PHY2390 Astronomy

Fall 2020
Liang Chen

2
User’s Guide to
the Sky: Patterns
and Cycles

2–1
2 Chapter 2

The Southern Cross I saw every night abeam. The sun every
morning came up astern; every evening it went down ahead. I
wished for no other compass to guide me, for these were true.

Captain Joshua Slocum

Sailing Alone Around the World

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 Chapter 2

The Goals of This Chapter

• In this chapter, we will find answers to four
important questions:
– How can you refer to stars by name, by
constellation, and by brightness?
– How does the sky appear to move as Earth
rotates and revolves?
– What causes the seasons?
– How does the motion of the Moon produce
phases and eclipses?

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 2.1 The Stars

Constellations
• Far away from city lights, on a dark night, you can see
several thousand stars
• Constellation
– One of the stellar patterns identified by name, usually of
mythological gods, people, animals, or objects
– The region of the sky containing that star pattern
• Asterism
– A named grouping of stars that is not one of the
recognized constellations G FACT:
RESTIN erism.INTE er is an ast
Bi g D ip p
The

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 2.1 The Stars

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 2.1 The Stars

The Names of Stars

• Most star names are derived from ancient Arabic.
– For example: Betelgeuse—comes from the Arabic phrase
yad aljawza (“armpit of Jawza”).
• Many of the ancient star names are still used by
modern astronomers.
• Greek letters—star brightness
• α – the brightest star
• β – the second brightest star

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7 2.1 The Stars

• Greek letters – star brightness

a,A alpha b,B beta g,G gamma d,D Delta
e,E epsilon z,Z zeta h,H eta q,Q theta
i,I iota k,K kappa l,L lambda µ,M mu
n,N nu x,X xi o,O omicronp,P pi
r,R rho s,S sigma t,T tau u,U upsilon
f,F phi c,C chi y,Y psi w,W omega

te r th a n Orion α, and
c h a s Orio n β is brigh
e a re exc eptions su
Th e r
hte r th a n O rion η.
ig
Orion κ is br

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8 2.1 The Stars

Belt

“Sword”

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9 2.1 The Stars

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The sword Copyright © 2016 by Nelson Education Ltd.
 2.1 The Stars

The Brightness of Stars

• The magnitude scale
– The astronomical brightness
scale. Inverse logarithmic
– 5 magnitudes = 100X; 1
!
magnitude ~ 100X~ 2.512 X.
• Hipparchus—The first to
catalogue stars by their
brightness.
• Ptolemy used the
magnitude system.
ge r the
ar e
The l de à th
a g n itu star.
m h e
er t
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 2.1 The Stars
• Flux
– A measure of the flow of energy out of a surface.
• Apparent visual magnitude (mV)
– A measure of the brightness of a star as seen by human
eyes on Earth. Logarithmic. (mv=-2.5log(F/F0) ), Vega has mv=0.
Vega

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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

The Celestial Sphere

An imaginary sphere of very large radius surrounding
Earth, to which the celestial objects seem to be attached.

Three important points:

1. The westward motion of the sky is a consequence
of the eastward rotation of Earth.
2. The appearance of the sky depends on the
observer’s location on Earth.
3. The astronomical “distances” are measured DEL: nk
M O
in degrees. TIFIC e thi
SCIEN t helps on re
c e p t tha t o f natu
c
A con ome aspe rily true.
s a
about not necess
that is
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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

The Sky Around Us

• Zenith – The point in the sky directly

above the observer.
• Nadir – The point on the celestial
sphere directly below the observer;
the opposite of the zenith.
• Figure at right shows person living
around 40o lattitude north (Ottawa is
45o N, 75o W).
• NCP is near Polaris (now).
North celestial pole (NCP)

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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

TA RS
S
OL AR
n e ver
M P at
CU th .
CIR those or set
are rise

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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

The Motions of Celestial Bodies

• Rotation – Motion around an axis passing
through a rotating body.
• e.g., rotation of Earth (day and night)

• Revolution – Orbital motion about a point

located outside the orbiting body.
• e.g., revolution of Earth around the Sun
(yearly cycle)

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 2.2 The Sky and Its Motions

Precession
The slow change in orientation of Earth’s axis of rotation.

ON CYCLE
SSI
PRECE 00 years
26 0
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 Earth Precession

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qlVgEoZDj
ok

NEP: North Ecliptic Pole

NCP: North Celestial Pole
More precise rate of precession is 25,771.5 years, its direct consequence is
recorded on climate change as Milankovitch cycles.
Causes of the precession: Major: Sun and Moon, minor: Jupiter, Saturn,
etc., and relativistic effect.

