UCCN 1004

Data Communications & Networks

The Internet Model
The “Formula” of Data Communication

• Network Protocols + Layered Model =

Data communication
– A clear understanding of protocol and
layered model is a must.
• However, both concept (Network
Protocols and Layer Model) are not so
easily understood by beginners.
 5 components of Data Comm
• Message
– Information (data) to be communicated, (e.g. text, number, pictures, sound, video, etc)
• Sender
– Device that sends the message, (e.g. computer, telephone, etc)
– Message generator (computer),
– and intermediate sender (relay the message, e.g. router)
• Receiver
– Device that receive the message, (e.g computer, telephone, etc)
– End system (computer), and intermediate receiver (e.g. router, repeater)
• Medium
– Physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver, (e.g. wire, cable, fiber,
radio wave)
• Protocol (the hardest to understand) since it is rather “abstract”.
 Definition of Protocol (Wikipedia)
• In computing, a protocol is a set of rules which is
used by computers to communicate with each
other across a network.
• A protocol is a convention or standard that
controls or enables the connection,
communication, and data transfer between
computing endpoints.
• In its simplest form, a protocol can be defined as
the rules governing the syntax, semantics, and
synchronization of communication.
• Protocols may be implemented by hardware,
software, or a combination of the two.
 Data Transmission in Packets
• In computer networks, data is NOT sent a in
continuous stream.
00110001011010111110101010

• In computer networks, data is sent a in packetized

form.
– Meaning chunk by chuck (or packet by packet)
101101 111001 011101
 Segmentation of Data & Protocol Header

• Data (or a file) is first being segmented (or chopped into

pieces) before sent out.
• After the segmentation (or chopping), protocol headers
have been added at the beginning of each data segment.
• In the “header” it normally contain
– Management information for the network
– More importantly, the addresses (e.g: IP address, port number, etc)

Message / Data segment of message

Chop into …..

add in
Protocol header

segment of message
 Definition of Layered Architecture
• Layered architecture concept depicts an abstract
description for layered communications and computer
network protocol design.
• A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that
provide services to the layer above it and receives service
from the layer below it.
• On each layer an instance provides services to the
instances at the layer above and requests service from the
layer below.

• Note: If this is difficulty to understand, just memorize it for

the time being…
 Introduction to Layered Architecture
• Our network and
communication system is very
complex.
• Layered architecture is to
modularize this complex
network system into some
manageable layers.
• Each layer carries out
different functions
– And handled by different experts.
• Similar to a computer, a
complex machine, which has
been modularized into
– Motherboard, monitor, keyboard,
network card, video card, etc..
 Two Standard Layered Models
• In today’s network and data communication, it has been
standardized into two models
– 7-layer OSI model
– 4-layer TCP/IP model
• Please note that: Two models still describe the same network
system.
– Just different “classification of functions” of the network
 OSI Layered Model

• OSI was developed back in

1977, by International
Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
• OSI architecture has begun
with two major components:
– an abstract model of networking,
with specific functions at each
layer,
– a set of specific protocols
associated with a particular layer.
 TCP/IP Model

• Typical functions for each layer of TCP/IP model.

 Internet Layered Model

• There are 5 layer in

Internet model.
• Physical layer is called 5 Application
layer 1 4 Transport
• Application layer is called Software
layer 5. 3 Network
• First four layers deals
2 Data Link
mainly with software
• The physical layer (and 1 Physical Hardware
data link layer) deals with
hardware.
 Corresponding Layer in a Host
• For easy visualization of
layered model in PC Programs/
• Layer 1 is made up of Application Commands
– Cables, transmission and
reception of NIC Transport
OS
• Layer 2
Network
– Processing part of NIC
• Layer 3, 4, 5 Data Link NIC
– CPU, RAM and hard disk
Physical Cables,
air
 Why Layered Model?
Dealing with complex systems:
• Explicit structure allows identification, relationship of
complex system’s pieces
– layered reference model for discussion
• Modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
– change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
– e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
• Easy to swap in and out (upgrade) for each
layer
• Special people trained for each layer
 Functions of Internet Model Layers
• Application layer (data)
– Service: Application specific (delivery of email, retrieval of HTML
documents, reliable transfer of file)
– Functions: Application specific
• Transport layer (segment)
– Service: Delivery of data to corresponding process/program between
hosts.
– Functions: Connection establishment/termination, error control, flow
control, divide data stream into small segments
• Network layer (packet)
– Service: Move data packets from source host to destination host
– Functions: Routing, addressing
• Data Link layer (frame)
– Service: Reliable transfer of frames over a link, Media Access Control on a
LAN
– Functions: Framing, media access control, error checking
• Physical layer (signal)
– Service: Translating bit stream into signals,
– Functions: Physical signal transmission and reception
 Application Layer

