1.

Measurements
PHYSICS
Physics is a collection of Laws and Principles which govern the behavior of nature.

Physical Quantity
A physical quantity consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

Example- length of a book= 0.16 m

Mass of a boy= 52 kg

The Six common Basic Physical Quantities

Base quantity Symbols SI unit Symbols for SI unit
Length L meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Temperature T kelvin K
Electric current I ampere A
Amount of substance n mole mol
The common Prefix and their symbols
Factor Prefix Symbols

109 giga G

106 mega M

103 kilo k

10-2 centi c

10-3 milli m

10-6 micro µ

10-9 nano n

NOTES - 1m=100cm=102cm
1m2= 1m x 1m

=100cm x 100cm

= 10000cm2

=104cm2

Scientific notation ( Standard Form)

The way of writing numbers using power of ten is called scientific notation or
standard Form.

Number = N x 10n

Example: (i) 4100 = 4.1 x 103 , (ii) 0.004 = 4 x10-3

Questions
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct symbols.

(a) 8x103g =

(b) 2 x 10-6s=

(c) 10-3A =

(d) 3 x10 -2m=

(e) 5 X 106W =

2. Fill in the blanks with the correct factors.

(a) 3km=

(b) 5MJ=

(c) 8ns=

(d) 6µC=

(e) 10 GHz

3. Which one of the following is an SI base unit?

A. newton

B. ampere

C. joule

D. watt
4. Which of the following is greater?

150µm and 0.0015cm

Significant figures
The significant figures of a measurement indicate the number of separate digits
expressed when stating it.

NOTES –
(1) To find the number of significant figures, the total number of digits can be
counted from left to right, starting from the first non-zero digit. If a number is
expressed in standard form, the number of significant figures the number of digits
before the power of ten.

(2) In deciding the least significant figure, the next figure must be checked. If it is
less than 5 , the least figure can leave as it is. If it equals 5 or is greater than 5,
the least figure must be increased by 1.

Examples- 38250= 38000 ( 2 sig fig)= 3.8 x 104

=38300( 3 sig fig)= 3.83 x 10 4

Length
The SI unit of length is the meter (m).

The table shows some common instruments used to measure length

Instrument Precision Range Examples of usage
Meter rule 0.1cm or 1mm Several centimeters Length of a pencil
to one meter
Measuring 0.1cm or 1mm Several meters Size of a person
tape waist
Vernier 0.01cm or 0.1mm Between 1cm and Diameter of
calipers 10cm a test tube
Micrometer 0.001cm or 0.01mm Less than 1cm Diameter of a wire
Screw gauge

Area
Area of a square or rectangle= length x breadth

Area of a triangle = 1/2 x base x height

Area of a circle = πr2

Volume
Volume of rectangle = length x breadth x height

Volume of sphere = 4/3 πr3

Volume of cylinder = πr2h

Notes – Liquid volumes are expressed in litre (l).

1 litre = 1000cm3

1 millilitre= 1 cm3
Mass
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

There are several kinds of balance to measure the mass.

(1) Beam balance

(2) Lever balance
(3) Digital balance

Time
The SI unit of time is second (s).

Time- measuring devices are stopwatch, clock and pendulum clock.

Types of Physical quantities

There are two types of physical quantities.

They are (i) scalar quantity

(ii) vector quantity

(i) Scalar quantity

A quantity which has only magnitude is called a scalar quantity.

Examples- length, mass, time

(ii) Vector quantity

A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity.

Examples- force, velocity, acceleration

2 Speed, velocity and acceleration
Distance travelled (d)

Distance is the total length covered between two points.

Notes-

(1) It is a scalar quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is meter (m).

Displacement (s)

Displacement is defined as the distance travelled along a particular direction.

Notes-

(1) It is a vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is meter (m).

Speed (v)

Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance travelled.

In symbols,

v= d/t

Where, v= speed

d= distance travelled

t= time taken

Notes-

(1) It is a scalar quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s or ms-1).

Velocity (v)

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.

In symbols,

v= s/t

Where, v= velocity

s= displacement

t= time taken

Notes-

(1) It is a vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s or ms-1).

(3) If the object is moving in one direction along a straight path, there is no
difference between distance and displacement (and thus between speed and
velocity).

Average Speed

Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance travelled to the total
time taken.

Average speed= total distance travelled/ total time taken

Average speed= (initial speed+ final speed)/2

-Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s or ms-1).

Acceleration (a)

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

In symbols,

a= (v-u)/t

Where, a= acceleration

v= final velocity

u= initial velocity

t= time taken

Notes-(1) It is a vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is meter per second squared (m/s2 or ms-2).

