal tarsal, navicular,
3 years phalanges, patella.
lunate, upper end of fibula, greater
4 years trochanter of femur.
Scaphoid, trapezium, carpal, navicular, greater
5 years tubercle of the humerus, lower end of the fibula.
Upper end of the radius, lower end of ulna, trape-
6-7 years zoid, scaphoid.
Internal epicondyle of the humerus, rami of
8-9 years ischium and pubis, olecranon.
Epiphysis of os calcis, pisiform, trochlea of hu-
10-11 years merus, lesser trochanter of femur.
External epicondyle of the humerus, patella com-
12-14 years plete.
years Acromion, iliac crest.
17-19 years Tuber ischia.
20-21 years Inner clavicle.
(A Simplified Textbook of Medical Jurisprudence Toxicology by
C.K. 39).
2. Union of and Epiphyses:
1-1/2 years Anterior should be closed.
years The condylar portion of the occipital bone fuses
with the squama; the metopic suture also closes.
4 years The greater tubercle fuses with the head of the
humerus.
5 years The condylar portion of the occipital bone fuses
with the basi-occiput.
9 years The ilium, pubes and ischium should meet in the
acetabulum, rami of ischium and pubis fuse.
13 years Ilium and pubes should be united but still separable
on maceration.
15 years The epiphysis of os calcis joins the
bone; the coracoid should be united to the scapula.
16 years The olecranon should be united to the ulna.
16-17 years The head of the radius and the lower end of the
humerus should be joined to their respective shaft.
17-18 years The internal condyle should be united to the
humerus.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

The head of the femur should have joined diaphy-

sis; the epiphysis of long bones of the hand and
foot should have united to the the
should be fused with the
20 years The epiphyses of the fibula should be united to the
Distal radius unites.
22 years The inner epiphysis of the clavicle fuses.
25 years The crest of the ilium and the articular facts of the
ribs should be united, if all the epiphysis have
united, the person is above 25 years of age.
(A Simplified Textbook of Medical & Toxicology by
C.K. p. 40).
3. Dental Identification (supra p.
4. of cranial sutures (see illustration).

MOLAR
root
more important
than eruption

Approximate time of closure of cranial sutures. The aspect closes

several years before the outer as a rule. Molar tooth root calcification is also
noted.

Determination of the Duration of Interment:

The period from the time of death up to the time of examination
may be determined by the nature and presence of the soft tissues
and the degree of erosion of the bones. Ordinarily, all the soft
tissues in a grave disappear within a year. However, it is influenced
by several factors.
86 LEGAL MEDICINE

Fragmentation and erosion of bones after a long burial

The Bases of the Estimate for Duration of Interment are:

Presence or absence of soft tissues still adherent to the bones.
2. Firmness and weight, brittleness, dryness of the bones.
3. The degree of erosion of the surface of the bones.
4. The changes in the clothings, coffin, and painting.
Determination of the Presence or Absence of or Post-
mortem Injuries:
Individual bones must be examined in detail for possible
Importance must be laid on whether these injuries in the bones
occurred during life or in the process of exhumation. Note the pre-
sence of vital reaction, principally the signs of
Superimposed
This is a special method of determining the person to whom the
skull belongs. The negatives of the picture of the skull and the
suspected individuals are superimposed and printed. This will show
whether the contour of the skull fits the contour of the face of the
suspected person.

E DETERMINATION SEX
Legal Importance of Sex Determination:
As an aid in identification:
Habit, social life, manner of dressing, physical features and
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 87
inclination are generally dependent on the sex. These points are
useful in
2. To whether an individual can exercise certain obli-
gations by law to one sex only:

3. Marriage or the union of a and a woman:

Any male of the age of sixteen years or more, and any female
at the age of fourteen years or more, not under any of the im-
pediments mentioned in articles 80 to 84, may contract marriage
(Art. 54, Civil Code).
4. Rights granted by law are different different sexes:
Majority commences upon the attainment of the age of twenty-
one years (Art. 402, Civil Code).
Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding article, a
daughter above twenty-one but below twenty-three years of age
cannot leave the parental home without the consent of the father
or mother in whose company she lives, except to become a wife,
or when she exercises a profession or calling, or when the father
or mother has contracted a subsequent marriage (Art. 403, Civil
Code).
5. There are certain crimes wherein a specific sex can only be the
offender or victim:
a. In rape (Art. 335, Revised Penal Code), seduction (Art. 337 &
338, Revised Penal Code), abduction (Art. 342 & Revised
Penal Code) or abuse against chastity (Art. 245, Penal
Code) a woman is the
b. In case of prostitution, the offender must be a
For purposes of this article, women who, for money or
profit, habitually in sexual intercourse or lascivious
conduct, are deemed to be prostitutes (Art. 202, No. 5, Revised
Penal Code).
In the offender is a married woman and in concubinage
the offender is a husband.
to Determine the Sex:
Differences in the social role of the sexes used to be clearly
marked but now they are less than they used to be. Dress, hair-
style, general bodily shape provide an immediate and accurate
answer to the vast majority of cases.
88 LEGAL MEDICINE

