ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Fig. 2.1: ULTRASONIC MACHINING Fig. 2.2: CONVENTIONAL GRINDING

PRINCIPLE PRINCIPLE

INTRODUCTION
In order to meet the challenges posed by the machining of the hard-to-machine and
brittle materials - whether conductive or non conductive -the technique of ultrasonic
machining (USM) has been developed in the field of machining technology. The term
'ultrasonic' is used to signify a vibratory wave of high frequency above the audiable
range on to the work surface in the presence of a flowing slurry. The main reason for
using ultrasonic frequency during the machining process is to provide a better working
performance. Audible frequencies of required intensities would be heard as extremely
loud sound and would cause fatigue and even permanent damage to the ears.

Analysis of the mechanism of material removal by USM process indicates that it may
sometimes be called as Ultrasonic Grinding (USG) or Impact Grinding. There are
some basic difference between ultrasonic machining (fig. 2.1) and conventional
grinding (fig. 2.2) as listed in the following table.

Heat is not generated in the case of ultrasonic machining as it happens in conventional

grinding operations. For this reason, materials can be machined by USM without any
metallurgical transformation of grain structure which would affect the physical
properties of materials.
RANGE AND APPLICATION POSSIBILITIES OF ULTRASONIC
MACHINING
Ultrasonic machining is a very useful process of machining and has a wide range of
applications as listed below:

(i) USM can perform machining operations like drilling, grinding, and milling.
(ii) USM has been efficiently used to machine glass, ceramics, precision
mineral stones, sintered carbides, titanium and tungsten.
(iii) USM has been used for piercing of dies and for parting off and blanking
operations.
(iv) Machining of semi-conductors, ferrites and steel parts can be done by USM.
(v) USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape on teeth without creating
any pain.
The maximum rate of penetration in soft and brittle materials such as soft ceramics is
of the order of 19 mm per minute but for hard and tough materials, the penetration rate
is lower. The dimensional accuracy obtained with the process is in the order of ±0.005
mm. The range of sizes of USM machines varies from a light portable type having an
input of about 20 watts to heavy machines taking an input up to 2 KW.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

Fig. 2.3: SCHEME OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING AND STROKE

MAGNIFICATION

In USM process, ultrasonic waves or vibrations are transformed by means of

magnetostrictive transducer into mechanical vibrations of small amplitude and high
frequency (e.g. 0.08mm amplitude and 20,000 Hz). A horn is attached to the end of
the transducer for amplification of the vibration and a tool of any desired shape is
attached at the free end of the horn to serve the purpose of cutting. The ultrasonic
cutting operation is schematically shown in fig 2.3.

The ultrasonic oscillator unit converts power from the supply at 50Hz to a high
frequency energy in the range of 20,000 to 25,000 Hz, the audible threshold frequency
is approximately 15,000Hz hence the practical working frequency for the machine is
about 16,000 Hz, higher frequencies are not used since it will heat up the transducer.
The dimensional change of the transducer is in the order of 0.025mm.

As the tool vibrates with a specific frequency, an abrasive slurry (usually a mixture of
abrasive grains and water of definite proportion) is made to flow through the tool-
work piece interface. The impact force due the vibration of the tool end and the flow
of slurry through the work-tool interface actually causes thousands of microscopic
abrasive grains to remove the work material by abrasion. Material removal will be in
the form of sinking, engraving or any other precision shape.

The ultrasonic vibration has three main functions ;

(i) To create the ultrasonic dispersion effect rapidly in the machining fluid
medium between the tool end and the machining surface of the workpiece.
(ii) To cause rapid circulation of the fluid as a result of ultrasonic micro-
agitation.
(iii) To cause the cavitation effect in the fluid medium due to the ultrasonic
vibration of the tool in the fluid medium.

Theoretical analysis and experimental results have shown that USM is a form of
abrasion and the material is removed in the form of small grains by:
(i) Shear deformation,
(ii) Brittle fracture of work material by impact,
(iii) Cavitation and
(iv) Chemical reaction.
However, repeated impact of the tool with the slurry medium causes wear of the tool
which can be minimized by proper work-tool material combination.

PROCESS PARAMETERS
The process criteria of USM are:
(i) Material removal rate (MRR)
(ii) Tool wear rate
(iii) Surface finish on work piece
(iv) Dimensional accuracy
However, these are governed by the various process parameters mentioned below:

Slurry
(a) Abrasive: Hardness, size, shape and quantity of abrasive flow.
(b) Liquid: Chemical property, viscosity and flow rate.
Tool
(a) Material of tool
(b) Shape
(c) Amplitude of vibration (Yo) (d> Frequency of vibration (f)
(e) Stress developed in the tool (a)
Work piece
(a) Material
(b) Impact hardness
(c) Surface fatigue strength
To maximize MRR and to obtain better surface finish, dimensional accuracy and less
tool wear, proper control should be made on the various process parameters.