(3) Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases and negative if

it decreases.A negative acceleration is called a deceleration

or retardation.
3 Graphs of equations
Distance –Time Graphs

(1) When an object is at rest,

d(m)

t(s)

(2) When an object is moving at a constant velocity,

d(m)

t(s)
(3) When an object is moving with increasing velocity,

d(m)

t(s)

(4) When an object is moving with decreasing velocity,

d(m)

t(s)
(5) When an object is moving with constant and lower velocity,

d(m)

t(s)

(6) When an object is moving opposity of initial motion,

d(m)

t(s)

Notes- The gradient (slope) of the distance-time graphs gives the velocity of the

moving object.
Velocity –Time Graphs

(1) When an object is at rest,

v(m/s)

t(s)

(2) When an object is moving at a constant velocity,

v(m/s)

t(s)
(3)When an object is moving with constant (uniform) acceleration,

v(ms-1)

t(s)

(4)When an object is moving with constant (uniform) deceleration,

v(m/s)

t(s)
(5)When an object is moving with non-uniform acceleration (increasing
acceleration),

v(m/s)

t(s)

(6)When an object is moving with non-uniform acceleration (decreasing

acceleration),

v(m/s)

t(s)
Notes- (1) The gradient (slope) of the velocity-time graphs gives the acceleration
of the moving object.

(2) The area under the velocity-time graph gives the distance travelled .

Equations for uniform acceleration

(1) v= u+at
(2) s= (u+v)t/2
(3) s= ut+1/2 at2
(4) v2= u2+2as

where,

a= acceleration

v= final velocity

u= initial velocity

t= time taken

s= distance
4. Falling bodies
Free Fall
An object is in free fall if the only force acting on it is the weight or the force due
to gravity. So, a falling object can only be in free fall if there is no air resistance.

-The acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall. It is the same for all
objects falling near the earth’s surface, light and heavy alike.

- The acceleration of free fall is denoted by the symbol g and is about 10m/s2
(9.8m/s2).

- It is given a positive sign for falling bodies (a=g= +10m/s2) and a negative sign for
rising bodies (a=-g=-10m/s2).

Up and down
In vertical motion, there are two directions, namely, upward and downward.

v=0m/s u=0m/s

g= -10m/s2 g= +10m/s2

u=3m/s v=3m/s

Projectile
Motion in two dimensions (in both x and y) is called a projectile motion.

-The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are independent and can be
treated separately.

- The horizontal distance (range) they travel depends on,

(i) the speed of projection – the greater this is, the greater the range

(ii) the angle of projection – it can be shown that, neglecting air resistance, the
range is a maximum when the angle is 45º.

Questions
1 A stone falls from rest from the top of a high tower.

Ignore air resistance and take g = 10 m/s2.

a What is its velocity after (i) 1 s, (ii) 2 s, (iii) 3 s, (iv) 5 s?

b How far has it fallen after (i) 1 s, (ii) 2 s, (iii) 3 s, (iv) 5 s?

2 An object falls from a hovering helicopter and hits the ground at a speed of 30
m/s. How long does it take the object to reach the ground and how far does it
fall? Sketch a velocity–time graph for the object (ignore air resistance)

5. Density
Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.

In symbols,

ρ= m/V

where, ρ= density

m= mass

V= volume

Notes- (1) Density is a scalar quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is kilogram per cubic meter ( kgm-3).

(3) The density of water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.

(4) To convert a density from g/cm3 to kg/m3 , multiply by 103.

(5) Objects with the same volume but having different masses.

A denser object is one that has the same volume but greater mass.

(6)An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats because its average
density is less than that of water.

Average density= total mass/ total volume

Floating and sinking

An object with density less than the density of liquid will float on the surface of
liquid.

An object with density more than the density of liquid will sink to the bottom.

6. Weight and Stretching

Force
A force is a push or pull, exerted by object on another.

Notes-(1) Force is vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is newton (N).

(3) The force can

(i) cause the body at rest to move

(ii) change the speed of motion of the body

(iii) change the direction of motion of the body

(iv) change the size or shape of the body

Weight
The weight of the body is the force of gravity on it.

w=mg
where, w= weight

m= mass

g= acceleration due to gravity

Notes-(1) Weight is vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is newton (N).

(3) The weight is a type of force.

(4) It can be measured by spring balance (newton-meter).

Differences between Mass and Weight

 Mass Weight
It is the amount of matter in it. It is the pull of gravity on it.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
It is constant . It can change.
Its SI unit is kilogram (kg). Its SI unit is newton (N).
It is measured with a balance. It is measured with a spring balance
(newton-meter).

Elasticity
The elasticity of a body is the ability of a body to retain its original size and shape
when the forces that deformed it are removed.

Elastic Limit
Elastic limit of a body is the smallest load (force) that will produce a permanent
distortion in the body.

Hooke’s Law
If, beneath the elastic limit, the extension is proportional to the applied force.

Fα x

F=kx
where, F= the applied force

x= extension

k= force constant

7. Adding Forces
Forces and resultants
-Force has both magnitude (size) and direction.

-It is represented in diagrams by a straight line with an arrow to show its

direction of action.

-If the forces act in the same straight line, the resultant is found by simple
addition or subtraction.

-If two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of
a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in size and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.

(a)

2N 3N = 5N

(b)

2N 3N = 1N

(c)

Q P

Friction
Friction is the force that tries to prevent motion between two surfaces in contact.

-Friction is independent of the contact surface area.