The presence of penis indicates a its absence and the

presence of a vaginal opening, indicates a female. We may look
for the testes in the scrotum and if they are absent we must not
conclude that the individual is not a male. They may be in the
abdomen or inguinal canal undescended.
3. Gonadal
Presence of testes in male and ovary in female. This will in-
volve exploration of the abdomen and in some cases a histolo-
gical examination of the gonad to see whether its microscopic
structure is ovarian testicular.
4. Chromosomal test:
Shortly after the war, noticed that there was a difference
between cells derived from men and women suitably stained and
examined under the microscope. The nucleus of the cells is a
densely staining area in the cell itself and Barr noticed that there
was a small part of nucleus which stained deeply than the rest
in woman's cells but not in cells from men. He observed this in
white cells from the blood and cells obtained by scraping the
mucous membrane of the mouth. This is called Barr
(Medico-Legal Part 3, Vol. 40, p. 79).
Problems in Sex Determination:
Sex determination may be possible and can scientifically be
distinguished on account of the biological structure differences;
however, in the following instances there will be no way to deter-
mine the
Gonadal agenesis — Sex organs (testes or ovaries) have never
oped.
2. True — A state of The gonads of both
sexes are present which may be separated or combined as
Evidences of
1. Presumptive evidences:
General features and contour of the face.
or absence of hair in some parts of the body.
Length of the scalp hair. Generally, the female has long hair in
the scalp than that of the male.
and other wearing apparel, but not in a
Transvestism is a form of sexual deviation characterized by
an overwhelming desire to assume the attire and be accepted as
a member of the opposite sex.
Figure — Females have prominent while those of the
males are slender.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

(P Habit or inclination — are persons who

have the gonadal tissue of one sex and the behavior of the

Voice and manner of speech.

The Important Distinguishing Presumptive Characters between the
Two Sexes are as follows:
Female Male
a. Hips are broader in rela- Shoulders are broader than
tion to shoulders. hips.
b. Generally smaller build. Larger build.
Breasts developed. Generally not developed,
very rarely and may be
developed in cases like

d. apple (Thyroid Adam's apple prominent.

cartilage) not prominent.
e. Striae present on breasts, e. Striae absent.
abdomen and buttocks in
ladies who have borne
children.
f. Pubic hair straight and Pubic hair thick, curved
stop short above the upward extending up to
umbilicus.
g. Hair absent on face, abdo- Hair present on chest and
men and chest. face moustaches, beard,
etc.
h. Female skull is smaller Male skull is longer, heavier
lighter, and has thin bones and of thick bones.
and
Trunk abdominal segment i Trunk abdominal segment
larger. smaller.
Thighs conical. j Thighs cylindrical.
(From: Handbook of Forensic and Toxicology by Dr. P. V.
p. 68).
2. Highly probable of sex:
of uterus and accessories in female, and penis
in male.
of developed and large breasts in female.
Muscular development and distribution of fat in the body.
3. Conclusive evidence:
Presence of ovary in female and testis in
90 LEGAL MEDICINE

Evidence of Sex in Mutilated or Decomposed Body:

General physical and muscular development.
2. Hairiness of the scalp, face, chest, pubes and other parts of the
body.
3. Prominence of the Adam's apple.
4. Amount of subcutaneous fat in specific parts of the body.
5. Presence of albicantes, enlarged nipple, cutex in fingernails
and lipstick or coloring materials.
6. Presence of prostate gland in male or uterus and ovary in female.
If in doubt, a microscopic examination must be made on the
suspicious ovarian or testicular tissue.
DETERMINATION OF AGE
Legal Importance of Determination of Age:
an aid to identification:
Mention of the age of the wanted or missing person will create
an impression of the physical characteristics, social life and psy-
chic and mental behavior of that person. Although it may only
be presumptive, it may be useful in identification.
of criminal liability:
Art. 12, Revised Penal Code — Circumstances which exempt
from criminal liability — The following are exempted from criminal
liability:
1
2. A person under nine years of age.
3. A person over nine years of age and under fifteen, unless he
has acted with discernment, in which case, such minor, shall
be proceeded against in accordance with the provisions of
article 80 of this code.
Determination of right of suffrage:
Suffrage shall be exercised by citizens of the Philippines not
otherwise disqualified by law, who are eighteen years of age or
over, and who shall have resided in the Philippines for at least
one year and in the place wherein they propose to vote for at least
six months preceding the election. No literacy, property, or other
substantive requirement shall be imposed on the exercise of
suffrage. The shall provide a system for the
purpose of securing the secrecy and sanctity of the vote (Art.
VI, Sec. 1, Philippine Constitution as amended in 1984).
Determination whether a person can civil
Majority commences upon the attainment of the age of twenty-
one
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

