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Research report final

Research Methodology (University of South Africa)

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Module: HRPYC81

Research Project 4805

Assignment number: 27

Title: Identity as Determinant in the Moral Development of South African Adolescents

Surname: Rheeder, J-M

Student number: 4550-409-1

Examination period: October/November 2019

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CONTENTS

Introduction

Moral development during adolescence ……………………………………. p. 2

Cognitive-developmental perspective ………………………………………. p. 3
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development …………………………………… p. 3
Kohlberg: A critical evaluation ……………………………………………... p. 4
Moral identity ………………………………………………………………. p. 5
Age …………………………………………………………………………. p. 7
Parental support of autonomy and value internalisation ……………………. p. 7

Research methodology

Sampling strategy and sample ……………………………………………… p. 8

Data collection procedures …………………………………………………. p. 11
Measuring instruments ……………………………………………………… p. 12
Data analysis ………………………………………………………………... p. 15
Ethical considerations ………………………………………………………. p. 16

Results …………………………………………………………………………. p. 17
Discussion and conclusion ……………………………………………………. p. 20
Reference list …………………………………………………………………. p.
Appendix ………………………………………………………………………. p.
Plagiarism declaration ………………………………………………………... p.

ii

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Identity as Determinant in the Moral Development of South African

Adolescents

Abstract

The morality of adolescents has become an increasing concern for many institutions, including
families, education, health, and safety. The aim of this study was to explore a possible
relationship between moral development and identity development among South African
adolescents. Additional constructs were examined as possible influences on moral
development, namely age, parental support of autonomy, and values. Significant findings could
potentially aid in interventional efforts to promote identity development and moral maturity in
adolescents. Based on previous findings, the researcher hypothesised a co-occurrence of the
level of development between moral reasoning and the respective constructs. A mixed methods
research design was employed with a sample of 1813 subjects between the ages of 11 and 20.
The Reasons for Action questionnaire was administered to measure the level of moral
reasoning. A questionnaire based on Erikson’s theory of personality was utilized to measure
the level of identity development. The Pearson correlation coefficient results showed a very
weak negative correlation between moral reasoning and identity development (r = -.067; p =
0.05), and no significant correlations between moral reasoning and the additional constructs
were found, therefore the hypotheses were rejected.

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MORAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

Morality has been investigated as a principle of guiding human behaviour since before the
emergence of psychology. Berk (2013) notes how morality is cross-culturally promoted by an
overarching social organization that stipulates rules for good behaviour. To date, a plethora of
research has been conducted on the nature of morality, and the influencing factors offered as
explanation for its formation; which begs the question of why morality has retained its
magnetism as a topic, despite its maturity in the field of social sciences.

Hart and Carlo (2005) depict the political force that propels further investigation into moral
development, as stemming from the popular, albeit inaccurate, opinion that contemporary
adolescents are morally deficient. The perceived threat posed to modern youth by this
shortcoming, sustains academic attention among policy makers and researchers. Furthermore,
the colleagues postulate how a better understanding of the correlates of moral development can
aid in the control of such influences, resulting in a more desirable level of morality. While
some key components of morality emerge early in the ontogeny, more significant development
occurs during the adolescent stage that sets the stage for morality in adulthood (Killen &
Smetana, 2015; Hart & Carlo, 2005). Various psychosocial factors such as values, religio-
spiritual orientation, institutional affiliations and personality have been shown to interact with
and influence moral development throughout the lifespan (Varghese & Raj, 2014).

Research problem

The purpose of the current study stemmed from an increasing concern about morality among
South African adolescents, and how proactive interventions could be implemented to foster
moral behaviour in children. In order to capitalise on adolescence as an opportunity for moral
intervention, further investigation is required to determine the salient factors that influence and
determine moral reasoning. From the viewpoint of this study, morality can be better addressed
when understood in the context of biographical and psychosocial contexts. The construct is not
independent of these factors and cannot be considered in isolation of these individual
differences. In search for possible relationships between the constructs of morality, identity,
age, parental influence and values, this study adopted Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage-based theory
of moral development in childhood.

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Cognitive-developmental perspective

Piaget’s theory on the development of morality embodies assumptions that are central to the
cognitive developmental perspective. According to this perspective, moral understanding is
advanced by cognitive maturity and social experience (Berk, 2013).