It is (i) depend on the type of materials in the contact

(ii) depend on the nature (smoothness) of the surfaces in contact

(iii) proportional to the force pressing the surfaces together

-Some ways to reduce friction are;

(i) use highly polished surfaces for moving parts

(ii) use ball bearings and rollers between the moving parts

(iii) use lubricating oils

(iv) use air cushion to separate the surfaces

Effects of friction
Useful effects Harmful effects
It enables animals to walk or crawl It causes energy lost and reduces the
without slipping efficiency of machines
It prevents objects from sliding down a It produces heat by using mechanical
slope energy
It stops moving objects (cars, trains, It can damage the surfaces which are
bicycles, etc..) rubbing against each other.

Stopping distance
The car’s stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and the braking
distance.

Thinking distance
The thinking distance is how far the car travels before brakes are applied, while
the driver is still reacting.

- depend on driver’s conditions (tiredness, use of alcohol or drugs, eyesight, …)

Braking distance
The braking distance is how far the cars travels after the brakes have been
applied.

- depend on road and car conditions (road is wet or icy, car’s load, car’s tyres,…)

(m/s)

thinking

distance braking

distance

t(s)

reaction time
8.Force and acceleration
Newton’s first law of motion
A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity,
unless an external force makes it behave differently.

Fnet=0

Notes-(1) Newton’s first law indicated the idea of inertia.

(2) The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and its resistance

to stop once it has begun moving.

(3) The larger the mass of a body, the greater is its inertia (the mass of a

body measures its inertia).

Newton’s second law of motion

The resultant force acting upon an object is equal to the product of the mass and
the acceleration of the object.

In symbols,

F= ma

Where, F= the net force

m= mass

a= acceleration

Notes- Newton’s second law is designated as the Law of force and acceleration.
Newton’s third law of motion
If a body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite
force on body A.

In symbols,

F12 = - F21

Where, F12= action

F21=reaction

-Based on Newton’s third law, the action-reaction pair should be;

(1) acting on different bodies

(2) equal but oppositely directed
(3) collinear (lie on the same straight line).

Air resistance
Air resistance is a force that opposes the motion of a body as it tries to push air
particles out of the way.

-Air resistance is a frictional force that;

(i) increase with the surface area (size) of the object

(ii) increase with speed of the object

(iii) increase with the density of air

Terminal velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum uniform velocity that a falling body can have
when the air resistance force on the body just balances the weight of the body.

- Terminal velocity depends on air conditions, as well as the size, shape and
weight of the body.

(m/s)

Terminal velocity

t(s)

In terms of F=ma, acceleration depends of Force and mass ,

a = F/m

So a big heavy engine which can provide a large driving force, might also have a
large mass, which would lmit the acceleration. The smaller lighter engine,
although it can't provide the same force, doesn't have the mass either so can still
produce a reasonable acceleration. It's the ratio between the force and mass you
need to think about for acceleration.

Source https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/f-ma-of-a-race-car.139820/
9.Circular motion
Uniform circular motion
Uniform circular motion is defined as the motion in a circle at constant speed.

Centripetal acceleration
A particle undergoing uniform circular motion has an acceleration directed
towards the center due to change in the direction of the linear velocity. It is called
the centripetal acceleration.

ac=v2/r

Centripetal force
A force that acts towards the center and keeps a body moving in a circular path is
called the centripetal force.

Fc=m × ac= m v2/r

Where, Fc= centripetal force

m= mass

ac= centripetal acceleration

v= velocity

r= radius of circular path

A larger force is needed if:

(i) the speed of the ball is increased,

(ii) the radius of the circle is decreased,
(iii) the mass of the ball is increased
Centrifugal Force (Fg)
The reaction force to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force.

- The magnitude of the centrifugal force is the same as that of centripetal force
but its direction is opposite to that of the centripetal force (radially outwards).

Newton’s law of gravity

Everybody attracts every other body in the universe. The gravitational force
between the two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F∝ m1M2/r2

F= G m1M2/r2

Where, F= the gravitational force

G= gravitational force constant

m1M2= masses of the bodies

r= distance of the bodies

The orbital period T,

T =2πr/ v

The orbital velocity,

v=2πr/ T
10.Moments and levers
Moment of a force
-The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.

-It is product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of
the force from the pivot.

moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance of the line of action of the

force from pivot

τ =F x d
- The SI unit is the newton metre (N m).

-Moments are described as clockwise or anticlockwise, depending on their

direction.

-The moment of a force is also called a torque.

- If the line of action of a force passes through the pivot, there is no turning effect
produced. This is because there is no distance between the force and the pivot.

Law of moments
When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

There is no net moment on a body which is in equilibrium.

In equilibrium,

total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment

Conditions for equilibrium
(i) The sum of the forces in one direction equals the sum of the forces in the
opposite direction.

(ii) The law of moments must apply

-A body is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no resultant

turning effect acting on it.

d1 d2

F1

F2

Lever
A lever is any device which can turn about a pivot.

- In a working lever a force called the effort is used to overcome a resisting force
called the load.

-The pivotal point is called the fulcrum.