• Provides a means for the user to access

information on the network through an application.
• This layer is the main interface for the user(s) to
interact with the application and therefore the
network.
• Applications use standard protocols to support their
functions. i.e. when you follow Avocado89 using IG
web, the website instagram.com use HTTP
protocols in its underlying program/website
architecture.
 Transport Layer
• The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data
between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any
concern while providing reliable data transfer.
• The transport layer
– controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
– segmentation/desegmentation,
• divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the
receiving computer reassembles the message from packets
– provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on
losses or duplications
– provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests
retransmission if some packets don’t arrive error-free
 Network Layer
• The Network layer
– Network addressing
– Determining routes for sending
– Managing network problems such as packet
switching, data congestion and routing
– if router can’t send data frame as large as the
source computer sends, the network layer
compensates by breaking the data into smaller
units. At the receiving end, the network layer
reassembles the data.
 Data Link Layer
• The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to
transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct
errors that may occur in the Physical layer.
• Turns frame into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into
packets.
• Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
• The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data
frames for delivery to the Network layer
• Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the
Physical Layer
• This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the
network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to
the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability
to detect signaling errors on the network media.
 Physical Layer

• Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable

• Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
• Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how
cable is attached to NIC
• Defines techniques to transfer bit stream to
cable
 Layered Architecture and Protocol
• Each layer has its own protocol
– Application layer protocol: HTTP, FTP, DNS, DHCP…
– Transport layer protocol: TCP, UDP
– Network layer protocol: IP, ICMP, RIP….
– Data Link layer protocol: ARP, Ethernet
• The complexity of the communication task is
reduced by using multiple protocol layers:
– Each protocol is implemented independently
– Each protocol is responsible for a specific subtask
– Protocols are grouped in a hierarchy
• A structured set of protocols is called a
communications architecture or protocol suite.
IMPORTANT: Protocols in Various layer

ping Application
HTTP Telnet FTP SMTP DNS DHCP TFTP Application Layer

Transport
TCP UDP Layer

RIP
Network
IP ICMP Layer
OSPF

PIM IGMP

Data Link
ARP Ethernet
Layer

Physical
Layer
Summary of Protocol Stack
 Encapsulation and Demultiplexing
• As data is moving down the protocol stack, each protocol is
adding layer-specific control information

User data

HTTP

HTTP Header User data

TCP

TCP Header HTTP Header User data

IP TCP segm ent

IP Header TCP Header HTTP Header User data

Ethernet IP datagram

Ethernet Ethernet
IP Header TCP Header HTTP Header User data
Header Trailer

Ethernet fram e
 Encapsulation and Demultiplexing

6 bytes
Destination MAC
Address
4 bytes
Source MAC Address

type CRC

Ethernet Header IP Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer

Ethernet frame
 Encapsulation and Demultiplexing:
IP Header

32 bits
version header Total Length (in bytes)
DS ECN
(4 bits) length (16 bits)
flags
Identification (16 bits) Fragment Offset (13 bits)
(3 bits)
TTL Time-to-Live Protocol
Header Checksum (16 bits)
(8 bits) (8 bits)

Source IP address (32 bits)

Destination IP address (32 bits)

Ethernet Header IP Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer

Ethernet frame
 Encapsulation and Demultiplexing:
TCP Header
32 bits

Source Port Number Destination Port Number

Sequence number (32 bits)

Acknowledgement number (32 bits)

header
length
0 Flags window size
TCP checksum urgent pointer
option
type
length Max. segment size Option:
maximum
segment size

Ethernet Header IP Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer

Ethernet frame
 Important – Layered Model and Device
• Concept of device corresponding to layer is important.
• Hub is a layer 1 device.
• NIC is a layer 2 device.
• Switch traditionally is a layer 2 device.
– Recent technology gives us layer-3, 4, 5 switch, which can process IP and
more
• Router is a layer 3 device.
• Host is a “layer 5” device
• Layer 3 device “encompass” layer 2 and layer 1 functionalities.
• Which means layer 5 device encompass all the functionalities of the
lower 4 layers.
 Repeater and Layer 1
• Repeater or hubs does not process any header
within the data.
 Switch and Layer 2

• Bridge and switch process MAC header, and regenerate

the signal.
• NIC is a layer-2 device
• NIC, bridge and switch DOES NOT process IP.
Router Delivery