The pioneer of the cognitive developmental perspective, as well as the core inspiration for
Kohlberg’s theory, was the early work on children’s moral judgement by Jean Piaget in the
1900’s (Berk, 2013). Piaget employed clinical interviews with hypothetical scenarios with
children to ultimately identify two general stages of moral understanding. Later to be adapted
by Kohlberg, Piaget identified the stages of moral development as heteronomous morality and
morality of cooperation. The former, occurring between the ages of five and eight, children
accept rules of behaviour handed down by perceived figures of authority, e.g. parents, teachers
and religious figures (Berk, 2013). The latter signifies a gradual release from authoritative
control, beginning at the age of 9. The fixed and rigid nature of rules take on a more flexible
nature, guided by what is socially agreed upon to suit the greater majority (Berk, 2013).
Although Piaget has received critique for underestimating the moral capacities of children,
subsequent research on his theory supports the general change of moral understanding during
childhood, along with the influence of cognitive maturity he concluded (Berk, 2013).

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

As an extension of Piaget’s theory of moral understanding, Kohlberg focused on the cognitive

maturity of his subjects to distinguish between the main stages of moral development. Kohlberg
similarly conducted clinical interviews with hypothetical moral dilemmas (Berk, 2013). Unlike
Piaget’s interviews, Kohlberg offered open-ended questions and shifted the focus from the
content of the answers to the reasoning process of the subjects (Berk, 2013). Kohlberg’s
conclusion was that moral development occurred on three consecutive levels, with six distinct
phases (Berk, 2013).

The first, preconventional level, is marked by an external control of morality, comparable to

the heteronomous stage of Piaget. Behaviour in this stage is governed by the child’s knowledge
of consequence of behaviour and occurs in two stages (Berk, 2013). Stage one is the

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punishment and obedience orientation, in which behaviour is still motivated by the avoidance
of punishment. Children in this stage may recognise different feelings of others, but struggle
considering two perspectives in a moral dilemma. The second stage is the instrumental purpose
orientation and marked by orientations of self-interest and reciprocity (Berk, 2013).

The second, conventional level, is marked by continued social conformity, shifting from self-
interest to acknowledging the importance of human relationships. In the third stage reciprocity
develops into ideal reciprocity, marked by the desire to earn approval from significant others
(Berk, 2013.) Stage four individuals have developed an understanding of social order. This
perspective overrides the relationships with significant others, as rules of society are accepted
necessary for cooperation between all members of society (Berk, 2013).

The Postconventional level encompasses an abstract view of morality that supersedes

unwavering obedience to laws and societal rules (Berk, 2013). In stage five, the social contract
orientation, laws are regarded as tools for social order and progress but should be coherent with
the rights of people. Stage six, the universal ethical principle orientation, is the final stage in
the highest level of moral development (Berk, 2013). Values and ethical principles are
intrinsically constructed through conscience and recognises the dignity for all of humanity,
equally (Berk, 2013).

Berk (2013) stipulates general timelines in the developmental process of Kohlberg’s stages.
The hedonistic understanding of morality in the preconventional level declines before
adolescence. Mid-adolescence is usually paired with morality of interpersonal cooperation and
develops into the social-order-maintaining orientation by the onset of late adolescence.

Kohlberg: A critical evaluation

Kohlberg’s moral development theory is still widely applied in research and included in
academic discourse; however, the deconstruction of Kohlberg’s theory has resulted in a number
of criticisms. The spectrum of criticism relevant to the current study is discussed below but
extends to other factors not included in this report.

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One of the main criticisms centred around the validity of the moral reasoning instrument
originally used by Kohlberg. Saltzstein (1983) remarked that Kohlberg’s reliance on
hypothetical dilemmas would not necessarily result in an accurate representation of moral
reasoning in everyday life. Saltzstein added that although the dilemmas were not completely
improbable throughout a person’s life, they were mostly irrelevant to common everyday
scenarios. Vozzola (2014) emphasised the difference in nature between practical moral
thoughts and hypothetical moral thoughts, stating that the former tended to lag behind the latter.
For Vozzola this brought the validity of the initial results by Kohlberg into question.

Another criticism implicating the validity of Kohlberg’s research emphasised the lack of
contextual influence on moral action. Gibbs (1995) argued that the strong focus on the
cognitive aspects of moral development neglected the inclusion of other determinants of moral
behaviour. In a contextual investigation of moral behaviour, Fleming (2006) discovered that
individuals displayed different levels of moral reasoning in different institutions. Participants
in the study displayed different levels of moral reasoning in marriage and work situations.

Gilligan (cited in Berk, 2013) pointed to the gender bias against girls in Kohlberg’s model. The
initial research conducted by Kohlberg comprised a sample of 72 male adolescents. Gilligan
argued that while males were more justice-oriented and females were more care-oriented. From
this difference she elaborated how Kohlberg’s model, which is based on justice and fairness,
excluded an important orientation of female morality (Yurtsever, 2010).