11. Center of mass
Center of mass or Centre of gravity
A body behaves as if its whole mass were concentrated at one point, called its
center of mass or center of gravity, even though the Earth attracts every part of
it.

-The body’s weight can be considered to act at this point.

-The center of mass of a regularly shaped body that has the same density
throughout is at its center.

Stability
Stability is the ability of a body to regain its original position, after it has been
slightly displaced.

To improve the stability of a body;

(i) lowering its center of mass, and

(ii) increasing the area of its base.

*Three terms are used in connection with stability;

(a)Stable equilibrium- A body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly

displaced and then released it returns to its

previous position.

(b) Unstable equilibrium-A body is in unstable equilibrium if it moves further

away from its previous position when slightly

displaced and released.

(c) Neutral equilibrium-A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its

new position when displaced.

 12. Momentum
Momentum
Momentum is defined as the mass of the body multiplied by its velocity.

momentum = mass × velocity

p=mv

Notes-(1) Momentum is a vector quantity.

(2) Its SI unit is kilogram meter per second (kg m/s) or

newton second (Ns).

Force and momentum

F=ma

F= m x (v-u/t)

F= mv-mu/t

F= ∆mv/t

F= change in momentum/t = rate of change of momentum

Ft= ∆mv

Impulse = change in momentum

Ft is called the impulse.

Type of collisions
There are two types of collisions.

They are (i) elastic collision and (ii) inelastic collision.

Elastic collision

In a perfectly elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic collision

In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved.

Principle of conservation of momentum

When two or more bodies act on one another, as in a collision, the total
momentum of the bodies remains constant, provided no external forces act (e.g.
friction).

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Conservation of momentum in elastic collision

v1 v2 v1’ v2’

Before collision After collision

m1v1+m2v2 = m1v1’+m2v2’
Conservation of momentum in inelastic collision

v1 v2 v

Before collision After collision

m1v1+m2v2 = (m1+m2) v
13.Energy transfer
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.

Notes-The unit of energy is the joule (J).

Forms of energy

(a)Chemical energy

(b) Potential energy (p.e.)

(c) Kinetic energy (k.e.)

(d) Electrical energy

(e) Heat energy

(f) Light energy

(g) Sound energy

(h) Nuclear energy

Principle of conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is always conserved.

Work
Work is done when a force moves.

work = force × distance moved in direction of force

W=F x d

Notes-(1) The unit of work is the joule (J).

(2)The work done is a measure of the amount of energy transferred.

Power
Power is defined as the rate at which it transfers energy from one form to
another.
work done energy transfer
Power= timetaken = time taken

W E
P= t = t

Notes-(1) The unit of power is the watt (W).

(2) Larger units are the kilowatt (kW) and the megawatt (MW).

1kW= 103W= 1000W

1MW= 106W=1000000W

Efficiency
The efficiency of a device is the percentage of the energy supplied to it that is
usefully transferred.
useful energy output
Efficiency = total energy input x 100%

Energy of food
The energy value of a food substance is the amount of energy released when 1 kg
is completely oxidised.

Notes-(1) Energy value is measured in J/kg.

(2) The average adult requires about 10 MJ per day.

14. Kinetic and potential energy
Kinetic energy (k.e.)
Kinetic energy is the energy a body has because of its motion.
1
kinetic energy = Ek = 2 mv 2

Potential energy (p.e.)

Potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position or condition.

potential energy = Ep = mgh

Conservation of energy
A mass m at height h above the ground has potential energy = mgh,

its kinetic energy on reaching the ground equals the potential energy lost.
1 2
mv = mgh
2

gain of k.e = loss of p.e

Type of collisions
There are two types of collisions.

They are (i) elastic collision and (ii) inelastic collision.

Elastic collision

In a perfectly elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic collision

In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved.

Stopping distance
The car’s stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and the braking
distance.

Thinking distance
The thinking distance is how far the car travels before brakes are applied, while
the driver is still reacting.

- depend on driver’s conditions (tiredness, use of alcohol or drugs, eyesight, …)

Braking distance
The braking distance is how far the cars travels after the brakes have been
applied.

- depend on road and car conditions (road is wet or icy, car’s load, car’s tyres,…)

V
(m/s)

reaction time

thinking

distance braking

distance

t(s)

Stopping distance

Secondary safety devices in cars

(1)Crumple zones (2) Extensible seat belts (3) Air bags (4) Head restraints
15. Energy sources
The raw materials for energy production are energy sources.
Apart from nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric or tidal energy, the Sun is the
source for all our energy resources.

Non-renewable energy sources

Once used up these cannot be replaced.

(a) Fossil fuels

(i) Oil

(ii) Coal

(iii) Natural gas

-Burning fossil fuels in power stations and in cars pollutes the atmosphere with
harmful gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

-Carbon dioxide emission aggravates the greenhouse effect and increases global
warming.

-When coal and oil are burnt they also produce sulfur dioxide which causes acid
rain.

(b) Nuclear fuels-The energy released in a nuclear reactor from uranium, found as
an ore in the ground, can be used to produce electricity.

- Nuclear fuels do not pollute the atmosphere with carbon dioxide or sulfur
dioxide but they do generate radioactive waste materials with very long half-lives.