Purpose of Slurry and Selection of Abrasive

The main purpose of using the slurry are;
(i) To carry abrasive to the machining zone
(ii) To take away the wear particles
(iii) To cool the tool and the work piece
The cutting element in USM is a slurry which is a mixture of water and abrasive
particles. The abrasive which are generally used in practice are:
(a) Boron Carbide (B4 C)
(b) Silicon Carbide (SiC)
(c) Aluminium Oxide (Al2 03)
The size of the abrasive particles range from No. 100 to No. 800 and are selected on
the basis of surface finish required. Coarser size of particles cut at a faster rate than
the finer sized particles, but the surface finish obtained is not so good as with finer
grits. Hence, to achieve the desired cutting action, it is necessary to choose the
abrasive size carefully for individual job requirements. The factors which influence
the selection of proper abrasive for USM are similar to those used for the selection of
grinding wheels for conventional grinding operations.

The factors which should be considered for proper selection of abrasive are:
(i) Type of material to be machined
(ii) Hardness of the material
(iii) Amount of material removal desired
(iv) Surface finish required
Boron carbide is the most widely used abrasive in USM for the following reasons:
(i) It is nearly two times harder than silicon carbide and has greater resistance
to fracture.
(ii) It can cut at a faster rate than any other type of abrasive.
(iii) It has the capability to withstand very high vibrational and impact forces
encountered in the USM process.
(iv) Close tolerance and proper surface finish can be achieved with boron
carbide.
The liquid used in the slurry can be water, benzene, glycerol oil, etc. Of these, water is
found to give the best results due to its lower viscosity. Experimental studies have
shown that the material removal rate decreases with increase of viscosity ifig.2.4)

Chemical additives may be used with water to help the cutting process by chemical
action on the work piece, but these additives may corrode the tool. Plain water is
therefore preferable.

Fig. 2.5 shows the effect of percentage of abrasive on material removal rate (MRR).

Fig. 2.4: EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE (MRR)

Fig. 2.5: EFFECT OF PERCENTAGE OF ABRASIVE ON MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

TOOL DESIGN
An important advantage of ultrasonic processes is the simplicity of the tools required
to shape complex cavities. In designing the tool, it must be taken into consideration
that the tool is subject to ultrasonic vibrations causing stresses to develop in the
system. The maximum stress developed in the tool should be equal to or slightly less
than the endurance limit.

Considering the factors of design, steel is generally chosen to be the tool material.
Brittle or hard materials such as carbides and hardened tool steels cannot be used for
satisfactory performance. Ductile materials like copper, brass and aluminum result in
unsatisfactory performance because they wear quickly. Another consideration in the
design of tool for USM is the contact area of the tool. A tool with a small contact area
will remove greater material rapidly than a solid one.

The third consideration in USM tool design is the length of the tool. Generally, the
maximum length ranges from 38 to 150 mm.

The amplitude of the stroke of the tool effects the material removal rate. A stroke of
0.05 mm provides more driving force and cuts at a faster rate than a stroke of 0.0127
mm. Stroke amplitude depends on the type of job required.

TOOL FEEDING MECHANISM

Feeding of the tool is provided for applying a working force between the tool and the
work piece and for sustaining this force during cutting operation. Gravity feeding
mechanism is generally preferred because it is simple. In this case, the driving force is
the difference between the weight of the transducer head and that of the counter-
weight as shown in Fig.2.6.

Fig. 2.6: GRAVITY FEED MECHANISM

The spring load system of feeding as shown in Fig. 2.7 can also be used because it is
sensitive and compact.

Ball bearings are often used in the guides for reducing friction. Pneumatic or hydraulic
system of feeding does not produce satisfactory performance since a very small feed
rate is desirable in USM.
 Fig. 2-7: SPRING LOADED SYSTEM OF FEEDING

The feeding mechanism should be designed to enable;

(i) Slow movement of the tool to prevent jerking or breaking of the tool,
(ii) Cutting force to act in the normal as well as rotational directions, and
(iii) The tool to come to its initial position after finishing operation.

TRANSDUCER
The main element of an ultrasonic machine is the transducer which is used for
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of high frequency
vibration. Usually magnetostrictive and piezo-electric transducer are chosen for
smooth performance at full power for long periods.