Moral identity

Inquests into identity and related factors only originated fairly recently. Burkitt stated that the
degree to which society influences the individual’s role have changes vastly over time,
especially in Western culture (cited in Kroger, 2017). The most recent years saw a significant
decrease in constraints and the loosening of social guidelines, to the extent that contemporary
adolescents have a near unlimited freedom in what they decide a person’s role and values
should encompass (Kroger, 2017). Damon and Hart argued that moral identity could potentially
be the best predictor of moral actions (cited in Hardy & Carlo, 2011). For the purposes of this
study, Blasi’s self-model of identity was used to examine the links between moral judgement
and moral action, and the influence of self-concept (cited in Hardy & Carlo, 2011). Blasi argued

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that the extent to which a person internalised moral values was central to their identity and self-
concept (Hardy & Carlo, 2005).

Blasi’s self-model of identity comprises three main components: 1) A sense of personal

responsibility, 2) a sense of personal responsibility stemming from the structure of their sense
of self, and 3) the tendency of a person to behave consistently with their sense of self (Hardy
and Carlo, 2011). If a person has integrated a value set into their identity to the extent that a
personal sense of responsibility has developed, along with the desire to behave accordingly,
moral action would occur.

Previous research suggested that moral judgement does not necessarily guarantee moral
behaviour (Reimer, 2003). In a study conducted by Reimer (2003), approximately half of the
adolescents in his sample displayed an impressive sense of altruism but scored stages 3 and 4
on Kohlberg’s moral reasoning scale, despite the fact. It became evident to the researcher that
elements of identity and emotion strongly influenced the adolescent’s decision to behave
morally. In support of this assumption, Hardy and Carlo (2011) proposed that the adolescent’s
sense of obligation to behave morally was augmented by the inclusion of moral values they
considered central to their sense of self.

In 2013, Jespersen, Kroger and Martinussen conducted a meta-analysis of moral reasoning in

relation to identity status (cited in Kroger, 2017). In a study consisting of 884 adolescents, a
small positive correlation (r = .15) was found between the construct.

The previous research suggests that identity is not only an integral role player in moral
behaviour but serves as a foundation for moral understanding. Assuming this argument is
structurally sound and that the constructs of moral reasoning and moral identity co-exists in
deciding behaviour, it leaves the question of how moral behaviour is influenced by a less stable
sense of self. Could the behaviour of a person with a less developed sense of self be predicted
consistently? What replaces the role of internalised values in moral behaviour in adolescents
who appear to be well-adjusted? How does identity compare with other factors as a determinant
for moral behaviour? Such concerns could be explored in future research.

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Age

As discussed in the evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory, previous research supported Kohlberg’s

theory that the development of moral reasoning occurs gradually throughout the lifespan (Berk,
2013). This suggests that moral development could, at least approximately, be related to age.

Lane and colleagues (2010) found morality could be predicted by the level of cognitive and
emotional development consistent with the chronological age. They found a positive
relationship between the level of cognitive perspective-takin and prosocial behaviour and age
in younger children. Eisenberg and Fabes (1998) suggested that children’s concern for the
welfare other others developed with as they aged.

This study further investigates the relationship between age and moral reasoning, as the
majority of recent research focuses on the development of young children and adolescents
displaying antisocial behaviour.

Parental support of autonomy and value internalisation

Hardy, Walker and Carlo (2008) conducted a study on parental dimensions as a catalyst or
influence on the adolescent’s process of internalising values. Emphasising the crucial role of
parenting in the socialisation of children, an investigation ensued to test their hypotheses of the
impact of parenting styles on the moral development of children. The colleagues cited various
authors in indicating the link between internalised values in adolescents and the tendency to
behave accordingly. Steinberg was also cited in arguing that the adolescent’s ability to regulate
thoughts, emotions and behaviour independently was imperative for a functioning society
(cited in Hardy, Walker & Carlo, 2008).

Hardy et al. (2008) administered the Parenting Styles Inventory II instrument to measure the
parenting dimensions of autonomy support, involvement and structure. The Moral Values
Internalisation Questionnaire was administered to evaluate the participants’ internalisation of
values. Parental support alone was not found a reliable predictor of autonomy in adolescents.
Furthermore, the association between internalisation of values and parental support of
autonomy was found to be dependent on the degree of parental involvement. The current study

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supported the viewpoint that moral action is linked to the internalisation of values and
strengthened by the collaborative dimensions of parental support and involvement.