-Two advantages of all non-renewable fuels are

(i) their high energy density

(ii) their ready availability

Renewable energy sources
A renewable energy source is one that will not run out.

These cannot be exhausted and are generally non-polluting.

(a) Solar energy

(Solar cells are relatively expensive and cannot be heated at night)

(b) Wind energy

(Wind turbines can be noisy, scenic pollution and kill birds)

(c) Wave energy

(The large area of sea needs to be used in location that frequently has large
waves)

(d) Tidal and hydroelectric energy

(They may destroy wildlife habitats and can cause flooding.)

(e) Geothermal energy

(It does not depend upon the Sun and is available continuously.)

(f) Biomass (vegetable fuels)

Biomass refers to chemical energy stored in plant and vegetable matter.

These include cultivated crops, crop residues, natural vegetation, trees grown for
their wood, animal dung and sewage.
Power stations
(a) Non-renewable sources

(b) Renewable sources

16 Pressure and liquid pressure
Pressure
Pressure is the force (or thrust) acting on unit area.

In symbols,
force F
Pressure= area = A

Notes- (1)The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).

(2) Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Atmospheric Pressure(1 atm)

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on all living and non- living things on
Earth is called atmospheric pressure.

Standard atmosphere
The standard atmosphere is the mean atmospheric pressure at sea level on the
surface of the Earth.

1atm = 1.013 x 105Pa

1atm= 760mmHg

Notes-
(1) Atmospheric pressure can vary according to locality and time.

(2) At high altitudes where the air pressure is lower, breathing is difficult and nose
bleeding may occur.
Pressure in a Liquid

PPP h

A
F w mg ρV g ρ Ah g
P= A = A = A = A = A
= ρhg

P = ρgh

Liquid pressure
(1)Pressure in a liquid increases with depth.

(2) Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.

(3) Pressure does not depend upon the shape or base area of container.

(4) Pressure depends on the density of the liquid.

(5) Pressure can be transmitted throughout the liquid.

Hydraulic machines
Liquids are almost incompressible (i.e. their volume cannot be reduced by
squeezing) and they ‘pass on’ any pressure applied to them. Use is made of these
facts in hydraulic machines.

(1)Hydraulic jack

(2)Hydraulic brake

(3)Hydraulic lift

(4)Hydraulic press

In hydraulic machines,

Pin=Pout
Fin Fout
Ain = Aout

Pressure gauges
(a) Bourdon gauge- Bourdon gauge is a device, use to measure pressure.

(b) U-tube manometer- A manometer is a device use, to measure fluid pressure.

(c) Mercury barometer-A barometer is a device use to measures

atmospheric pressure.
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
All matter are made up of particles that are continuously moving.

The main states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.

Kinetic theory of matter

The kinetic theory can explain the existence of the solid, liquid and gaseous
states.

Solid

The particles (molecules) in a solid

• are tightly packed

• are held in a fixed pattern or crystal structure by strong forces between them

• vibrate around their fixed positions in the structure.

Liquid

The particles (molecules) in a liquid

• are tightly packed (still very close together, like in solids)

• are not held in fixed positions but are still bound together by strong forces
between them

• move at random with no fixed positions.

Gas
The particles (molecules) in a gas

• are very spread out

• have no fixed positions and the forces between them are very weak

• move with a rapid, random motion.

PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES OF MATTER

Crystals
Crystals have hard, flat sides and straight edges. Whatever their size, crystals of
the same substance have the same shape.

Diffusion
Smells, pleasant or otherwise, travel quickly and are caused by rapidly moving
molecules. The spreading of a substance of its own accord is called diffusion and is
due to molecular motion.
MEASURING HEAT ENERGY
Different substances need different amounts of heat energy to cause the same
increase in temperature.

Specific heat capacity (c)

The specific heat capacity c, of a substance as the amount of energy required to
increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of that substance by 1 •c.

The unit of s.h.c. is J/kg •c.

change in thermal energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature

∆Q= m x c x ∆Ɵ

∆Ɵ= change in temperature = T2-T1

Notes- For water, Boiling point- 100•c

Melting point (freezing point)- 0•c

THE GAS LAWS

When the molecules hit the walls of a container they exert a force. The combined
effect of the huge number of collisions results in the pressure that is exerted on
the walls of the container.

Boyle’s law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if its
temperature is kept constant.
1
Pα V

P1V1=P2V2
ABSOLUTE ZERO

At a temperature of - 273 •c, the pressure of the gas would be zero. This
temperature is known as 'absolute zero'.

To convert a temperature

• temperature in K = temperature in •c + 273

• temperature in •c = temperature in K - 273

Pressure law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature if the volume is kept constant.

PαT
P1 P2
T1 = T 2 Note-T must be measured in Kelvin(K).

THERMAL ENERGY
Heat
Heat is a form of energy and measured by joules.

Heat is also called thermal or internal energy.

Thermal energy is transferred from a place that is hotter (that is, at a higher
temperature) to one that is colder (at a lower temperature).