Magnetostriction means a change in the dimensions occurring in ferro-magnetic

materials subject to an alternating magnetic field. When the transducer is magnetized,
a change in length occurs. The connecting body attached to the transducer receives
and transmits this change in length and it is further amplified by a horn (usually
stepped or exponential in shape as in fig. 2.3).

A typical magnetostrictive transducer as shown in Fig. 2.3. has three main

components.
(a) Stack
(b) Connecting body
(c) Horn (or a velocity transformer)
The piezo-electric crystal transducer is made either from ceramics or natural crystals
like quartz. These are mainly used for low power consumption such as non-destructive
testing and ultrasonic cleaning operations.
Magnetostrictive transducers are generally used for the machining of materials and are
made of either solid or laminated metostrictive materials.

Transducer is built with laminated sheets in preference to a solid body construction

since the eddy current loss will be reduced to a large extent by using laminated
construction.

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF USM

Applications
1. For machining of hard and brittle materials like ceramics, glass, tungsten
carbides, etc.
2. For machining of circular and non-circular holes with straight or curved axes.
3. Threading of hard materials through proper tool and work piece motion.
4. For drilling of non-circular holes in hard metals.
5. The process is successfully used to machine silicon, germanium: quartz, tool
steel, synthetic ruby, etc.
Advantage
1. It can machine nonconductive materials.
2. No heat is generated in the work and hence no changes are caused in the
physical structure of work materials.
3. It is used to machine all brittle materials.
4. It is a burr less and distortion less process.

Limitations (Disadvantages)
1. Low machining rates when compared to conventional machining methods.
2. It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.
3. It is difficult to design the correct size and shape of the tool to get exact
dimensions on the job. This is due to the reason that there is always cutting on
the sides and the produced hole is always larger in size than the tool.
4. The tool wear is quite high due to abrasive particles. The tools made from
brass, tungsten carbide, mild steel or tool steel will wear from the action of the
abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1 (tool wear to work
piece) depending on the materials involved.
5. USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more than 45RC.
 ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
PROCESS PRINCIPLES
Ultrasonic welding (USW) is a solid-state welding process used for rapidly joining a
wide range of similar and dissimilar combinations of metals in very short cycle time
and without melting the materials being joined.

Ultrasonic welding is very much used in the automotive, aerospace, and electronics
industries as an alternative to adhesive bonding, resistance welding, soldering, and
mechanical fastening.

Ultrasonic welding, which has been successfully used in production since the mid-
1960s, uses the energy of high-frequency mechanical vibrations to join materials. This
is performed by the local application of mechanical energy in a direction parallel to
the weld interface. The process is performed under the application of clamping force
which holds the surfaces to be welded together.

Fig.2.8 shows how an ultrasonic weld is formed. First, a power supply converts low-
frequency electrical energy into high-frequency electrical pulses. These are then
converted to mechanical vibrations by means of a transducer.
 Fig. 2.8: DIAGRAM OF U LTRASONIC WELDING PROCESS
(Wedge-reed System)

A coupling system transmits and applies the high-frequency mechanical vibrations to

the weld interface under a clamping force.

The clamping force produces a uniform, symmetrical stress that passes into the
material from the clamping point. As the lateral welding force is applied, the stress
distribution in the material shifts to one side of the clamp point. This represents one-
half of a vibration cycle. During the second half of the vibration cycle, the lateral
force reverses direction and the stress distribution within the work piece shifts to the
opposite side of the clamping point. This rapid change in subsurface stresses occurs
tens-of-thousands of times per second and results in the dispersion of surface oxides
and films, the smoothing of surface irregularities through plastic deformation, and
ultimately, inter atomic bonding through atomic diffusion.

Because there is no melting at the weld interface, metals may be joined without the
use of fluxes or shielding gases and without the formation of undesirable porosity or
gas absorption.
EQUIPMENT
The function of an ultrasonic welding machine is to generate and deliver high
frequency mechanical motion to a clamped work piece. This is accomplished through
the four subsystems of an USW machine. These are the power supply, the transducer,
the coupling system, and the clamping system.

Power supply
The USW power supply converts 50 or 60 Hz electrical signal to a much higher-
frequency signal. This is accomplished through the use of a frequency generator and
amplifier. The frequency generators used are capable of operating at frequencies from
10 to 75 kHz. Typically, the higher frequencies are used for the lower-power, light-
duty jobs.

The second stage of the power supply amplifies this high frequency signal to a usable
level for the particular job. This may range from only a few watts for light-duty jobs,
such as wire welding, to power levels as high as 16,000 W for sheet and plate
welding.