Research aim

The primary objective of the research was to explore the nature of the relationship between
moral development and identity development in South African adolescents. The researcher
hypothesised that a higher score on the Reasons for Action Questionnaire for moral reasoning
would correlate positively with a higher score of identity development, using a scale based on
Erikson’s identity theory (Ochse & Plug,1986; Taylor, 1978). The conclusion of a relationship
between the constructs could possibly allude to the motivation for moral action. Such a finding
may afford grounds for further investigation into moral action and motivation.

Various other constructs that have been suggested to be related to moral development were
explored as additional hypotheses. Age was hypothesised to be related to moral development
level. The relationship between the adolescents’ support of their choices inside and ouside the
home environment was also hypothesised to be related to moral development. Ethical
principles were tested to determine if a relationship existed between the adolescents’ perceived
right to determine their own ethics and moral development.

A qualitative instrument was employed to explore the perceptions of the experience of being
an adolescent in the 21st century. During interviews, participants were asked to comment on
different aspects of morality, as well as their prospects for the future in South Africa. The main
themes of the interviews were discussed in comparison to the quantitative results.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Sampling strategy and sample

A nonprobability opportunity sampling method was used to select 1813 adolescents to

participate in the study. Three high schools were contacted via email containing the basic
outline of the research, a letter from the researcher’s institution explaining the circumstances
for the research, as well as a timeframe and number of participants needed to participate in the

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study. The email was followed up telephonically to request preliminary feedback. Only one of
the three schools responded to arrange a meeting with the principal. The meeting was used as
an opportunity to give an overview of the proposed study and to clarify any uncertainties. The
principal was informed of the participants’ rights and ethical considerations on the part of the
researcher. Permission to address the pupils and request participants was granted during the
meeting. The principal appointed two life orientation teachers to assist with introducing the
researcher to different classes and explain the reason for the visit. The support of the teacher
helped the researcher build rapport with the students. Several students were selected from every
class to ensure an even distribution in age. All the participants were selected on a voluntary
basis. Upon reaching the total number of subjects required for the study, a time and venue was
arranged for the following week to commence with data gathering. The participants each
received a consent form to be completed and signed by themselves, as well as a parent or
guardian. They were informed of their rights and purpose of the study.

The sample ages ranged between 11 and 20 as depicted in Table 1 (M = 15.34; SD = 1.932; N
= 1812). Table 2 shows a negatively skewed age distribution (mean < median < mode) due to
a greater frequency in the higher age categories than in the mean category.

Table 1: Age (Mean, SD, Min., Max.)

Valid 1812

N Missing 1

Mean 15.34

Std. Deviation 1.932

Minimum 11

Maximum 20

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Table 2: Age frequency distribution

Age distribution
20,0

15,0
Percentage

10,0

5,0

-
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Age in years

Table 3 provides the gender ratios. 48.2% of the participants are male, and 51.8% are female.
See Table 3 (N = 1813). Table 4 shows the frequency of ethnic groups (N = 1806). Table 5
provides biographical detailing school grade, area of residence, who the subjects live with, and
reasons for not living with parents.

Table 3: Gender frequency table

N 1813
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 874 15.34
Female 939 1.932

Table 4: Ethnic group frequency

N 1806
Ethnic group Frequency Percentage
Black 946 52.2
White 607 33.6
Coloured 156 8.6
Indian 82 4.5
Other 15 .8
Total 1806 100

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Table 5: Biographical details

Reason not living
Residence Living with School grade
with parents

Residence % Living with % Reason % Grade %

City 44.3 Both parents 57.5 Divorced 31.0 6 4.5
Town 42.8 Mother 25.6 Deceased 25.2 7 12.1
Rural area 13.0 Father 4.5 Financial 5.8 8 12.5
N 1813 Grandparents 7.2 Practicality 6.8 9 14.3
Other 3.7 Other 31.2 10 17.4
Non-relatives 1.6 N 1022 11 18.5
N 1787 12 15.8
No
school 4.8
N 1791

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

The researcher and participants assembled in the school hall. The researcher introduced herself
with a brief academic background and reminded the participants of their rights. The students
were thanked and offered an opportunity to withdraw at that point. None of the participants
withdrew. Each participant received a copy of the quantitative questionnaire, followed by
instructions on how to respond to the different sections. The researcher worked through the
first section of the questionnaire with the students as an example. The researcher monitored
and assisted when necessary. This phase of the collection was completed in a 50-minute school
period. The students returned to class upon completion and were allocated a time slot to meet
at the office for an interview.