CONDUCTION
Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat) energy through a substance
by the vibration of the atoms within the substance. The substance itself does not
move.

Metals are good thermal conductors. (eg-copper,silver,aluminium,etc….)

Non-metals are good thermal insulators.(eg-air,wood,plastic, rubber,etc….)

CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids {liquids and gases) by the upward
movement of warmer, less dense regions of fluid.

Convection current
The heated water expands and becomes less dense than the colder surrounding
water, so it floats up to the top of the glass beaker. Colder water sinks to take its
place, and is then heated too. At the top, the warm water starts to cool, becomes
more dense again and will begin to sink, so a circulating current is set up in the
water. This is called a convection current .

Natural convection currents

(a) Coastal breezes (sea breeze, land breeze)

(b) Gliding (Gliders, hang-gliders)

RADIATION
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infrared (IR) waves.

-Highly polished, shiny surfaces are good reflectors of thermal radiation.

-White surfaces also reflect a lot of IR.

-Matt (not shiny) black and dark surfaces are poor reflectors or are good
absorbers of heat radiation.

-Heat is travelling in the form of waves, like visible light. Heat waves are called
infrared (IR) waves or IR radiation.

-IR waves are part of the same family of waves as light, radio waves, ultraviolet
and so on, called the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

-IR can travel through a vacuum and does so at the speed of light (3 x 10 8 m/s).

ENERGY-EFFICIENT HOUSES
Most domestic heating systems work by burning fuels like coal, oil and gas - it is
the main producer of carbon dioxide. (Even if electric heaters are used, most
electrical energy is produced by burning fuels in power stations.)

-Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming.

-The key to energy-efficient housing is insulation.

-Houses must be designed to reduce the rate at which energy is transferred

between the inside and the outside.

The greenhouse effect

Infrared waves from the Sun can pass through ordinary greenhouse glass. The IR
waves heat up the ground, which re-radiates the heat. However, the re-radiated
heat is in the form of IR waves with much longer wavelengths. The longer
wavelength IR waves cannot pass through glass, so they are trapped inside the
greenhouse. Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere acts in the same way as the glass
in a greenhouse. It traps the Sun's heat.

Unit 3. WAVES
Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to place.

Longitudinal wave
A longitudinal wave is one in which the vibrations, or oscillations, are along the
direction in which the energy or wave is moving.

Examples of longitudinal waves include sound waves.

Transverse wave
A transverse wave is one that vibrates, or oscillates, at right angles to the
direction in which the energy or wave is moving.

Examples of transverse waves include light waves and waves travelling on the

surface of water.

Amplitude (A)
The maximum movement of particles from their resting or equilibrium position is
called its amplitude (A).

-Amplitude is measured in meter (m).

Wavelength (λ)
The distance between a particular point on a wave and the same point on the
next wave (for example, from crest to crest) is called the wavelength (A).

-Wavelength is measured in meter (m).

Frequency (f)
The number of waves produced each second by a source, or the number passing a
particular point each second, is called the frequency of the wave .
1
frequency, f (Hz)= time period , T (s)

1
f= T

-Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).

Time period
The time it takes for a source to produce one wave is called the time period of the
wave

-Time period is measured in second(s).

It is related to the frequency of a wave by the equation:

1
T= f

THE WAVE EQUATION

There is a relationship between the wavelength (λ), the frequency (f) and the
wave speed (v) that is true for all waves:

wave speed, v (m/s) = frequency, f (Hz) x wavelength(λ),(m)

v= f λ

WHAT is WAVEFRONT?
A wavefront is a line where all the vibrations are in phase and the same distance
from the source.

In two dimensions, a wavefront is a line on which the disturbance has the same
phase at all points; the crests of waves in a ripple tank can be thought of as
wavefronts.

WHAT is RAY?
A line drawn at right angles to a wavefront, which shows its direction of travel, is
called a ray.

REFLECTION
All waves can be reflected.

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

A normal is a line drawn at right angles to a surface.

The angle of incidence is the angle between the direction of the waves as they
approach the barrier and the normal.

The angle of reflection is the angle between the direction of the waves after
striking the barrier and the normal.

REFRACTION
Light waves in water travel more slowly than light waves in air. This change in
speed as they leave the water causes the light waves to change direction. This
change in direction is called refraction.

All waves - light waves, sound waves, water waves - can be refracted.

THE DOPPLER EFFECT

The apparent changes in frequency, which occur when a source of waves is
moving, is called the Doppler effect and is a property of all waves.

Diffraction
The spreading of waves at the edges of obstacles is called diffraction.

Interference
Interference or superposition is the combination of waves to give a larger or a
smaller wave.

11 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) is a continuous spectrum of waves,
which includes the visible spectrum.

All the waves have the following properties:

1 They all transfer energy.

2 They are all transverse waves.

3 They all travel at 300 000 000 m/s, the speed of light in a vacuum (free space).

4 They can all be reflected and refracted.

5. The wave equations can be applied. (v= f λ)

RADIO WAVES
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.

-They are used mainly for communication.

MICROWAVES
Microwaves are used for communications, radar and cooking foods.

-Radar uses radio waves to find the position of things.