Transducer
The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy from the power
supply into the mechanical energy that will perform the welding. Two types of
transducers are used for USW, depending upon the application. One is a
magnetostrictive transducer and the other is a piezoelectric transducer.

Magnetostrictive transducers are constructed from a laminated stack of nickel sheets.

A heavy-gauge wire is then wrapped around the stack to form an electro-magnet.
Every time a pulse of current is passed through the wire, a magnetic response is
induced within the stack. This results in a temporary change of about 0.005 mm in the
overall length of the stack.

The magnetostrictive transducer is generally used for applications that require higher
powers.

The second type of transducer is the piezoelectric device which is constructed from a
stack of ceramic discs such as lead zirconate titanate. Piezoelectric transducers
respond directly to an electrical signal that is, the stack changes length slightly as
current is passed directly to it.

Piezoelectric transducers can be used for moderate power applications. However

because the ceramic material is brittle, it is more fragile than the magnetostrictive
transducer. Both type of transducers requires either air or water cooling to remove
waste heat generated from their oscillations.

Coupling System
It is the function of the coupling system to mechanically transmit the high-frequency
vibrations from the transducer to the work piece. There are two methods for
transmitting energy to the weld: the wedge-reed system (fig. 2.8) and the lateral drive
system (fig. 2.9).

The wedge-reed system, which is applicable only to spot welding consists of a

transducer that drives a wedge-shaped coupler attached to a vertical reed, as shown in
fig.2.8. When the transducer vibrates the reed nodes and antinode are produced
vertically along the length of the reed. The length of the reed is selected so that at a
particular operating frequency, a node will occur at the welding tip. If application
requires very high power, several transducers can be linked to the reed at the proper
nodal points.

The reed and coupler must be made of a material that has good fatigue resistance.
Usually, the materials used are titanium, monel, or stainless steel.

The tip provides one component of the clamping force; the other is provided by the
anvil. The function of the anvil is to hold the bottom portion of the workpiece
stationary against the lateral force of the vibrations. The shape of the anvil is not
important, it must simply be rigid. If the bottom material being welded is part of large,
rigid structure, then no anvil is necessary.

The second method for transmitting the welding energy to the workpiece is the lateral-
drive system. This system consists of a horizontally mounted transducer attached to a
coupling horn and tip, as shown in fig.2.9. This system produces a tip motion that is
parallel to the weld interface. The clamping force is generated from the pivoting
motion of the ultrasonic assembly. This system can be used for either low-power spot
welding or continuous seam welding.

In the lateral-drive system, energy from the transducer first travels through a tapered
coupling or horn. The horn is designed with a decreasing cross-sectional area, which
results in an increased amplitude at its output end. The horn acts as a mechanical step-
up transformer with respect to welding tip motion.

Energy from the horn is coupled into the welding tip, which is usually made of
materials such as tool steel or nickel alloys. When performing spot welds, the tip and
anvil are similar to those used in the wedge-reed system. The welding tips are
usually contoured to a radius 50 - 100 times the thickness of the material being
welded. If wires are being welded, the tip is grooved to provide more uniform contact
with the wire.
 Fig. 2.9: LATERAL DRIVE ULTRASONIC WELDING SYSTEM

Welding tips wear out and are considered as consumable. They can last for upto
100,000 spot welds before redressing of the tip surface is required. The softer the
material that is being welded, the longer the tips will last.

The lateral-drive system is not only capable of performing spot welds, but with proper
welding tip, it can produce high-speed continuous lap seam welds. This is possible by
using a rotating roller tip. The edge of the roller is curved with a radius of 25.4 - 152.4
mm. Depending upon whether the tip or the workpiece is moving, the anvil will have
different requirements. If the workpiece is moving and the roller tip is stationary, the
anvil will also have to be constructed as a roller. As in the case of spot welding, if the
workpiece is sufficiently rigid, the anvil is not required.

Because of the low clamping force and high mechanical amplitude in the lateral-drive
systems, this method is most often limited to low-thickness applications.

Clamping System
Clamping systems provide the force being applied through either the welding tip or
the workpiece itself, as well as providing the static force necessary to hold the
workpieces together during the weld cycle. The amount of clamping force required for
a particular job increases (along with power) when welding softer materials or as the
weld contact area increases. Simple spring systems are used for clamping where
power is low. Pneumatic systems are used for medium power, and hydraulic systems
are used for the highest powers.

PROCESS PARAMETERS
The process parameters in USW are the power, clamping force, welding time, and
frequency.