For the second section of the study, an office area was designated for individual interviews.
Upon arrival, each participant was greeted warmly. A brief explanation was provided for the
interview and its contents. Students were reminded of the confidentiality agreement and
reassured that they could omit answers that made them uncomfortable. Structured interviews
were conducted for the collection of the qualitative section of the study. Each student was
interviewed for approximately 25 minutes and thanked at the end. Upon completion of the

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interview, each participant received a bag of treats to show appreciation for their time and
effort.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

A mixed methods design was employed for the research, consisting of both quantitative and
qualitative data collection methods. The measuring instrument consists of six sections, five of
which are survey style questions for the quantitative section of the study. The sixth section
consists of a set of pre-written questions for a structured interview. The following paragraphs
provide a detailed overview of the different sections of the instrument.

Quantitative sections

The quantitative section includes five subsections for different sets of variables. Section A
comprises 11 items on biographical details, for example, age, gender, ethnicity, school grade,
residence, living arrangements, number of children in the family, school performance, and the
perception of difficulty of adolescence. Different scales are used in this section, depending on
appropriateness. Ten of the items adopt a demographic survey style to obtain categorical
details. One item is multiple choice relating to the participant’s perception of difficulty during
adolescence, with three options.

Section B evaluates the level of identity development of the participants. The score was
determined by administering the identity development scale, developed by Rhona Ochse and
Cornelius Plug (1986). The scale, originally a subscale of a larger questionnaire, is based on
the identity theory of Erik Erikson (Ochse & Plug, 1986). The scale focuses on the psychosocial
crisis of identity formation versus identity diffusion. The current instrument consists of 19
items and 10 filler items using the Likert scale. Filler items are used to counteract response
bias, namely social desirability, by misleading the participant as to what the purpose of the
questions are. The items on the scale require participants to respond to statements with the most
suitable of four options, ranging between ‘never’ and ‘very often’. Scores on the items are
totalled to produce a score between 19 (minimum) and 76 (maximum), where a lower score
indicates a lower level of identity development and a higher score indicates higher identity
development.

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Ochse and Plug (1986) reported the Cronbach alpha reliabilities of the original scale to be
acceptable with some subsets of the sample (white English speaking = .83; white Afrikaans
speaking = .84) and questionable with others (Black adolescents = .73). Ocshe and Plug found
the internal consistencies acceptable for research purposes. They reported positive indications
of construct validity and, by implication, the validity of Erikson’s constructs (Ochse & Plug,
1986). The current study had a population of N = 1616 with a mean of 47.87 on the identity
scale (SD = 5.816). The scores range between a minimum of 19 and a maximum of 76. The
mean of 47.87 refers to the score obtained on the identity scale between 19 and 76. The
Cronbach alpha reliability of the current study was of poor quality at .51 (see Table 6).

Table 6: Reliability statistics

Cronbach’s Alpha
Cronbach’s Number
based on
Alpha of items
Standardised Items

.510 .501 19

Section C evaluates the moral development of the participants. The level of moral reasoning
was determined by administering the Reasons for Action Questionnaire developed by Taylor
(1978). The instrument consists of 15 items. Each item on the questionnaire consists of a moral
dilemma that results in a moral outcome. Each dilemma is then presented with six potential
reasons for behaving morally, corresponding with stage 2, 3, 4 or 5 from Kohlberg’s theory of
moral reasoning. Six pairs of responses are compiled from the six possibilities, and the
participant then selects which option in each pair is more likely the reason for the person
behaving morally.

The corresponding developmental levels of the different answers in each of the items are tallied
for each response. The frequencies of the answers of each level are totalled and recorded. The
final score that represents the level of moral reasoning is the level with the highest frequency.
This outcome is expressed by the level, for example, level 3. For the current study the levels
were represented as follow: Level 1 = 20,4%; Level 3 = 23,9; Level 4 = 40,7%; Level 5 = 15%
(N = 1813). Table 7 provides an overview below.

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Table 7: Moral developmental level frequency

Level of
Frequency Percent
development

2 370 20.4

3 433 23.9

4 738 40.7

5 272 15

Total 1813 100

Section D evaluates the participants’ relationship with their parents. This section consists of
12 items relating to the nature of the relationship between the participant and parent(s) or
guardian(s). Different scales are used in accordance with the response required. Likert scale
items examine the extent of conflict with the parents, ranging from no conflict to many
conflicts. Multiple choice items are used to determine preferences of the participant regarding
discussing affairs and asking advice. Six Likert scale questions examine the nature of the
relationship between child and parent, ranging from ‘Never’ to ‘Always’ with six increments.
Two such questions are provided below:

• If your mother makes decisions for you or lays down rules, how often does she explain the
reason(s) for the decisions she makes or the rules she lays down?
• If your father makes decisions for you or lays down rules, how often does he explain the
reason(s) for the decisions he makes or the rules he lays down?

