ctbuh.

org/papers

Title: New Paradigms in High Rise Design

Author: Antony Wood, Professor, University of Nottingham

Subject: Architectural/Design

Keyword: Urban Design

Publication Date: 2004

Original Publication: CTBUH 2004 Seoul Conference

Paper Type: 1. Book chapter/Part chapter

2. Journal paper
3. Conference proceeding
4. Unpublished conference paper
5. Magazine article
6. Unpublished

© Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat / Antony Wood

 New Paradigms in High Rise Design

Antony Wood1)

1)
Lecturer in Architecture, School of the Built Environment, University of Nottingham

Abstract
Tall Buildings are perhaps the most keenly debated building typology currently in existence. Opinion on their
contribution to the urban agenda is usually clearly divided; strongly for, or strongly against. Since September 11th
and the World Trade Centre towers’ collapse, the suitability of Tall Buildings in our future cities has become even
more of a key issue. This is especially true of London, a city which has only embraced tall buildings in relatively
recent times, and only in limited number. Although there have been strong moves in parts of the world to create
tall buildings rooted to the specifics of ‘place’, London has tended to cling to the import of the
commercially-driven, rectangular, air-conditioned ‘box’ model typical of most North America cities. This paper
presents alternative options for tall building design. It takes, as its vehicle, theoretical design research projects
developed at the University of Nottingham. Based on the Heron Tower project currently being developed in the
City of London, and working together with Kohn Pederson Fox architects, the paper outlines the differing design
approaches developed, and charts similarities in these approaches. By relating this to recent tall buildings
internationally, the paper concludes by suggesting new paradigms for high rise design.

Keywords: tall buildings; design; urban; paradigms

1. Introduction (Abel 2003) surprised many.

The popularity of tall buildings in the UK has seen Not everyone is convinced though. The Heritage
dramatic pendulum swings over the past 40 years, Lobby, and in particular English Heritage, are
from a time when the genre could not disassociate concerned with the impact tall buildings will have on
itself from the loathed, ubiquitous post-second world the historic fabric of London, and for every report that
war council tenement towers, to the heady days of the is issued in support of Tall Buildings in the UK (CABE
1980’s when the commercially-driven policies of the 2001), there seems to be a contradictory report
Conservative Thatcher government led to the huge condemning them (UASC 2002). The project that
docklands redevelopment, with the American architect perhaps best typifies this battle of opinions in recent
Cesar Pelli’s Canary Wharf Tower as its flagship (Pelli times in the UK is the Heron Tower project, which is
and Crosbie 1994). the starting point for the theoretical design project
Today, under the enthusiastic endorsement of the which is the essence of this paper (see Section 2.0).
Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, tall buildings Originally granted planning approval from the
seem to be enjoying a popularity unlike anything seen Corporation of London’s planning committee in 2001,
previously in the UK (GLA 2001). The docklands the submission received objections by English
development has recovered from the effects of the Heritage, amongst others, for the detrimental impact it
early 1990’s recession to expand at a rapid rate, and would have on strategic back-drop views of St. Paul’s
public opinion seems to be warming to the idea of tall Cathedral. It was eventually called in for a lengthy
buildings in the City of London and elsewhere in the Public Enquiry (costing £4 million) and, over a year
capital – something unthinkable only a decade or two after the original submission, was finally granted
before as Prince Charles galvanised public opinion Planning Permission in July 2002. Work on site is
against modern architecture generally, and tall anticipated in 2004, but it is still considered by many
buildings specifically. The high level of public interest to be an inappropriate addition to the London skyline
in the Norman Foster-curated High Rise exhibition at (Gates 2002).
London’s Royal Academy in the summer of 2003 Whilst this theoretical battle over the
appropriateness of tall buildings in the UK rages,
Antony Wood, Lecturer in Architecture however, little has been done to improve the actual
School of the Built Environment, University of Nottingham design of the built projects. Towers are appearing at an
Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom amazing rate within the Canary Wharf / docklands
Tel: 44 (0)115 951 3111 Fax: 44 (0)115 951 3159 development, yet the whole project stands as a
e-mail: [email protected] testimony to commercialism, with little high rise

CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea 229

design of quality. It seems to be a piece of downtown
America adrift in the east end of London. Carol
Willis’s ‘Form Follows Finance’ play on Louis
Sullivan’s maxim, in relation to the early skyscrapers
of New York and Chicago (Willis 1995), is seemingly
also relevant on this side of the Atlantic.
The City of London and its environs have faired
better than the docklands development in the high rise
quality stakes, perhaps with the added scrutiny
required through the historic setting. But, even with
notable high rise examples such as Norman Foster’s
2003 Swiss Re Tower and Renzo Piano’s ‘Shard of
Glass’ (scheduled for 2007), one is left with the feeling
Fig. 1. The new City of London ‘Eastern Cluster’; Heron
that these tall buildings could be situated in any city of
the world (for more on both buildings, see Abel 2003, Tower (left – theoretical project), Swiss Re Tower
pp 64-69). Exciting edifices of steel and glass they (middle) and Tower 42 (right).
may be, but what makes them right for London? What
makes them specific to the time and place in which see Wood 2002). It was left to the research students
they are set, rather than just another part of the ‘global’ themselves, in considering the size and proportion of
high rise mono-culture which is sweeping the world the tower to determine exactly how much space would
and homogenising ‘local’ cultures in its path? be provided, but the brief asked for a minimum of
The tall building is obviously not a typology to 45,000 squared-metres of space, contained in a tower
‘blend in’ with its context. It is inevitably going to soar of 30 to 40 stories in height. Guidelines were given on
above, and dominate, its surroundings. But that does the total number of office workers and residences to be
not mean it cannot become a positive element in the housed.
urban composition. It can and should relate to its
surroundings as positively as a high-quality, low-rise 3. Design Responses
building, taking its cue from site and environment, as The research students’ design responses were, on
well as client and brief. The following paper gives the whole, highly creative and well thought through,
examples of projects that, in the author’s opinion, especially considering that they had only 8 weeks for
achieve just that. Taking the Heron Tower brief and the whole design process; from site study to final
site as the starting point, they are a sample of presentation. Most, if not all, of the best schemes
theoretical design research approaches undertaken by considered aspects of all four general design
architectural research students at the University of approaches as outlined below.
Nottingham, under the guidance of the author, and
working together with the lead architects responsible They have been grouped according to their
for the live Heron Tower project; Kohn Pederson Fox. predominant design concept:
2. Project Brief (i) Those predominantly inspired by the
The Heron Tower project, currently being developed relationship between the building and the physical
by KPF Architects for the Heron Corporation, is characteristics of site (Designs 1 - 2),
situated in the heart of the City of London (Gates (ii) Those predominantly inspired by the
2002) at 110 Bishopsgate, on a prominent corner at the relationship between the building and the
junction of Bishopsgate, Houndsditch and Camomile environmental characteristics of site (Designs 3 - 5),
Street. Across from the Grade II-listed St. Botolph’s (iii) Those predominantly inspired by an
Church with its accompanying gardens and in view of organising principle for the internal spaces (Designs 6
the London Wall development, close by are the - 8).
‘Eastern High Rise Cluster’ duo (see Fig.1) of Richard (iv) Those predominantly inspired by the
Seifert’s 1981 Tower 42 and Norman Foster’s 2003 relationship between the building and an abstract /
Swiss Re (Abel 2003, pp64-67). practical philosophy (Designs 9 - 10),
Replacing the existing 1960’s low-rise Bishops
house and Kempson House on the site, the real Heron
Tower will provide 63,135 metre-squared of office Design 1: “Urban Axes”
space over 37 floors at a total height of 222 metres, This scheme (see Fig.2) is firmly rooted in its
however the theoretical design research project physical site context by creating two vast atriums
departed from this brief and asked for a mixed-use whose axes are centred on two prominent London
tower incorporating both residential, office and retail landmarks; Tower bridge over the River Thames and
space, to encourage a more varied design approach (for the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral. The floor plate
more on the actual theoretical project and design brief, accommodation is thus divided into four ‘corners’ by

230 CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea

 with several significant ‘places’ around the city, both
near (e.g. St. Botolph gardens across the street) and far
(e.g. Primrose Hill), the building becomes a billboard,
the façade ‘planes’ of which are positioned in both
plan and sectional angle to ‘speak’ to the reciprocal
place, often several miles away.
Internal functions are arranged so as to maximise
the opportunity of solid areas for billboard coverage
(e.g. lift / service cores etc), whilst allowing light and
air into the building, and views out, for internal
occupants. The building comes into its own during the
night-time, when huge liquid crystal screens,
positioned on the façade of the building and within
atria for the occupants, pulse out over the city.