-Microwaves can pass through glass, brick and so on.

INFRARED
All objects emit infrared (IR) radiation.

-The hotter an object is, the more energy it will emit as infrared.

-Energy is transferred by infrared radiation.

-Infrared radiation is used in cooking, remote controls for televisions, DVD players
and stereo systems.

-The human body can be harmed by too much infrared radiation, which can cause
skin burns.

Visible Light
This is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
--Visible light from lasers is used to read compact discs and barcodes.

-It can be used for communication and used to take still photographs or videos.
-Information stored on DVDs is also read using visible light.

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Part of the light emitted by the Sun is ultraviolet (UV) light.

-UV radiation is harmful to human eyes and can damage the skin.

-Ultraviolet radiation can also cause skin cancer and blindness.

-Protective goggles or glasses and skin creams can block the UV rays and will
reduce the harmful effects of this radiation.

X-RAYS
X-rays pass easily through soft body tissue but cannot pass through bones.

-Working with x-rays can cause cancer.

-Radiographers, who take x-rays, are at risk and have to stand behind lead screens
or wear protective clothing.

-X-rays are also used in industry to check the internal structures of objects and at
airports as part of the security checking procedure.

GAMMA RAYS
Gamma rays are highly penetrating rays and can cause damage to living cells.

-The damage can cause mutations (negative changes), which can lead to cancer.

-They are used to sterilise medical instruments, and to treat cancer using
radiotherapy.

-Gamma rays can both cause and cure cancer.

-Like x-rays the use of lead screens, boxes and aprons can prevent the damage
caused by gamma rays (overexposure).

12. LIGHTWAVES
LIGHT WAVES
There are many sources of light, including the Sun, the stars, fires, light bulbs and
so on.

-Objects such as these that emit their own light are called luminous objects.

-Non-luminous do not emit light. Non-luminous objects can be seen because of

the light they reflect.

REFLECTION
When a ray of light strikes a plane (flat) mirror, it is reflected so that the angle of
incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection (r).

-The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.

-The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

the angle of incidence i= the angle of reflection r

Periscope
Mirrors are often used to change the direction of a ray of light.(eg:periscope)

REFRACTION
When a ray of light travels two media of different optical densities, the change in
speed may cause the ray to change direction. This change in direction of a ray is
called refraction.
Notes-
(1)As a ray enters more optically dense medium, it slows down and is refracted
towards the normal.

(2) As a ray enters less optically dense medium, it speeds up and is refracted
away from the normal.

(3) If the ray strikes the boundary between the two media at 90°, the ray
continues without change of direction.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When light travel from more to less optically dense medium and the angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle, the light ray does not refracted and
reflected back to the first medium. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.

Critical angle
The angle of incidence that causes the angle of refraction to equal, 90° is called
the critical angle.
-The two conditions for total internal reflection

(1) Light travels from more to less dense medium

(2) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle

-The critical angle for a particular medium is related to its refractive index by
this equation:
1
n= sin c

1
sin c =
n

Refraction by a Prism
Dispersion
When white light falls on a triangular glass prism, a band of colours called a
spectrum is obtained .The effect is termed dispersion.
Dispersion of prism takes place because white light entering the prism consists of so many
different colors. Each of these different colors has a different wavelength.

As a result, the dispersion of white light takes place on the second surface of the prism.

Total internal refletion in PRISM

USING TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
1.THE PRISMATIC PERISCOPE
The images produced by prisms are often brighter and clearer than those
produced by mirrors.

2.Bicycle and car reflectors

Light entering the prism is totally internally reflected twice.

-It emerges from the prism travelling back in the direction from which it originally
came.

-This arrangement is used in bicycle or car reflectors.

3.Binoculars
Binoculars also make use of total internal reflection within prisms.

-Each side of a pair of binoculars contains two prisms to totally internally reflect
the incoming light.

-Without the prisms, binoculars would have to be very long to obtain large
magnifications and would look like a pair of telescopes.

4.OPTICAL FIBRES
One of the most important applications for total internal reflection is the optical
fibre.

-This is a very thin piece of fibre composed of two different types of glass.

-The centre is made of a glass that has a high refractive index surrounded by a
different type of glass that has a lower refractive index.
(a) Endoscope

The endoscope is used by doctors to see the inside the body .

-Endoscopes can also be used by engineers to see hard-to-reach parts of

machinery.

OPTICAL FIBRES IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Modern telecommunications systems use optical fibres rather than copper wires
to transmit messages as less energy is lost.
Questions
1. Draw a ray diagram to show how a ray of light can be turned through 1 00°
using two plane mirrors. Mark on your diagram a value for the angle of incidence
at each of the mirrors.

2. (a) Draw a diagram to show the path of a ray of light travelling from air into a
rectangular glass block at an angle of about 45°.

(b) Show the path of the ray as it emerges from the block.
(c)Explain why the ray changes direction each time it crosses the air/glass
boundary.

(d) Draw a second diagram showing a ray that travels through the block without
its direction changing.
4. (a) Draw a diagram to show how a prism can create a rainbow of colours.

(b) Explain how these colours are produced by the prism.