Section E evaluates the values of the participants. The Values section consists of eight multiple
choice item evaluating the participant’s view of laws, authority ethical principles, et cetera. An
example of one such item is provided below:

• Do you think that moral principles should apply universally (across the world) and not only for
certain social groups?

Yes, the same moral principles should apply for all persons and groups. 1
I feel uncertain. 2

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No, persons and groups differ, and different moral principles should apply for
3
different persons and groups.

Qualitative section

Section F consists of individual interviews with the participants. An office space was allocated
for the purpose of conducting the interviews. The researchers ensured adequate time and
privacy was provided for the interviews. A brief explanation was provided for the interview
and its contents. Students were reminded of the confidentiality agreement and reassured that
they could omit answers that made them uncomfortable. Structured interviews were conducted
for the collection of the qualitative section of the study. Each student was interviewed for
approximately 25 minutes and thanked at the end. Examples of the pre-written questions are
provided below:

• How is it to be an adolescent in the 21st century? Is this a difficult or an easy time for you?
Tell us about the good things and the bad things of being an adolescent today.

• How do you feel about your future? Give reasons why you feel this way.

• What influence does the morality of your teachers have on your own life? Motivate or
explain your answer.

DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative

The statistical programme SPSS 25 was used to analyse the quantitative data. The Pearson
correlation coefficient was used to analyse the relationships between age (independent
variables) and moral development (dependent variable). The Pearson correlation coefficient (r)
was used to explore the relationship between identity development and moral development.
The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to compute the relationship between parents and
moral development. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to explore the relationship
between the adolescent’s ethical principles and moral reasoning.

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Qualitative

Qualitative data was recorded from the structured interviews in the sixth instrument of the
study. Interpretive data analysis was used to analyse the data. The first stage of analysis
comprised familiarisation and immersion, where the data was first read extensively to get the
gist of the contents, and then intensively for specific details. The language of the participants
was evaluated for repeated themes in the responses. Upon recording the themes, phrases and
sentences were coded and attributed to the different themes. The data was then organised for
comparative purposes, evaluated for quality purposes and finally reported.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The researcher recognised the risk in working with adolescents and prioritised transparency
throughout the study. The purpose and nature of the study were explained thoroughly to the
parents and participants. A letter detailing the rights of the participants was sent to the
participants and their parents or guardians, along with a consent form that had to be signed by
participants and parents. Subjects could only partake upon returning the signed consent forms.
The participants were reminded of their right to withdraw from the study at any point,
regardless of the reason. No participants withdrew. The participants were all treated with
dignity and respect, and all the participants were treated equally. No physical, psychological or
emotional harm occurred because of the research process. The researcher made prior
arrangements with the school counsellor for assistance in the event of distress triggered by the
study. No such assistance was necessary. All the consent forms and questionnaires were
enclosed in a cabinet only accessible by the researcher. The participants engaged in a thought-
provoking study about morality, which could be considered a potential benefit. The researcher
thanked and praised the participants for displaying great introspection and interest in the study.

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RESULTS

Quantitative results

Identity development and moral reasoning

The main hypothesis of the study anticipated a positive correlation between moral reasoning
(N = 1813) and identity development (N = 1778). The Pearson correlation coefficient reported
a very weak negative correlation between the variables (r = -.067; p = 0.01). The results
indicated that a higher score of identity was associated with a lower stage of moral reasoning.
The strength of the correlation was very weak, but the hypothesis was accepted on the grounds
of the level of significance.

Age and moral reasoning

A relationship between age (N = 1812) and moral reasoning (N = 1813) was anticipated as a
second hypothesis. The Pearson correlation coefficient indicated a very weak positive
correlation (r = .056; p = 0.05). The strength of the correlation was very weak, but the
hypothesis was accepted on the grounds of the level of significance.

Parental autonomy support and moral reasoning

The third hypothesis was that support of the adolescent’s autonomy inside and outside the home
environment was related to the stage of moral reasoning. The Pearson correlation coefficient
was used to test the hypothesis. The construct of support of the adolescent’s choices inside the
home environment (N = 1728) resulted in a very small positive correlation with moral
reasoning (N = 1813; r = .072; p = 0.01). The construct of support of the adolescent’s choices
outside the home environment (N = 1728) resulted in a very small positive correlation with
moral reasoning (N = 1813; r = .079; p = 0.01). The strength of both correlations was very
small but indicated that an increase of parental support of choices inside and outside the home
environment was associated with a higher stage of moral reasoning.

Autonomy of deciding ethical values and moral reasoning

The fourth hypothesis anticipated a relationship between the stage of moral reasoning and the
autonomy to decide one’s own values. The participants’ perceived right to decide on their own
ethics was tested against the stage of moral reasoning with the Pearson correlation coefficient.