The person who has reached majority is qualified for all acts
of civil life, save the exceptions established by this Code in special
cases. (Art. 402, Civil Code).
of the capacity to contract marriage:
Any male of the age of sixteen years or upwards, and any
female of the age of fourteen years or not under any
of the impediments mentioned in articles 80 to 84 may contract
marriage (Art. 54, Civil Code).
a requisite to certain crimes:
— Rape is committed by having carnal knowledge of a
woman under any of the following circumstances:
1. By using force or intimidation;
2. When the woman is deprived of reason or otherwise un-
conscious; and
3. When the woman is years of even though
neither of the in the two preced-
ing paragraphs shall be present (Art. 335, Revised Penal
Code).
— The penalty provided for parricide in article
and for murder in article 248 shall be imposed upon any person
who shall kill any child less than three days of age (Art. 255,
Penal Code).

— The seduction of a virgin over twelve

years and under eighteen years of age, committed by any
person in public authority, priests, house-servant, domestic,
teacher, or any person who, in any capacity, shall
be entrusted with the education or custody of the woman
seduced, shall be punished by correccional in its mini-
mum and medium periods (Art. 337, Revised Penal Code).
seduction — The seduction of a woman who is
single or a widow of good reputation, over twelve but
under eighteen years of age, committed by means of deceit,
shall be punished by mayor (Art. 338, Revised
Penal Code.
d. — The abduction of a woman victim over
twelve and under eighteen years of age, carried out with her
consent and with lewd designs shall be punished by the penalty
of prision correccional in its minimum and medium period
(Art. 343, Revised Penal Code).
 I LEGAL MEDICINE

of the Age of the

1. Application of the Rule or Rule:
For of than 25 cm. long length) — Get
the square root of the length in centimeter and the result is
the age of the fetus in months.
Example: If the length of the fetus is 16 the age is 4
months.
b. For fetus 25 or more — Divide the length of the
fetus by and the result is the age in month.
Example: If the length of the fetus is 40 the age is 8
months.
(The age referred to in this rule is lunar month, not calendar
month. One lunar month is equivalent to 28 days.)
2. Examination of the product of conception:
Age Nature of the product of conception
1 month — Ovum is about 1.0 cm. long, weighing about 2.6
The eyes are seen as two dark spots and limb buds
present.
2 months — The ovum is about 4.0 cm. long and weighs about 10
gram. Eyes and nose are recognizable. Clavicle,
mandible, ribs and vertebra show the center of
ossification. Anus is seen as a dark spot.
3 months — Length is 8 cm. weighing 30 Nails begin to
appear as thin membrane on the fingers and toes.
is formed. Sex organs have appeared
Ossification has begun in most of the bones.
4 months — Length is 13 cm. weight 204 gm. Sex can be dis-
tinguished; Skull is partly ossified, with wide sutures
and
Lanugo hair is visible on the body. Convolution of
the brain begins to appear.
5 months — Length is 23 cm. and weight is 450 gm. Skin begins
to be covered with caseosa. Ossification
center in os calcis. Dental gum appears at the
mandible.
6 months — Length is about 30 weight is about a kilo. Skin
is still wrinkled but subcutaneous fat is beginning to
form. Hair appears on the head. The eyebrows and
eyelashes are beginning to form. The eyelids are
adherent. The testicles lie close to the kidneys.
Meconium is seen in the upper part of the large
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 93

intestine. The centers of ossification are seen in

the four divisions of the sternum.
7 months — Length is 18 cm. Weight is kg. Eyelids are open.
Testicle is beginning to descend into the scrotum. Nails
do not reach the tips of the fingers. Lanugo hair is dis-
appearing from the face. Primary center of
of talus has appeared. Body is dark red and plump,
with hair on the The child is viable
8 months — Length is 42 cm. Weight is 2 to 2-1/5 kg. Skin is
only slightly wrinkled and flesh-colored. Lanugo hair
is beginning to be shed. Testicle is generally in the
scrotum. Nails reach the end of fingers. Convolu-
tions of the brain are more distinct.
membrane disappears. The skin red but not
9 months — The length is about 45 to 50 cm. and weighs about
to kg. Skin is with slight wrinkles. Scalp is covered
with dark hair. Nails have grown over finger tips.
Testes have descended to the scrotum.
caseosa present over flextures of joints and neck
folds. Meconium is seen at the end of the large
intestine. Ossification center appears at the lower
end of the femur. Signs of maturity is present.
Age Determination During Infancy:
1. Age based on height or weight:
a. Height:
New bom full term child — 50 cm.
After 6 months — 60
After one year — 68 cm.
After 4 years — Double the birth height (one
meter)
b. Weight:
Newly born full term child — to 3 kg.
Roughly a child increases in weight by kg. per month.
At the end of 6th month — Child doubles the birth weight.
At the end of one year — Child weighs three times the
birth weight.
The estimation of the age utilizing the weight and/or the height
is not quite useful inasmuch as there is a difference in the rapidity
of growth not only in children of different sex, but also in child-
ren of the same sex.
2. of infant:
Newly bom — Skin covered with caseosa and red.
Meconium present in the rectum.
94 LEGAL MEDICINE

Lanugo hair almost disappeared.

