Solid Fuels

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 1. Introduction
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 Solid fuel embraces a wide variety of combustibles,

ranging from wood, peat and lignite, through refuse
and other low calorific value substances, to coal and
other solid fuels derived from it.
 Coal represents by far the largest component of the
world’s fossil fuel reserves.
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 In thermal terms 90% of the known hydrocarbon

fuel deposits are formed by coal.
 The carbon: hydrogen ratio of coal is the highest of
the fossil fuels, hence the calorific values of coals are
principally determined by the carbon in the fuel.
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 It is usual to consider coals in terms of their rank: in

general, a high ranking coal will have a high carbon
content.
 The other major coal constituent element, hydrogen,
is present in hydrocarbons which are released as
volatile matter when the coal is heated.
 Geology of coal
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 Coal is a sedimentary rock of vegetable origin.

Vast deposits of plant material, formed
approximately 80 million years ago, were
consolidated by pressure, heat and earth movement.
 The rank of a coal is related to its geological age and,
generally, its depth in the earth.
 Rank of coal
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 The ranking sequence is:

Wood
Peat
Lignite (brown coal)
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite
 In general, deposits close to the surface which can be
worked by strip mining produce a more economical
fuel than deep mined coal.
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 Coal was the fuel which fired the Industrial

Revolution, but it is no longer the cheapest option
among the fossil fuels.
 The cost of working the deposits and the investment
in technology needed to meet increasingly stringent
emissions standards have increased the cost of
burning coal.
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 Recent developments in gasification processes have

shown that it is possible to produce gas from coal at
a viable thermal efficiency and to remove the sulfur
from the fuel at the same time.
 2. Analysis of Coal
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 As the rank of a coal increases, its carbon content

increases from 75% to about 93% (by weight), the
hydrogen content decreases from 6% to 3%, and the
oxygen content decreases from 20% to 3%.
 A useful method for analyzing a coal is the proximate
process.
 Proximate analyses of some common fuels are given
in Table 9.1 (next slide).
Table 9.1 Composition of some typical solid fuels (% by mass)

Fuel Carbon Volatile Moisture Ash

matter
Peat 44 65 20 4
Lignite 57 50 15 4
Bituminous 82 25 2 5
Coal
Anthracite 90 4 1 3

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 Coals are also analyzed in terms of their elemental

constituents, giving the ultimate analysis which was
used earlier in stoichiometric calculations.
 Typical ultimate analyses of two types of solid fuels
are given in Table 9.2 (next slide).
 Table 9.2 Ultimate analyses (% by mass) of some coals
Coal Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur
Anthracite 94.4 2.9 0.9 1.1 0.7

Bituminous 89.3 5.0 3.4 1.5 0.8

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 3. Coal Properties
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 There are a number of properties which are

important in identifying the suitability of a coal for
any given application:
 Size
Some common size groups, together with their rather
picturesque names, are given in Table 9.3 (next
slide).
 Table 9.3 Size distribution for coals
Name Upper limit (mm) Lower limit (mm)
Large Cobbles >150 75
Cobbles 100-150 50-100
Trebles 63-100 38-63
Doubles 38-63 25-38
Singles 25-38 13-18

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 Calorific value
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 The ranking of a coal is not necessarily related to its

calorific value.
 Coal fuels generally have a range of values from 21 to
33 MJ/kg (gross).
 The design rating of a coal-fired burner is usually
based on an estimated calorific value of 26 MJ/kg
(6,200 kcal/kg).
 Moisture content
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 The moisture in coal is made up of two components:

surface moisture and inherent moisture.
 The former is affected by the way in which the coal is
stored, and is thus variable.
 Ash content
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 It is non combustible remain after burning of coal .

 It include variety of heavy metals, carcinogenic and

neurotoxin chemicals such as arsenic, cadmium and
mercury which are extremely destructive for human
health and environment.
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 Sulfur Content
Many deep-mined coals have a fairly high sulfur
content, typically around 1.5% by weight.
 The same consideration apply to coal-fired
installations as to oil-fired combustion equipment
namely that condensation inside the plant must be
avoided and that the design of the flue must ensure
that ground concentration of sulfur oxides are
controlled within acceptable limits.
 4. Coal Combustion
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 Coal combustion is a two-phase process and the

objective of the burner is, as always, to achieve
complete combustion of the fuel with maximum
energy efficiency.
 Three common ways of burning solid fuels are
currently in use and are briefly reviewed below.
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 Pulverized Fuel
The coal is ground to a very fine size (about 10 mm or
more than 70% pass through 200 mesh) when it can be
made to behave rather like a liquid if air is blown
upwards through the powder.
 The preparation and handling equipment is very
expensive and pulverized fuel installations are
generally only economically viable in very large scale
applications, such as thermal power stations.
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 Fluidized Bed Combustors (FBC)

The basic principle of operation is that the coal is
mixed with an inert material (e.g. sand) and the bed
is “fluidized” by an upwards flow of air (Fig. 9.1, next
slide).
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 there are a number of advantages in FBC:

(1) The bed temperature can be kept cooler than
in the case of grate combustion-fluidized bed
temperatures are generally within the range
750-950℃.
This means that ash fushion does not occur and
the low temperatures produce less NOX.
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(2) High rates of heat transfer can be attained

between the bed and heat exchanger tubes
immersed in it.
(3) A wide range of fuel types can be burned
efficiently.
(4) additives (such as limestone) can be used which
react with oxides of sulfur retaining the sulfur in
the bed with consequent reduction in SOX
emission.
 5. Coal Storage and Handling
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 Solid fuels are stored in bunkers-normally a quantity

equivalent to 100 hours at peak firing rate is the
target storage capacity, with a minimum amount of
20 tonnes.
 Coal is usually conveyed into storage from the
delivery vehicle by tipping or by pneumatic
conveyance along rail car.
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 Two methods for storage of coal

 Open coal storage

 Covered coal storage

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The NFPA identifies the hazards associated with storage and
handling of coal, and gives the following recommendations
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 Storage structures are made of non-combustible

materials
 Coal should be kept as dry as possible (sprinklers are
not recommended)
 A sufficient ventilation system should be provided to
reduce the chance of methane (and, in case of fire,
smoke) build-up
 Handling of Coal
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 Bunkering of coal
 Unloading of coal
 Stacking of coal
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Application of coal