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The relationship between the right to decide own ethics (N = 1761) and moral reasoning (N =
1813) indicated a very weak positive correlation (r = -.061; p = 0.05). The strength of the
correlation was very weak, but the hypothesis was accepted on the grounds of the level of
significance.

Qualitative results

Thematic analysis was used to report the findings of the qualitative data, especially in relation
to the topic of moral development during adolescence.

The participants were asked to describe how it is be an adolescent in the 21st century. The most
prominent theme was a mixed experience of the phase being both difficult and easy, with many
reporting that technology makes their lives easier. Another common theme is the fear for their
safety. One participant reported that, “The bad things are the criminals and the safety of our
people. I feel like I’m in danger a lot.” One of the participants stated that it felt like some people
had no sympathy for others. The majority of the participants complained about challenge they
face with peer pressure and expressed a fear of being bullied for not conforming.

The participants were asked to explain how they feel about their future and why. There were
three prominent themes, namely optimism, excitement and goal-orientation. Most of the
students enjoyed answering this question and showed great optimism about their futures. They
spoke about their plans and goals eagerly and showed confidence in their abilities to achieve
success. One participant answered, “I feel positive and motivated! I planned a successful future
for myself. I love working hard.”

When asked about the morality of South African youth in general, the answers were less
optimistic. A prominent theme with this question was shame. The participants expressed
disdain and disgust for behaviours they regard as immoral. One participant said, “I feel very
ashamed. 12-year-old girls are pregnant; 14-year-old girls are cursing and swearing. Young
people think drugs and alcohol are okay.” Very few participants had positive comments to this
question.

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The participants were asked to describe their educators as influential role players in their lives.
A prominent theme with this question was inspiration. Many participants reported their
teachers to be great role models for morality. When asked why they felt this way, many reported
that they felt accepted and supported by their teachers. One student said about a specific
teacher, “She always cares about me and helps me.” Another theme, although uncommon, was
that participants did not consider their teachers to have an influence on their morality.

The participants were asked to explain the biggest influencers on their morality. The highest
frequency was a combination of friends and parents. Another theme was only the friends and
the least common was only the parents. One participant said, “I think my friends and my
parents, but it depends on what it’s about.” Nearly none of the participants reported teachers to
be the strongest influence.

The participants were asked to comment on violence in school, especially towards teachers.
The students unanimously expressed unacceptability. Another common theme was disrespect.
One student stated, “I see it as ridiculous and it’s unnecessary,” The participants were very
outspoken about this topic and reported verbal attacks on teachers to be a frequent occurrence.

The participants were asked how they feel about the future of South Africa and if they felt that
they could contribute to the country. The questions received mixed results. One theme with
this question was conditional optimism. Many of the responses included optimism but that,
“we need to work together for things to get better. I believe we can.” Another theme was
hopelessness. Many participants revealed plans for leaving the country after school, because
they did not think the corruption in the country will ever stop. Many participants expressed
uncertainty about the future of South Africa and commented on the detrimental effects of
racism.

The main themes extracted from the participants’ dreams about the future were excitement,
success-orientation, and further education. Most of the participant had plans for pursuing
further education after school. The participants responded with great confidence about their
future careers and studies. A less common theme was monetary success. Overall, the
participants showed great enthusiasm for their futures.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The main objective of the study was to evaluate the relationship between moral development
and identity development during adolescence. A recent study reported finding a small positive
correlation and suggested further investigation. Contrary to these findings, the current study
resulted in little to no correlation between moral reasoning and identity development. The
results indicated that a higher score of identity was associated with a lower stage of moral
reasoning. Despite the score exceeding the significance level, the result cannot be used with
confidence. Furthermore, it suggests that identity development as measured according to the
identity formation theory of Erikson, is not related to the stage of moral reasoning depicted in
Kohlberg’s moral development theory. The reliability score of the identity development scale
was of poor quality; therefore, the final result of the relationship between moral reasoning and
identity development were brought into question. Upon reflection, a more theoretically
appropriate measure for moral identity could have been used. There are important discrepancies
between moral identity and the psychosocial identity that were not accurately represented by
Erikson’s adapted scale. Future research could be enhanced by administering an instrument
based on Blasi’s self-model.

The relationship between chronological age and moral reasoning yielded a near insignificant
positive correlation. These results could not be used in support of the hypothesis that an
increase in age co-occurs with a higher stage of moral reasoning. These results were not
consistent with Berk’s findings that morality consistently develops throughout the adolescent
phase (Berk, 2013). As suggested in a critical review of Kohlberg’s theory, its application could
be enhanced by using relevant, everyday and contextual dilemmas in evaluating the level of
moral reasoning in adolescents.