Limbs and body plump.
Scalp hair about 2 inches long
After 24 — Skin firm and less red.
hours Umbilical cord shrivelled, soft and bluish in
color. Lungs more or less distended with air.
2nd to 3rd — Skin with yellowish tinge.
day Skin sometimes with cracks and with sepa-
ration of the scales. Umbilical cord brown and
dry.
3rd to 4th becomes more yellow. Umbilical cord
day brownish-red, flattened, semi-transparent and
twisted.
4th to 6th — Umbilical cord separates from
day Foramen ovale partly close.
6th to — Cicatrization of the umbilical cord.
Ductus arteriosus close.
Age Determination in Childhood and
1. Age based on the eruption of teeth:
a. Temporary or milk) teeth:
Central incisor (lower) 6th month
Central incisor (upper) 7th month
Lateral incisor (upper) 9th month
Lateral Oth month
First molars 12th month
Canines 18th month
Second molars 2nd year
b. Permanent teeth:
First molar 6th year
Central incisors 7th year
Lateral incisors 8th year
First bicuspid 9th year
Second bicuspid 10th year
Canines 11th year
molars year
Third molars 17th-18th year or at
any period later
2. Appearance of ossification centers (Supra p. 84).
3. Union of epiphysis with shaft of (Supra p. 84).
4. of cranial sutures (Supra p. 85).
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

Other Points to Consider in the Determination of Age:

1. Growth of pubic hair, beard and
The pubic hair begins to appear at the age of 13 in female and
in male. The growth of thick dark hair is well marked on the
pubes, scrotum and in the axillae at about 16 to 17 years of age.
Mustache and beard begin to appear in male at the age of 16 to
18.
2. Changes of the breast in female:
The development of the breast in female commences at the
age of 13 to 14. The degree and the commencement of develop-
ment may be influenced by habit and social environment.
3. Development of the voice:
Males develop low tone voice between the age of 16 to 18,
while females change their voice on the same period. Males
become low pitch while females become high pitch.
4. Changes in color of the hair:
black color of the hair becomes gray after Silvery-
white color may be seen in advanced old age. Sometimes gray
hair appears in younger people or may appear suddenly after
extreme terror, grief or shock. Localized areas of gray hair may
be due to neuralgia or other diseases of the fifth cranial nerve.
Pubic hair may turn gray at the age of
5. Grade or year in school or college:
Usually children enter the primary school at the age of 7.
They finish high school at the age of 17. Graduation in a col-
legiate course depends on the number of years required for the
course.
6. in women:
Menstruation usually commence at the age of 12 but in warm
countries it may start at an earlier age.
7. Degree of mental development.
8. Manner of and social life.
9. Atheromatous changes of blood opacity of the lens
and cornea (arcus
10. of the skin usually appears after forty.
IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
Legal Importance of the Study of Blood:
disputed parentage (maternity
a. Disputed paternity may
(1) When the wife committed adultery and the husband denied
to be the father of the child.
 LEGAL MEDICINE

When a child was born out of lawful wedlock and the

mother claimed someone to be the father but he vehe-
mently denied it.
In a claim support or right of succession of the alleged
illegitimate
b. Disputed maternity may arise:
fflTTn case of allegation of children in a hospital
or nursery home, either accidentally or
cases of wayward or stray children being claimed by two
or more women.
ownership of dead fetus or newly born child found in
street trash.
or corroborative evidence or in favor of the
perpetrator of a crime:

was found dead with a deep stab wound on the chest.

was found with a kitchen knife in his hand stained with blood.
Examination of the weapon showed that the stain was blood of
human origin and belonging to the same group as that of the
deceased "A". With such result of the examination, the investigating
authorities have a very strong presumption that was the one
who committed the crime.
of the cause of death:
The amount of blood or blood stains found in the scene of the
crime or found inside the body of the deceased outside the blood
vessels may imply that the cause of death of the person is he-
morrhage.
of the direction escape of the victim or the
assailant:
The shape of the blood or blood stains will give the investi-
gator an idea on the direction of the source of blood. Usually,
in small drops, the tapering end of the blood spot is towards the
direction of the moving source of blood.
of the approximate time the crime was committed:
Although there are variations as to the color and soluble
changes as to regards the age of the stain, we can only say that
when there is too much change, it is not very recent.
of the place of of the crime.
of the presence of certain
Problems to be Answered in the Examination of
whether the stain is due to blood.
due to blood, determine whether it is of human origin or not.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

it of human origin, to what group does it belong?