Design 3: The “Sun Splice”

Fig. 2. Final Model

these atriums, linked by flying bridges on strategic

levels which add drama to the tall, angular spaces. The
alignment of the bridges along the axes of the atrium is
such that users are perpetually offered the views out
over the city, specifically focussed on the landmarks.
Additionally, the orientation of the main “St. Paul’s”
atrium to the south offers sun / heat gain to the large
vertical space which serves as an ‘environmental
tower’, assisting to naturally ventilate the office /
residential space through the stack effect.
On an urban sculptural level, the changing angular
geometry of mass and atrium with height in the tower
is certainly a rejection of the banal singular ‘shaft’ Fig. 4. Conceptual Model
which typifies many existing tall buildings. The
building would certainly become an icon for London.
This scheme (see Fig. 4) challenges one of the
major problems of high rise buildings; the fact that
Design 2: “Building as Billboard”
many towers create an unfavourable urban
environment at the ground floor plane. The shear bulk
of a tower, combined with existing commonly within
dense urban fabric, acts to cut out sun, light, air and,
often, even a view of the sky. Although this has been
acknowledged from the moment that the massive
Equitable Building in New York prompted the
introduction of the Zoning Laws of 1916 and ushered
in the era of the set-back block (for a further
discussion on this, see Landau and Condit 1996), it is
still true that the vast majority of tall buildings have a
detrimental effect on the ground level urban
environment around them.
The Sun Splice scheme sets out to change that, by
Fig. 3. Conceptual Model creating a high rise building that has a minimum
negative effect at ground level. Rejecting the idea of
This design (see Fig.3) partly takes as its inspiration lifting the building up on pilotti, which often only
the pulsing, neon night-time imagery of East Asian creates a dark, overwhelmed space beneath, the design
cities such as Tokyo or Hong Kong. In relating to site, explores the sun path at different times of the year and
it acknowledges that a high rise building has a responds by creating a huge slice in the tower’s mass –
relationship not only to the direct site context as its punctured only by structure, services and vertical
base, but hundreds of other sites around the city circulation – to allow sun and light to penetrate the
through the visual linkage. In setting up a dialogue form and project to the street level below. The size and

CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea 231

angles of enclosing planes of this huge void are Design 5: “Wind Tower”
informed by the trajectory of the sun and the desire for
a minimal shadow path considered in conjunction with
existing surrounding buildings. Further, the lower
sloping plane of the open void becomes a vegetated
park, giving green space back to the city.

Design 4: “Shell and Core”