Power
The amount of power required for an ultrasonic spot weld can range from a few watts
for wire welding, to as much as 16,000 W for heavy section welding. Seam welds are
performed with power levels that ranges from 100 to 500 W. Generally, as power is
increased, welding thickness ability is also increased, and cycle time is decreased.
An accurate way to measure the amount of power used in the formation of a weld is to
calculate the welding energy, in joules. The operating power level of the ultrasonic
welding machine measured in watts, multiplied by the time duration of the applied
power, will determine the welding energy in joules.

Clamping Force
The amount of clamping force used for welds can vary from less than 100 grams to
thousands of kilograms. Generally, clamping forces must be increased as the contact
area of the weld zone increases. For example, lighter forces would be used for wire-
welding applications and larger forces would be used for plate welding. Insufficient
force can result in tip sticking; too much force increases power requirements.

MACHINE POWER (W) CLAMPING FORCE (N)

20 0.04 – 1.8
300 22 – 81
1200 270 – 2720
8000 3630 - 18140

Welding Time
Ultrasonic spot welding is usually performed in welding cycles of 0.05 - 1 sec. More
welding times indicate that not enough power is being used. Insufficient power, and
longer cycles, will increases the possibility of tip sticking and increase heating of the
work piece. Therefore it is desirable to use the highest possible power levels to
minimize the welding cycle time.

The parameter of time is controlled by traverse rate in ultrasonic seam welding. The
traverse rate determines the amount of energy delivered per unit length of weld and
thus determines the weld penetration. Aluminum foil 0.025 mm thick can be welded at
a rate of 4.5 m/ min and 0.152 mm thick aluminum at 0.46 m/min.

Frequency
The last process parameter, frequency, is typically adjusted to match the natural
resonance frequency of the coupling system and is then maintained constant to within
1.2% of its preset value by a closed-loop control system. A high operating frequency
results in a lower amplitude and a corresponding decrease in process efficiency.

PROCESS CAPABILITIES
Because of the non thermal nature of the ultrasonic welding process, a wide range of
metals and metal combinations can be successfully welded.

Some of the materials welded by USW are aluminum, copper, gold, silver, platinum,
their alloys, and steels. Refractory and some high- strength metals such as
molybdenum, tungsten, zirconium, tantalum, columbium, titanium, and nickel are
difficult to weld, however thin foils can be welded easily.
Multiple layers of foil can be spot or seam welded together depending upon the
thickness of the layers to be welded and the power of the machine. As many as 20
layers of foil may be successfully welded in production applications.

Aluminum sheet can be welded in thickness up to 2.54 mm and refractories are

limited to maximum of sheet metal that can be welded is 0.005 mm. Wires from 0.025
to 0.76 mm in diameter can also be welded.

When producing multiple spot welds on a single work piece, possibility of fracturing
the previously made welds exists if the work piece is in resonance with the operating
frequency of the machine. All work pieces have natural resonant frequencies, and
these frequencies are mostly different from those of the operating system. If by chance
resonance problems occur, they can be eliminated by modifying the work piece
dimensions, changing the clamping location or method, or adding temporary weights
to various locations on the work piece.

The surface of an ultrasonically welded part has a rough surface at the points where
the welding tip and anvil contact the part

Ultrasonic welding provides cost and quality advantages because of simplified

surface preparation requirements, lower energy consumption, and the ability to
successfully weld work pieces that are very different in composition, properties, or
thickness.

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OP USW

Applications
The most common applications for USW is in the electronic, electrical, and defense
industries. Applications vary from welding wires and containers for microcircuits to
attaching wire and contacts to motors and switches.

In some applications, USW is selected to improve product quality through the

elimination of solder joints. For example, when soldering is used to join copper wires
to commutators in automotive starter motors, there is a danger that the heat generated
from the operation of the motor will soften the solder and result in a poor connection.
The use of ultrasonic welding provides a stronger connection that is unaffected by
high-temperature environments.

Because of the low thermal input of USW, temperature sensitive devices such as fuses
and detonators are often welded ultrasonically.

Continuous seam welding is used in most aluminum foil manufacturing industry.

Other USW applications include the welding of aluminum and copper tubes to solar
hot-water collector plates and sealing the ends of consumer product squeeze tubes,
such as toothpaste and cream tubes.
Advantages
1. No flux or filler material is required.
2. Welds dissimilar metals.
3. No appreciable heating.
4. Applicable to automation.
5. Welds high-thermal conductive materials.

Limitations (Disadvantages)
1. Limited in thickness.
2. Limited to lap joints.
3. Tip sticking may occur in some applications.
4. Possibility of part damage because of resonance.