The relationship between parental support and the stage of reasoning in adolescents showed a
very small positive correlation. Previous research rejected parental support of autonomy as a
reliable predictor of internalising of values but found a positive relationship between the
constructs when combined with parental involvement. The hypothesis of the current study was
not rejected on the basis of the level of significance, but the strength of the correlation was not
impressive.

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The relationship between autonomy in deciding one’s ethical values and the stage of moral
reasoning showed a very small positive correlation. Previous research strongly supported the
role of autonomy and the internalisation of values and moral action. The current study did not
reject this finding, but the strength of the relationship was significantly smaller. The hypothesis
of the current study was not rejected on the basis of the level of significance, but the strength
of the correlation was not impressive.

The responses of the participants supported the concern for morality in contemporary
adolescents. Various problematic issues were reported regarding substance abuse, violence
against teachers and peers, bullying, crime and hate speech. The optimism of the participants’
experience as adolescents in the 21st century was future-orientated and portrayed in a reality
absent of the moral issues they reported about the current circumstances. The participants
attributed immoral behaviour to undesirable home environments, lack of role models, racial
tension and other forms of discrimination.

The research uncovered a number of notable limitations that are important to consider for future
research. The study was designed to evaluate the moral development as representative of the
entire adolescent population of South Africa. The sample was deemed not representative in
terms of age, ethnicity, schooling and location of residence. The discrepancies of the sample
can directly be attributed to the method of sampling. Future research could benefit from
determining a statistically representative sample of adolescents.

The study presented a valuable opportunity to contribute to the understanding of moral

development in the South African context. Ultimately, none of the correlations showed
impressive results as hypothesised; however, upon careful reflection, the process resulted in a
number of recommendations to improve future research.

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References

Berk, L. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Boom, J. (2011). Egocentrism in moral development: Gibbs, Piaget, Kohlberg. New Ideas in
Psychology, 29(3), 355–363. DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2010.03.007

Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Githrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Sheppard, S. A. (2005). Age
changes in pro-social responding and moral reasoning in adolescence and early adulthood.
Journal of Research in Adolescence, 48(3), 235-260.

Fleming, J. S. (2006). Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan, and others on moral development.

Retrieved from http:// swppr.com/Textbook/Ch%207%20Morality.pdf

Hardy, S. A., & Carlo, G. (2011). Moral identity: What is it, how does it develop, and is it
linked to moral action? Child Development Perspectives, 5(3), 212 – 818. DOI:
10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00189.x

Hart, D., & Carlo, G. (2005). Moral development in adolescence. Journal of Research in
Adolescence, 15(3), 223-233. DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2005.00094.x

Killen M., & Smetana J. G. (2015). Handbook of child psychology and developmental science
(7th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley-Blackwell.

Kroger, J. (2017). Identity development in adolescence and adulthood. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.54

Lane, J. D., Wellman, H. M., Olson, S. L., Labounty, J., & Kerr, C. R. (2010). Theory of
mind and emotion understanding predict moral development in early childhood. British
Journal of Developmental Psychology, 28(4), 871-889.

Ochse, R., & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation of the validity of Erikson’s theory
of personality development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1040-1252.

Reimer, K. (2003). Committed to caring: Transformation in adolescent moral identity.

Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 129-137.

Saltzstein, H. D. (1983). Critical issues in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning. A

Longitudinal Study of Moral Judgment, 48(1/2), 1-124.

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Taylor, T. R. (1978). The construction of an objective method of assessing morality and the
testing of Kohlberg’s hierarchical theory. Psychologia Africana, 3, 169-200.

Varghese, B. P., & Raj, J. M. (2014). Psycho-social determinants of morality: A

comprehensive review of the factors of moral information processing. The International
Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 2(5), 131-135.

Vozzola, E. C. (2014). Moral development: Theory and applications. New York, NY:
Routledge.

Yurtsever, G. (2010). Gender related differences in moral imagination. Social Behaviour and
Personality, 38(4), 515-522.

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APPENDIX

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PLAGIARISM DECLARATION

1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is using another’s work and pretending that it
is one’s own work.

2. I have used the American Psychological Association (APA) as the convention for citation
and referencing. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this assignment from the
work, or works of other people has been attributed and has been cited and referenced.

3. This assignment is my own work.

4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing
it off as his or her own work.

5. I acknowledge that copying someone else's assignment, or part of it, is wrong, and declare
that this assignment is my own work.

SIGNATURE: ___________

DATE: 3 October 2019

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