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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

The Annual Motion of the Sun

In solar system, most objects have rotation and orbital

directions the same. But there are exceptions (Venus & Uranus)
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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

The Seasons
• The seasons are NOT caused by the variation
in the distance between Earth and the Sun
• The seasons ARE caused by the changes in the
amount of solar energy that Earth’s northern
and southern hemispheres receive at different
times of the year
TIC e
ECLIP ath of th
p a re nt p sky.
a p th e
The a r o und
Sun

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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

• Celestial equator
– The imaginary line
around the sky directly
above Earth’s equator.
• North and south
celestial poles
– The points on the
celestial sphere directly
above Earth’s north and
south poles.

Here at Ottawa:
2020 Fall equinox Sept. 22, 9:30am 2020 Winter solstice Dec. 21, 5:02am
2021 Fall equinox Sept. 21, 3:21pm 2021 Winter solstice Dec. 21, 3:59pm
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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

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 2.3 The Cycle of the Sun

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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

The Phases of the Moon

Three important points:

1. The Moon always keeps the same side facing Earth.
2. The changing shape of the Moon as it passes through its
cycle of phases is produced by sunlight illuminating
different parts of the side of the Moon seen by an
observer on Earth.
3. The orbital period of the Moon around Earth is not the
same as the length of a Moon phase cycle.
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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

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 2.4 The Cycles of the Moon

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 Sidereal and synodic months

• http://www.sumanasinc.com/webc
ontent/animations/content/siderea
l.html

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 2.5 Eclipses

Solar Eclipses

M o o n have
n an d t
The Su qual apparen
e
nearly e ters.
d iam

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 2.5 Eclipses

Solar Eclipses
• In a solar eclipse, the Sun
is hidden (eclipsed) and
the Moon is “in the way.”
• Umbra – The region of a
shadow that is totally
shaded.
• Penumbra – The region of
a shadow that is only
partially shaded.
• Moon orbit is 5.145o from
ecliptic: eclipses are rare!
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 2.5 Eclipses

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 2.5 Eclipses

Lunar Eclipses

• Lunar eclipse – The darkening of the Moon

when it moves through Earth’s shadow.
• The Moon darkens and turns copper-red
c cu r
because of sunlight refracted through s a l
s o
way t at
Earth’s atmosphere. r e c lipse , but no
L una oon n. ll m oo
t f u l l m
a y fu
ever
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 2.5 Eclipses

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 2.5 Eclipses

Lunar Eclipses

• Saros cycle – An
18-year, 11⅓-day
period, after which
the pattern of
lunar and solar
eclipses repeats.
• Inclination of
Moon orbit.
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 2.6 Stellar Coordinates

Stellar Coordinates
• The celestial sphere uses a coordinate grid
similar to the longitude and latitude system
used on Earth.
• Stellar coordinates
• The angular distances of an object on the
celestial sphere.
• Describe locations of celestial objects in the sky.

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 2.6 Stellar Coordinates

Stellar Coordinates
• Declination (degrees) – The angular north-south
distance measured from the celestial equator.
• Right ascension (hours, minutes, seconds) – The
angular east-west distance measured from the
vernal equinox.

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 Celestial sphere

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 2.7 Timekeeping

Timekeeping by Day
• Solar day – The average time between
successive crossings of the Sun on the local
meridian (24 hours).
ve s a b o u t 1° per
Earth mo its orbit.
day a ro u n d

• Sidereal day – The time between successive

crossings of any star on the local meridian
(23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds). Difference of 3
minutes 55.91 s, or 235.91 s = 86400/365

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 2.7 Timekeeping

Timekeeping by Month
• Synodic month – The time for a complete
cycle of lunar phases (about 29.5 days).
• Sidereal month – The time for the Moon to
orbit Earth once relative to any star (about
27.3 days).
• http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/ani
mations/content/sidereal.html
LAR TIME
APPARENT SO
e a su re d b y th e location
Time m
e S u n in th e local sky such
of th m (a.m.)
n o c cu rs when the Sun me r id ie
that n o o ante m (p.m.)
ridian. ie
crosses the me post m e r id

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 2.7 Timekeeping

Timekeeping by Year

• Tropical (solar) year – Time between

successive spring (or autumnal) equinoxes.
• Sidereal year – The time for Earth to complete
one full orbit around the Sun relative to any
star.

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 2.7 Timekeeping

Calendars
• Tropical year ® 365.25 days minus 11 minutes.
• 365 days/year—the Egyptian concept.
• The “leap year”—introduced by Julius Caesar
(Julian calendar). Every 4 years: 365.25
• In 1582, Pope Gregory XII introduced a slight
adjustment. The Gregorian calendar is used
globally today. Every 4 years except century years,
except when divisible by 400: 365.2422. Thus off by 1
day after 400 years, then reset.

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 2.8 Night Sky Tours

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 2.8 Night Sky Tours

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 2.8 Night Sky Tours

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 Chapter 2

Summary
• The Stars
• The Sky and Its Motions
• The Cycle of the Sun
• The Cycles of the Moon
• Eclipses
• Stellar Coordinates
• Timekeeping
• Night Sky Tours

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 The End

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