it belong to the person in question?
manner, degree and condition of the article which have been
stained.
of the stain.
PRELIMINARY OR GROSS EXAMINATION OF THE STAIN:
Determine the material, make, color of the article stained.
2. Note which surface has been stained and the color of stain. Recent
blood stains are dark-red.
3. Study the direction of the origin of the blood stain. The spot of
blood is tapering towards the direction of the source. A
fall will give a splash appearance.
4. For small and discolored stains, the use of a lens or ultra-violet
light may be useful.
5. Determine the amount by the degree of soaking, size and intensity
of color.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS:
1. Solubility test:
Recent blood shed is soluble in saline solution and imparts a
bright red color.
Stains which have been exposed to air become dry; hemoglobin
is transformed to or If the stain
been kept in damp places for a long time; hemoglobin is trans-
formed to hematin.
2. Heat test:
Solution of the blood stain when heated will impart a muddy
precipitate.
3. Luminescence test:
Stains on dark fabric mixed with mud, paint, etc. emit bluish-
white luminescence in a dark room when sprayed with one of the
two solutions:
a. 1 gram
Sodium peroxide 5 grams
Distilled water 1,000
b. 1 gram
Sodium carbonate 50 grams
Hydrogen peroxide 50 grams
Distilled water 1,000 cc.
The substance responsible for the reaction is hematin. Older
stains therefore react better than new ones.
Although the solutions are said not to interfere with further
tests, specimen of the material must be kept for the
98 LEGAL

serologic test. Medical Jurisprudence for India by S.P.S.

1953, p. 303).
CHEMICAL EXAMINATIONS:
1. Saline extract of the blood ammonia will give a brown-
ish tinge due to the formation of alkaline hematin.
2. test:
A piece of white filter paper is pressed firmly on the suspected
stain. Benzidine reagent is dropped on the paper, then followed
by drops of active hydrogen peroxide. A positive result will show
blue color. A positive result is not conclusive, because an oxi-
dizing agent will give a positive blue color reaction. Benzidine
test has the sensitivity up to dilution.
Benzidine
Benzidine sulphate is dissolved in glacial acetic acid to form
solution.
3. test (Van Deen's or Schombein's Test):
To a white filter paper pressed and rubbed on the surface of the
stain, the solution of the alcoholic tincture of guaiacum is added
and then hydrogen peroxide or ozonic ether is applied by drops.
If blood is present, a blue color is imparted by the mixture. It
is not conclusive like the benzidine test because potato skin,
iron rust, blue and indigo may give a positive reaction to
the test. The guaiacum test is positive up to dilution.
4. Phenolphthalein test Test):
A drop of the reagent is dropped on a white
filter paper with the stain and left for at least ten seconds. A
positive result will show a pink color after the addition of hy-
drogen peroxide. This test is not conclusive but sensitive up to
dilution. This test proves only the presence of
peroxidase.
Kastle-Meyer's reagent:
Phenolphthalein .2 grams
Potassium .20 grams
Distilled water 100 cc.
5. Green test:
This test which was recommended by in 1904 is quite
useful, but it is not so sensitive as the benzidine test. depends
upon the fact that leucomalachite green is oxidized to malachite
green with a bluish-green or peacock-blue color by hydrogen
peroxide solution. The reaction occurs also with a solution of
the blood pigment previously boiled. On the other hand, the
reaction is negative when iron is removed from hemoglobin
forming
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 99

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS:
Saline extract of the stain is examined under the microscope.
Note the presence of red blood cells, leucocytes, epithelial cells and
microorganisms. The presence of red blood cells will conclusively
show that the stain is blood. By microscopic examination, we can
differentiate the origin or the part of the body it came from. Men-
strual blood will show abundance of vaginal epithelial cells and Doe-
bacilli.
MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS:
Hemochromogen or
A fragment of the suspected material is placed on a slide glass and
a drop of hemochromogen reagent is added. A cover glass is
placed on top and heated gradually for a time, then examined
under the microscope. Crystals varying from salmon color to
dark brown and pink and which are irregular rhomboids or in
clusters, may be seen. This test is positive to any substance
containing hemoglobin.
solution:
Sodium hydroxide 3 cc.
Pyridine 3 cc.
Glucose (saturated .3 cc.
Distilled water 7

Hemochromogen
100 LEGAL MEDICINE

2. blood or
On the microscopic slide is placed fragments of the stain and a
drop of water with trace of sodium chloride added. Add glacial
acetic acid and evaporate to dryness under a cover slip. Dark
Drown rhombic prisms of chloride of hematin are formed. This
is considered as the best of the test.
of test:
A particle of dried stain or a fiber of the stained fabric is placed
on a glass slide and covered with a cover slip with a needle inter-
posed to prevent direct contact of the cover slip with the slide.
A drop of acetone is run under the cover slip so that the material
surrounded and a drop of diluted oxalic or acetic acid is then
added. When examined under high power microscope, small
dark, crystals of acetone-haemin are seen.
SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS:
This examination depends on the principle that blood pigments
have the power to absorb light of certain wave length and produce
certain characteristic absorption bands on the spectrum. By means
of the spectroscope we can determine the presence of the following
substances:
From fresh blood stains:
a. Oxyhemoglobin
b. Hemoglobin
Reduced hematin or
2. From older stains:
a.
b. Alkaline hematin