Fig. 6. View in City Context

The sustainable credentials of high rise buildings are

constantly being called into question. On the one hand
there are organisations who believe that tall buildings
are inherently sustainable and positive for the
environment, since they accommodate many people in
a concentrated area and thus reduce urban spread,
encroachment on green belt land etc (Pank 2002). On
Fig. 5. View in Urban Context the other hand there are organisations who believe the
opposite; that the high embodied energy expenditure in
This project (see Fig.5) explores the differing building tall does not justify the tower’s existence.
optimal relationships between shell and core for the Irrespective of whichever of these arguments hold
differing office and residential function, in relation to the most truth, the ‘sustainable high rise’ is probably
both environmental context (in this case, sun) and the sub-set of the tall building genre that has seen the
physical context (view). It takes as its starting point the most research and development in recent years.
principle that, in the UK, residential space would Primarily through the work of Ken Yeang, amongst
optimally be orientated towards the sun (south) for the others (Yeang 1999), investigations into how tall
benefit of its inhabitants, whereas office space – with buildings can draw positively from climate – sun, wind,
its high internal heat gains (workers, equipment) and vegetation – are now well documented.
need to reduce glare – would be optimally orientated Within this growth area of the sustainable high rise,
away from the sun (north). a sub-area that has seen much research in recent years
Thus, in a residential tower, it would be beneficial to is the harnessing of wind energy in the tower, since
have the core placed to the north of the floor plate (to wind velocities – and thus the potential for energy
maximise useable space on the south side) and, with an generation – increase with height. Drawing on the
office tower, vice versa. Since the theoretical brief work of Stephan Behling in the School of Architecture
requires a mix of office and residential space on this at the University of Stuttgart (Campbell and Stankovic
approximately north-south orientated site, this project 2001), this particular design response (see Fig.6) is
solution provides alternating six-storey ‘blocks’ of inspired by the wind in three respects; in its orientation
each function which are shifted towards north or south to the predominant wind direction, in the aerodynamic
relative to the static core, depending on the function. plan-form of the separate petal-shaped masses, and in
Each block is also twisted in plan to be orientated the incorporation of a huge wind turbine, suspended at
towards a specific city view relative to the height of mid height between the two forms.
the block within the tower. The aerodynamic shape of the towers act to channel
Structurally the tower works on the ‘corbel’ the wind into the turbine area, and further assist in
principle, with each block of 6 floors being a structural natural ventilation of the interior spaces through the
independent ‘unit’ which simply sits on (and differing pressure potential of windward and leeward
cantilevers out from) the block below. The bracing faces.
elements evident within the facades of each block are
in fact continuous inclined columns, transmitting Design 6: “High Rise Villages”
vertical loads from roof to base. The tower resulting The interior spaces of many high rise buildings,
from this design solution is both complex and daring, despite accommodating hundreds of people, are often
but the placing of each element is firmly grounded in a monotonous, characterless spaces. Disorientation
practical philosophy rooted to both brief and context. through the repetition of identical spaces is common,

232 CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea

 dimension, with the tower becoming a sculptural form
of truncated crystals, illuminated to glow out over the
city in the evening.

Design 8: “Hydroponic Towers”

Figs. 7 & 8. Concept sketch and View of Internal Atrium

and the personalising of space – especially in the office

genre – is rare.
This design solution (see Figs. 7 & 8) seeks to
change the negative homogeneity of interior high rise
space by considering the tall building as a series of
autonomous ‘villages’ in the sky, each with a differing Fig. 10. Floor Plate Axonometric
space configuration, atmosphere and character.
It achieves this with a series of atriums, in differing
places relative to the floor plate, around which several This design solution (see Fig. 10) is inspired by both
floors of either office or residential space are the sustainable agenda and a desire for a high quality
orientated. The atriums themselves vary in size and of interior space. In an attempt to provide green space
scale, and are orientated to different aspects of the city, which is most often lost in high rise buildings once the
climate and environment, thus giving a different ground floor is departed, the design creates four
character to each space. vertical ‘hydroponic’ towers at the corner of the floor
plate, where inhabitants can grow vegetables and
Design 7: The “Preferable Corner” flowers, accessed by perforated metal decks suspended
within the continual vertical space.
These huge vertical ‘greenhouses’, in effect, become
the dominant feature of both the exterior and interior,
adding linear high rise ‘lungs’ for the benefit of both
the city as a whole and the office / residential tower
occupants.

Design 9: The “Tree House”

Fig. 9. Image in Context

In both office and residential space, especially at

elevated levels, the most sought after location is often
that at the corner of the floor plate, since this location
usually gives views in two directions. This particular
design solution (see Fig.9) acknowledges this and
exploits it, by creating a polygonal plan form with
many corners, offering view panoramas at perhaps a
dozen locations on each floor level, rather than the
usual four locations typical of the ubiquitous
rectangular box tower. This angular, polygonal Fig. 11. Section
approach to the plan form is continued into the third

CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea 233

 Inspired by the exhilarating childhood feelings of moves within the UK construction industry towards
height and liberation encapsulated in the tree house, prefabrication, which is embracing the possibilities of
this scheme (see Fig. 11) seeks to capture that the system in a vertical arrangement (Bailey 2003).
excitement by recreating the tree house on a vast scale.
Accommodation is subdivided into cellular ‘houses’ 4. Conclusion
which are positioned out on structural ‘branches’ Since the beginnings of the high rise building
emanating out from the huge central structural ‘trunk’ movement in Chicago at the end of the 19th Century
which contains the services and primary vertical (for more on this, see Condit 1964), tall buildings have
circulation. The tips of the tapering structural branches been primarily dictated by commerce and pre-occupied
(whose upper surfaces contain walkways out to the with their role as a stand-alone piece of sculptural
houses) support a huge tensile net which is hung from urban imagery. There has been very little design
the top of the structural trunk and acts in symbiosis consideration of their appropriateness to a setting, and
with the structural branches, hanging the part- how they could be inspired by – and relate to – that
cantilever beams from one another from base to top. setting. Even the treasured high rise buildings of the
The positioning of the houses within this ‘open’ net ‘heroic’ pre-war periods of Chicago and New York (e.g.
(thus primary weatherproofing occurs within the the Chrysler Building, 1930) showed little
facades of the cellular blocks) is such that they are development from the commercial model in terms of
orientated to sun or a specific view, depending on their both form and internal space. For the best part of a
location around the tower. Though this is obviously a century, most high rise buildings have exhibited a
highly experimental / theoretical approach, whose splash of money at the base of the tower, a splash of
translation into built form in the real world is doubtful money at the top, and very little in between.
from a financial perspective, it is certainly an exciting The situation is, however, changing. The
proposition. commercial, rectangular, air-conditioned, high rise
‘box’ which has proliferated around the world is dead.
Design 10: “Prefabrication” Or, at least, it should be. For a building typology that
has only been in existence for the past 120 years, it is
perhaps not surprising that it is only in the past decade
or so that we have seen a conscious move away from
the import of the North American model, towards a
high rise expression which is rooted to the setting;
design inspired by the physical, environmental,
cultural and/or philosophical climate of the ‘local’ as
opposed to the ‘global’. Now, in small pockets of
creativity around the world, we are seeing exciting
developments of ‘local’ skyscrapers – with much more
diversity in the genre as a result.
It is perhaps not surprising that it is the regions that
have more recently adopted the tall building typology,
unshackled by the constraints of the past, that are
leading this quest for a more relevant high rise
Fig. 12. View looking down. expression. In regions such as Asia and the Middle
East predominantly, architects and philosophers are
This project (see Fig.12) tackles issues of life-cycles looking at local parameters to inform their tall
and flexibility of building spaces and materials, which buildings, increasingly rejecting the exports of the
becomes of increasing concern in high rise buildings west, with exciting and inspiring results (Abel 2003).
with the inevitable access problems. In a desire to But where does this leave the West? Where does this
create a structural ‘framework’ in which ‘pods’ are leave countries such as the UK, which were not
inserted, the final design incorporates a triangulate pioneers of the tall building movement and yet have
plan, each tripartite tower housing a huge crane on its blindly imported the American model? Where does it
roof which would lift the prefabricated pods from leave America who, in the quest to re-build the World
lorries at the ground floor plane. Trade Centre in New York, have rejected the most
The design of the pods themselves thus became exciting design approaches (Protech 2002) to select
influenced by a consideration of vehicular from the competition process a project by Daniel
transportation constraints, with the final design Libeskind which relies heavily on non-relevant
embracing a standard prefabricated pod (which, in abstractism and nostalgia. As if this wasn’t disturbing
itself, would contain several floors) which could be enough, it now seems that even these ideas will
joined together with other pods to create space / become watered down by commercial realism (Blacker
volume as required for office or residential 2003).
communities. This project is indicative of strong Currently, the UK stands at a cross-roads in high