5. Draw three ray diagrams to show what happens to a ray of light travelling in a
glass block in the following situations. It hits a face of the block at an angle:
(a) less than the critical angle

(b) equal to the critical angle

(c) greater than the critical angle.

6. (a) What is meant by 'total internal reflection of light' and under what
conditions does it occur?

(b) Draw a diagram to show how total internal reflection takes place in a prismatic
periscope.

(c) Give one advantage of using prisms in a periscope rather than plane mirrors.

(d) Draw a second diagram to show how a prism could be used to turn a ray of
light through 180°. Give one application of a prism used in this way.
7. (a) Explain why a ray of light entering an optical fibre is unable to escape
through the sides of the fibre. Include a ray diagram in your explanation.

(b) Explain how doctors use optical fibres to see inside the body.

(c) Name one other use of optical fibres.

13.SOUND
SOUND WAVES
Sounds are produced by objects that are vibrating.

-Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

-Sound can travel through solid, liquid and gas but not in vacuum.

Speed of sound
The speed of sound in air is approximately 340 m/s, although this value does vary
a little with temperature.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
Sound waves are reflected well from hard, flat surfaces such as walls or cliffs and
obey the same laws of reflection as light. The reflected sound forms an echo.

-The system of using echoes is called sonar (Sound, Navigation And Ranging).

REFRACTION OF SOUND
All waves can be refracted, also sound waves.

If some parts of a sound wave are travelling through warm air, they will travel
more quickly than those parts travelling through cooler air. As a result the
direction of the sound wave will change. It will be refracted.
AUDIBLE RANGE
The average person can only hear sounds that have a frequency higher than 20 Hz
but lower than 20 000 Hz (20kHz). This spread of frequencies is called the audible
range or hearing range.

Ultrasound and Infrasound

The sounds they produce cannot be heard by human beings and are called
ultrasound (over 20kHz).

Some objects vibrate so slowly that the sounds they produce cannot be heard by
human beings. These are called infrasound (under 20Hz).

PITCH AND FREQUENCY

The pitch of a note depends on the frequency of the sound wave reaching the ear,
i.e. on the frequency of the source of sound.

-A high-pitched note has a high frequency and a short wavelength.

-A low-pitched note has a low frequency and a long wavelength.

LOUDNESS AND AMPLITUDE

The loudness of a note depends on the amplitude of the sound wave reaching the
ear, i.e. on the amplitude of the source of sound.

-Sound waves with a larger amplitude and we hear a loud sound.

-Sound waves with a smaller amplitude and we hear a quieter sound.

Questions
(a) Name a musical instrument that is used to produce high-pitched notes .

-Any suitable instrument, e.g. piccolo, flute, violin, etc.

(b) Explain why the musical instrument you have named in part II produces high-
pitched notes.

-The air column is short/strings are short, and so vibrate quickly, i.e. at a high
frequency.

(c) Explain how you would produce loud sounds from this musical instrument.

-Blow harder/bow the strings more vigorously so that the amplitude of vibration
is larger.

(d) Draw the trace you might expect to see on an oscilloscope when this
instrument is producing a loud, high-pitched note.
2 (a) What is an echo?

- An echo is a reflected sound wave.

(b) Explain how echoes are used by ships to find the depth of the ocean beneath
them.

- Sound waves are emitted from the ship and travel to the seabed. Equipment on
the ship detects some of the sound waves reflected from the seabed. The depth
of the sea can be calculated from the time between sending the sound wave and
detecting the echo.

(c) A ship hears the echo from a sound wave 4 s after it has been emitted . If the
speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s, calculate the depth of the water beneath
the ship.

- Distance travelled in 4 s = 1500 m/s x 4 s = 6000 m,

so depth of water = 3000 m

3 (a)What is meant by the phrase 'a person's audible range is 20Hz to 20000Hz?

- This person cannot hear sounds with frequencies less than 20 Hz or greater than
20 000 Hz.

(b) Explain why the vibrating strings of a violin produce sounds with a higher
frequency than those produced by the strings of a cello.

- The strings of a violin are shorter and vibrate more quickly.

(c) Calculate the wavelength of sound waves whose frequency is 68 000 Hz .

Assume that the waves are travelling through air at a speed of 340 m/s.

-λ=v/f= 340/68000= 0.005m

4 (a) An oscilloscope shows a wave which has a time period of 0.01 s.

What is the frequency of this wave?

f=1/T= 1/0.01= 100Hz=102Hz

(b) If the speed of this wave is 340 m/s, calculate its wavelength.

-λ= v/f = 340/100= 3.4m

5 (a) Sound waves are emitted from a source that is vibrating with a large
amplitude and from a source that is vibrating with a small amplitude. Explain,
using diagrams, the difference between the two sets of sound waves.

-When the source is vibrating with a small amplitude, the disturbance of each air
particle as the wave passes is fairly small and the sound is quiet. If the source is
vibrating with a large amplitude, the particles are displaced further from their rest
position as each wave passes, and we hear a louder sound.

(b) Draw two diagrams to show how these waves would appear on an
oscilloscope.