d. Reduced hematin
3. Other blood preparations:
a. Acid hematin
b. Alkaline hematin

d. Hematin
BIOLOGIC EXAMINATIONS:
Precipitin
This test is to determine whether the blood is of human origin
or not.
Principle of the test:
By injecting an animal, a rabbit, with blood
of unrelated animal, an anti-serum is produced in the blood of
the animal injected. The serum of this animal injected is capable
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 101

specifically of precipitating the serum of the unrelated animal

whose blood serum has been injected. However, closely related
animals may also give the same response.
Preparation of the anti-human
A dose of cc. to cc. per kilogram body weight of human
blood is injected intravenously in the marginal vein
of the ear. The dose is then repeated every third day with
three or five injections. The titre of the rabbit serum is tested
with the human If the anti-human rabbit serum has
sufficient power to produce a ring of haziness at the junction of
the two sera, then the titre is sufficient for the examination of
the unknown.
Some biologists prefer combined intravenous and intraperi-
toneal injection of the serum but the result is the same.
If the titre is sufficiently strong the rabbit is bled to death and
the serum is oollected for the examination of the unknown.
Procedure of the test:
A normal saline extract must be made on the stain to be exam-
ined. The saline extract must be diluted from up to
At least capillary glass tubes, clean and dry on a rack, are used
in the examination. The following are the series of mixtures
including the controls:
Extract Anti-human serum
2. Extract Anti-human serum
3. Extract Anti-human serum
4. Extract 1:100 Anti-human serum
5. Extract Anti-human serum
6. Extract Normal Rabbit serum
7. Anti-human serum
8. Substrate extract Anti-human
9. Heterogenous blood Anti-human serum
Known human Anti-human serum
s 6 to 10 are controls. Normally, there must be positive
in 10 even if the rest are negative.
positive reaction is manifested as an area of haziness in the
of a white ring at the point of contact between the two
solutions mixed. Animals of the allied specie may also give a
positive reaction to sheep and goat.
Substances responsible for a false positive reaction:
The following common substances, if present in the extract,
will precipitate the anti-serum and thus produce the semblance of
a positive
102 LEGAL MEDICINE

a. Soap. This is of special importance in washed stains.

b. Rancid oil is sometimes in pillow cases and head
The soluble fraction of the oil prevents frothing yet the extract
gives a sharp and quick reaction.
Two are namely:
False positive reaction from the rancid oil itself.
(2) Failure of foam test and danger of group reaction — mon-
key blood in high concentration will act like human blood.
Alum. This is used as a household remedy in gargles and mouth
washes and may stain any article.
d. and allied substances derived from vegetable tissue. The
stain of saliva of the betel chewer not only looks like
stain but by virtue of the tannin present in most of the con-
stituents of the prepared betel it also acts on the
Stains on leather and plant tissue should be removed by apply-
ing moist filter paper to the surface (leather contains tannin).
(From: Medical Jurisprudence for India, S.P.S.
in 1953, 315)
Substances responsible for a false negative reaction:
a. Mineral acids
b. Corrosive sublimate
Chloride of lime
Sulfate of copper and iron
e. Bisulphide of carbon and sodium
Nitrate of silver
g. Thymol
h. Permanganate of potassium
Value of the precipitin test:
If positive result is obtained, we can tell in a more or less
conclusive way that the blood stain is of human origin; although
anthropoid ape may give the same result.
The same test and technique may be made to determine whe-
ther muscles, bones and other body fluids are of
human origin or not.
Certain materials like alcohol, formaldehyde, corrosive subli-
mate, carbolic acid, acids and alkalies destroy the
property of blood to react with precipitin.
2. Blood grouping:
Principle of the test:
All human beings have their blood belonging to any of the four
principal blood groups. A normal suspension of human red blood
cells when mixed with its own serum or serum of a similar group
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION 103

will make the red blood cells suspension remain even. But
suspended in the serum of another group, the red blood cells
clump with one another and this is called agglutination. The red
blood cells contain agglutinogens and the serum contains agglu-
tinins.
Procedure of the test:
Two methods may be utilized and both should be employed
in the
a. Detection of agglutinins
b. Detection of agglutinogens
a. Detection of agglutinins:
A saline extract is made on the stain. The solution is then
mixed on a slide glass with A, B, and O cell suspensions. The
results should be examined after agitation for several hours until
a decisive reading is possible.
b. Detection of agglutinogens:
Agglutinogens cannot be detected in dried stains since the
red blood cells lose this power on drying, but the presence may
be shown by their ability to absorb agglutinins A and B and
their power to inhibit the action of the sera containing these
agglutinins from the test sera. When these are subsequently
tested against known test corpuscles, the absorption which has
taken place will become apparent. Corresponding absorption
will result if only agglutinogen or B is present in the stain.
The portion of stained material should be mixed with Group
O serum. (Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology by
8th p. 308).
Value of the test:
It may solve disputed parentage (paternity or A
positive result is not conclusive that the one in question is the
offspring, but a negative result is conclusive that he is not the child
of the alleged parents.
Inheritance Patterns of ABO Blood Groups:
Group of Group of Exclusion
Parents Children Cases
OxO A, B, AB
Ox A B, AB
OxB A, AB
Ax A O, A B, AB
AxB O, A, B, AB
BxB O, B A, AB
AB A, B 0 , AB
AB A, B, AB 0
104 LEGAL MEDICINE