234 CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea

rise development. With very few tall buildings of 6. Locationalism. Tall Buildings that are rooted in
significant design quality in the capital, it is yet to their context by responding to the physical
convince a sceptical public of the need for them. characteristics of the site and surrounding area
Whilst controversy rages about the pros and cons of (considering that tall buildings have relationships to
building over ten stories in height, we are in danger of sites several miles away due to the visual connection).
once again closing the door to tall buildings. It is only Common design devices used include the generation of
in widening the debate – with the ultimate aim of axes from physical entities, manipulation of form to
creating inspiring tall buildings which both cities and respond to ‘place’ etc. A good built example is the
their inhabitants can relate to – that our urban centres 1984 National Commercial Bank building, Jeddah,
can become enriched by tall buildings. Saudi Arabia, by Skidmore Owings and Merrill
This paper, in examining the results from a (Garreta 2002, pp360-365).
theoretical high rise research design project, has shown
a number of approaches to design which may help 7. Environmentalism. Tall Buildings that are inspired
cities such as London in their quest for an appropriate directly by the climate in which they are located;
high rise expression. These approaches are responding to the opportunities offered by sun, wind,
summarised in the paragraphs below, and expanded by rain etc. Ken Yeang is the main protagonist of this
considering other World examples, in an attempt to approach, with his 1997 MBF Tower in Penang,
categorise current design paradigms for high rise Malaysia, a good example (Richards 2001 pp54-61).
buildings:
8. Sustainablism. Closely related to the previous
1. Abstract Sculpturalism: Tall Buildings which are category, this type of tall building is often inspired by a
still pre-occupied with their role as a piece of response to climate, but takes on the additional specific
three-dimensional art in the city, but are at least agenda of sustainability in the construction and
moving away from the commercially-dictated, operation of the building. Approaches include a
monotonous ‘shaft’ approach. A good example is the consideration of use and material life-cycle flexibility
changing angular form of Christian de Portzamparc’s in the building. Good theoretical examples include the
1999 LVMH Tower, New York (Garreta 2002, UK-based Marks Barfield Skytower and Bill Dunster’s
pp330-335). Skyzed project (Gates 2003).

2. Cultural Symbolism: Tall Buildings which are 9. Internalism. Tall Buildings which are inspired by a
inspired by an element of the indigenous culture of the concept / organising principle for the internal spaces of
location, which is unfortunately often taken quite the building, which dictates the design and external
literally (and thus with limited success) in the expression etc. This approach often includes elements
translation. Towers with Corinthian capitals and such as atria, skygardens etc. One of the best built
Islamic domes proliferate around the world, but examples is Norman Foster’s 1997 Commerzbank,
perhaps more successful examples include the Chinese Frankfurt (Zukowsky 2000).
pagoda-inspired 1998 Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai by
SOM Architects (Dupre 1998, pp116-117). 10. Materialism. Tall Buildings which are concerned
predominantly with an expression of materials and,
3. Abstract Symbolism. Towers which take an often, skin – which may or may not be linked into the
element of the culture as inspiration, but incorporate environmentalist / sustainable debate. A good example
this in a subtle, ‘abstract’ way. This often leads to a is the intelligent-skin façade and motor-driven
deeper, more refined approach e.g. the Islamic skin of windows of Ingenhoven Overdik and Partners’ 2003
BEP Architects’ 1984 Menara Dayabumi, Kuala Uptown Munchen Building, Germany (Abel 2003
Lumpur. pp79-82).

4. Abstract Conceptualism. Towers that take a strong Acknowledgements

philosophical idea for the building, which is not
I would like to acknowledge the architectural research
necessarily related to the setting but, if well executed,
becomes synonymous with the setting, e.g. Norman students responsible for the schemes as detailed in the
Foster’s 1986 Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank text:
Headquarters, Hong Kong (Garreta 2002, pp224-229). Fig.1. Design solution Mark Rinaldi
Design 1 Urban Axes Julien McGuiness
5. Structural Expressionalism. High Rise Buildings
whose predominant aesthetic and organising principle Design 2 Bldg as Billboard Konstantinos Evangelou
is informed by an expression of the structural system Design 3 Sun Splice Tom Pickford
e.g. I.M.Pei’s 1990 Bank of China, Hong Kong (Campi Design 4 Shell and Core Eva Young
2000). Design 5 Wind Tower Simon Mok

CTBUH 2004 October 10~13, Seoul, Korea 235

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