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Chapter 3

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VECTORS

Scalars and Vectors

Scalars, such as temperature, have magnitude only. They are specified by


a number with a unit (10◦ C) and obey the rules of arithmetic and ordinary
algebra.Vectors,such as displacement, have both magnitude and direction (5
m, north) and obey the rules of vector algebra.

Adding Vectors Geometrically


→
−
Two vectors → −a and b may be added geometrically by drawing them to
a common scale and placing them head to tail. The vector connecting the
tail of the first to the head of the second is the vector sum →
−
s . To subtract
→
− →
− →
− →
−
→
−
b from a , reverse the direction of b to get − b ; then add − b to → −a.
Vector addition is commutative
→
− →
− →
− −
a + b = b +→ a
and obeys the associative law
→
− →
− −
(→
−a + b)+→
−c = →
−
a +(b +→
c ).

Components of a Vector

The (scalar) components ax and ay of any two-dimensional vector → −


a
along the coordinate axes are found by dropping perpendicular lines from
the ends of onto the coordinate axes. The components are given by
ax = a cos θ and ay = a sin θ
where θ is the angle between the positive direction of the x axis and the
direction of →
−
a . The algebraic sign of a component indicates its direction
along the associated axis. Given its components, we can find the magnitude
and orientation (direction) of the vector by using
q ay
a= a2x + a2y and tan θ =
ax

1
Unit-Vector Notation
Unit vectors,î ,ĵ and k̂ have magnitudes of unity and are directed in the
positive directions of the x, y,and z axes, respectively, in a right-handed
coordinate system (as defined by the vector products of the unit vectors).
We can write a vector in terms of unit vectors as
→
−
a = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂

in which ax î, ay ĵ, and az k̂ are the vector components of →


−
a and ax , ay ,
and az are its scalar components.

Adding Vectors in Component Form

To add vectors in component form, we use the rules

rx = ax + bx ry = ay + by rz = az + bz .
→
−
Here →
−a and b are the vectors to be added, and →−
r is the vector sum. Note
that we add components axis by axis. We can then express the sum in
unit-vector notation or magnitude-angle notation.

Product of a Scalar and a Vector

The product of a scalar s and a vector →−v is a new vector whose magni-
tude is sv and whose direction is the same as that of →
−v if s is positive, and
→
−
opposite that of v if s is negative. (The negative sign reverses the vector.)
To divide →−
v by s, multiply →−
v by 1s

The Scalar Product


→
− →
−
The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors → −
a and b is written → −a· b
and is the scalar quantity given by
→
− →
−
a · b = ab cos φ
→
−
in which φ is the angle between the directions of → −
a and b . A scalar product
is the product of the magnitude of one vector and the scalar component of the
→
− →
− −
second vector along the direction of the first vector. Note that → −
a · b = b ·→
a,
which means that the scalar product obeys the commutative law.
In unit-vector notation,
→
− →
−
a · b = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) · (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)

which may be expanded according to the distributive law.

2
The Vector Product
→
− →
−
The vector (or cross) product → −a and b is written →
−
a × b and is a
vector →
−c whose magnitude c is given by

c = ab sin φ
→
−
in which φ is the smaller of the angles between the directions of →−
a and b .
→
−
The direction of →−c is perpendicular to the plane defined by →−
a and b and
→
− →
−
is given by a right-hand rule. Note that →−
a × b = −( b × → −a ), which means
that the vector product does not obey the commutative law.
In unit-vector notation,
→
− →
−
a × b = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) × (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)

which may be expanded according to the distributive law.

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