AB A, B, AB
AB A, B, AB
Inheritance of type
Possible Children
MxM M
M, MN
MxN MN
MN x MN M, MN
MN x N MN, N
NxN N
Grouping is true not only with blood but also with other fluids
of the body like saliva, vaginal secretion, seminal fluid, milk, urine
and others.
Age of the Blood Stains:
When blood is exposed to the atmosphere or some other influ-
ences, its hemoglobin is converted to or hematin.
The color is changed from red to reddish-brown. The presence of
acid accelerates the of hematin. These changes take place
in warm weather within 24 hours. Blood of one week old and that
of six weeks may not present a difference in physical and chemical
properties.
Differential Characteristics of Blood from Different Sources:
Arterial Blood:
a. Bright scarlet in color.
b. Leaves the blood vessel with pressure.
High oxygen contents.
2. Venous Blood:
a. Dark red in color.
b. Does not spill far from the wound.
Low oxygen content.
3. Menstrual Blood:
a. Does not clot.
b. Acidic in reaction owing to mixture with vaginal mucous.
On microscopic examination, there are vaginal epithelial cells.
d. Contains large number of bacillus.
4. or Woman's Blood:
There is no method differentiating a man's blood from a wo-
man's blood. Probably, the presence of sex hormone in female
blood may be a point of differentiation.
5. Child's Blood:
a. At birth, it is thin and soft compared with that of adult.
b. Red blood cells are nucleated and exhibit greater fragility.
Red blood cells count more than in adult.
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

H. IDENTIFICATION OF HAIR AND FIBERS

How the Hair and Change Color:
Addition of a substance that will coat the outer surface of the
hair so as to impart a different color.
Example: Salts of bismuth, lead, silver and acid.
2. Addition of substances which bleach or change the natural
color of the fiber or hair.
Example: Hydrogen peroxide, chlorine and diluted nitric
acid.
Characteristics of the Different Kinds of Fibers:
Cotton
Flattened, twisted with thickened edges. Irregularly
granulated cuticle. No transverse markings. Fibers show spiral
twist. Fibers swell in a solution of copper sulphate and sodium
carbonate dissolved in It is insoluble in strong sodium
hydroxide but soluble in strong sulfuric acid and partially dis-
solved in hot strong hydrochloric acid.
2. Flax Fibers:
Apex tapering to fine point. Transverse sections are polygonal
and show a small cavity.
The fibers consist of cellulose and give blue or bluish-red color
when treated with a weak solution of potassium iodide saturated
in iodine and sulfuric acid.
The fibers which show transverse lines and are usually seen in
group formation, dissolve in a solution composed of copper
sulphate and sodium carbonate in ammonia.
3. Hemp Fibers:
Fibers show transverse lines and consist of cellulose.
Large oval cavities are seen in transverse sections. The end is
usually blunt, and there is often a tuft of hair at the knots.
Stains are bluish-red with and yellow with both
aniline sulphate and weak solution of potassium iodide saturated
in iodine with sulfuric acid.
4. Abaca Fibers:
Fibers are smooth without transverse or longitudinal markings.
The cavities are large and
The walls are
The tips are fine points.
5. Jute Fibers:
Fibers are quite smooth without either longitudinal or transverse
markings.
106 LEGAL MEDICINE

The fibers have typical large cavities which are not uniform but
vary with the degree of contraction of the walls of the fibers
which are
The ends are blunt.
The fibers are stained red with and yellow with
aniline sulphate, also with iodine and sulfuric acid.
6. Wool
These fibers can easily be distinguished from vegetable fibers
since the former show an outer layer of flattened cells and im-
bricated margins.
The are composed of fibrous tissues but sometimes
the medulla is present.
They do not dissolve in a solution composed of copper sulphate,
sodium carbonate and ammonia.
Stain is yellow with iodine and sulfuric acid and also with
picric acid.
Do not dissolve in sulfuric acid.
of singeing on burning.
7. Silk Fibers:
Manufactured silk is almost structureless, microscopically.
Fibers stain is brown with iodine and sulfuric acid and yellow
with picric acid.
dissolve slowly in a mixture of copper sulphate, sodium
and ammonia.
Linen Fibers:
Fibers are straight and tapering to a point.
Cortical area shows transverse lines which frequently
simulating a jointed appearance.
The medullary region shows a thin dense line.
They do not dissolve in concentrated sulfuric acid.
If placed in 1% alcoholic solution of and then in a
solution of ammonium hydroxide, they assume a bright red
color (Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology by 8th
P.
The Vegetable and Animal Fibers may be Differentiated as Follows:
1. Ignition
a. Animal fibers — Burn and fuse; smell of burnt hair, fused
and globular; fume turns red litmus to
blue.
b. Vegetable fibers — Rapid combustion, end charred and break
sharply; smell of burning wood; vapor
turns blue litmus to red.
 MEDICO-LEGAL OF IDENTIFICATION 107
2. Chemical Use of concentrated nitric
a. Animal fibers — Turn yellow.
b. Vegetable fibers — No change in color.
3. Picric acid test:
a. Wool and silk — Yellow.
b. Cellulose — No
4. Reagent
a. Wool and silk — Turn brown.
b. Cellulose — Turn
5. Soaked in tannic acid:
a. Wool and silk — No change.
b. Cellulose fibers —
6. Heated with 10% NaOH:
a. Wool and silk — Dissolve.
b. Cellulose — Not affected.
Once the fibers are found to be of animal origin, the next step
is the examination to determine whether these fibers are human
hair or hair of other animals:
Parts of the Hair:
1. Cuticle — The outer layer of the hair.
2. Cortex or middle layer — Consists of longitudinal fibers bearing
the pigment.
3. Medulla or core — Contains air bubbles and some pigments.
Differences Between Hair Forcibly Extracted and Naturally Shed Hair:
If a has been extracted forcibly, the bulb is irregular in
form due to rupture of the sheath and shows an undulating surface,
together with excrescences of different shapes and sizes. A naturally
shed bulb has a rounded extremity, a smooth surface, and most
show signs of atrophic or fatty degeneration, especially
in an elderly person (Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology by
8th p. 99)
Distinctions between Human and Animal Hair
Human Animal
Medulla
Air network in fine grains. Air network in forms of
large or small sacks.
Cells invisible without treatment Cells easily visible.
in water.
Value of I lower than 0.3. Value of I higher than
Fuzz without medulla. Fuzz with medulla.
108 LEGAL MEDICINE

Cortex
Looks like a thick muff. Looks a fairly thin
hollow cylinder.
Pigments in the form of fine Pigments in the form of
grains. irregular grains larger
than that of
Cuticle
Thin scales not protruding, co- Thick scales protruding,
vering one another to about do not cover one ano-
4/5. ther to the same degree
as the human's.

Hair and blood in the victim's hand showing struggle

Note: Medullary index (I) is the relation between the diameter of

the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair.
p. 176).
The hair and fiber may be examined microscopically in its
cross-section and longitudinal aspect.
Comparative study must be made to show similarity of the
hair and fibers in question to the known where they are al-
leged to belong.
— Modern Criminal Investigation by Harry
4th p. 191).
 ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

Differentiation Between of Chimpanzee and

Human Hair:
Gorilla Chimpanzee Human
Medulla very con- Constantly present. Very frequently ab-
stantly present. sent.
Medulla of small Small but slightly Small size, slightly
size. larger than hu- smaller than goril-
man's or gorilla's. la's or chimpan-
zee's.
Granular cortical Centrally placed. Granules less coarse,
pigment, central peripheral, near
around medulla. cuticular margins.
margins Less regular than in Cuticular margins,
regular, but less human hair. extremely regular.
in human
hair.
(From: Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine by Sydney Smith
& 109).
Other Points in the Identification of
Characteristics of the hair:
Hair on body surfaces is fine while those from the beard,
mustache and scalp are very thick.
from the eyebrows and lashes is tapering gradually to fine
points.
2. Length of the hair:
Hair from the scalp grows 2.5 cms. a month.
Beard hair grows at the rate of 0.4 millimeter a day.
3. Color of the hair:
The color of the hair may be black, blonde or brunette.
Hair from older persons may be white or gray.
The hair may be artificially colored by bismuth, lead or silver
salts. It may be bleached by addition of hydrogen peroxide,
chlorine or diluted hydrochloric or nitric acid.
How to detect presence of coloring or bleaching material in hair:
a. Examination of hair may show pigments at nodes.
b. The new portion of the hair recently grown has a different color
from the treated part.
The hair in other parts of the body may not correspond in
color.
d. The scalp may be dyed.
e. The texture of the hair may be altered.
 LEGAL MEDICINE

4. Does the Hair Belong to a Male or a Female?

In many it is quite impossible to state the sex from the
but certain points may be worthy of
on the scalp of male are shorter, thicker and more wiry than
that of female's.
Eyebrow hair of a male is generally long and more wiry than that
of a
(From: Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine by Sydney Smith and
p.

Estimations of Age Based on the Hair:

This quite difficult and the examiner hesitates in giving his
opinion. However, there are some points of
Hair of children are fine, short, deficient of pigments and, as a
rule, devoid of medulla.
At the adolescent age, hair may appear at the pubis. Hair on the
scalp becomes long, wiry, and thick.
In the case of older persons, the color is usually white or gray,
with marked absorption of pigments and degenerative changes.