Lection 1

The Subject Matter of Phonetics:

1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics.
Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar and stylistics. It
studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-
linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology and so on. Practical phonetics studies the
substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is
mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It regards phonetic
phenomena synchronically without any special attention paid to the historical development of the
English language, but in terms of English language teaching.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation
to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language. It regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention paid to the
historical development of the English language, but in terms of English language teaching.
2. The links of phonetics with grammar.
Trough the system of rules of reading phonetics is connected with grammar and helps to
pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of
English regular verbs:
e.g. /d/ is pronounced after voiced consonants: beg – begged;
/t/ is pronounced after voiceless consonants: look – looked;
/ɪd/ is pronounced after /t/ and /d/: want p – wanted, intend – intended.
Some adjectives have a form with /ɪd/:
e.g. crooked [ˈkrʊkɪd], naked [ˈneɪkɪd], ragged [ˈrægɪd].
Another manifestation of connection of phonetics with grammar is sound interchange. It is one
of the most important phonetic phenomena. This connection can be observed in the category of
number:
– the interchange of /f-v/, /s-z/, /Ɵ-ð/ helps to differentiate singular and plural forms of nouns:
calf – calves, leaf – leaves, house – houses;
– vowel interchange helps to distinguish singular and plural of such words as:
man – men, foot – feet, mouse – mice, crisis – crises;
– vowel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs:
sing – sang – sung, write – wrote – written;
vowel interchange can also help to distinguish between:
a) nouns and verbs e.g. bath – bathe [bɑ:Ɵ] – [beɪð]
b) adjectives and nouns e.g. hot – heat [hɒt] – [hi:t]
c) verbs and adjectives e.g. moderate – moderate [ˈmɒdǝreɪt] – [ˈmɒdǝrɪt]
d) nouns and nouns e.g. shade – shadow [ʃeɪd] – [ˈʃædǝʊ]
 e) nouns and adjectives e.g. type – typical [taɪp] – [ˈtɪpɪkl].
Consonants can interchange in different parts of speech, for example in nouns and verbs:
e.g. extent – to extend [t] –[d],
mouth – to mouse [Ɵ] – [ð],
relief – to relieve [f] – [v].
Phonetics is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes it is
intonation alone can serve to single out the logical predicate of the sentence:
e.g. ˈHe came home. (Not Mary or John).
He ˈcame home. (So you can see him now).
He came ˈhome. (But you said he was going to the party).
Pausation may also perform a differentiatory function. If we compare two similar sentences
with different places of the pause, we will see that their meaning is different:
e.g. There was no love lost between them. (They loved each other).
There was no love ∣ lost between them. (They did not love each other).
3. The links of phonetics with lexicology..
Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress in the right
place that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs:
e.g. abstract (реферат) – to abstract (добувати, здобувати),
object (предмет) – to object (заперечувати, не схвалювати),
transfer (перенос, переведення) – to transfer (переносити, переводити).
Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation because they are identical in
spelling:
e.g. bow [baʊ] лук– bow [bǝʊ] уклін,
row [raʊ] ряд– row [rǝʊ] шум,
tear [teǝ] розрив– tear [etɪǝ] сльоза,
wind [wɪnd] вітер– wind [waɪnd] виток.
Due to the position of word stress we can distinguish between homonymous words and word
groups:
e.g. ˈblackboard (дрізд) – ˈblack ˌbird (чорний птах),
ˈblue-nose (сорт картоплі) – ˈblue ˌnose (синій ніс).
4. The links of phonetics with stylistics.
Phonetics is also connected with stylistics. First of all, trough intonation and its components:
speech melody, utterance stress, rhythm, pausation, voice tamber. They serve to express emotions, to
distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the author and the speaker. Very often the writer
helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special words and remarks:
 e.g. There was a short pause.
He said bitterly.
Betty touched him gently.
His tone was hostile.
Phonetics is also connected with stylistics trough repetition of words, phrases and sounds.
Repetition of identical or similar sounds is called alliteration. It helps to impart a melodic effect to
the utterance and to express certain emotions. Thus, the repetition of the sound /m/ in the lines of the
ballad helps to produce the effect of merriment:
e.g. There are twelve months in all the year,
As I hear many men say,
But the merriest month in all the year
Is the merry month of May.
Onomatopoeia is one more stylistic device which can serve as an example of the connection
between phonetics and stylistics. It is a combination of sounds that imitate sounds produced in
nature:
e.g. chatter, clatter, babble; crash, bang; clink, ting, chink.
The study of phonetic phenomena from the stylistic point of view is termed phonostylistics. It
is connected with a number of linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines, such as paralinguistics,
psychology, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, dialectology, information theory etc.
5. The branches of phonetics
There are three branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different stage in the
communication process. Each of these branches uses quite special sets of methods.
The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is et in motion, the movements of
the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds and
trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s mouth and
the listener’s ear. Until recently articulatory phonetics has been the dominating branch, and most
descriptive work has been done in articulatory terms for the purpose of teaching and because of
special interest for research work and applied linguistics.
The branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory phonetics. Its
interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the physiological
working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which sounds
are discriminated – quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here. This branch of
phonetics is of great interest to anyone who teaches or studies pronunciation.
Lecture 2
Sound of Speech as Acoustic and Articulatory Units
1.Physical properties of a speech sound (untensity).
 Speech sounds can be analysed from the viewpoint of three aspects: (1) acoustic, (2)
physiological and articulatory, (3) functional.
Speech sounds have a number of physical properties, the first of them is frequency, that is the
number of vibrations per second. When the vibrations produced by the vocal cords are regular they
produce the acoustic impression of voice or musical tone. When they are irregular noise is produced.
When there is a combination of tone and noise, either noise or tone prevails. When tone prevails over
noise sonorants are produced. When noise prevails over tone voiced consonants are produced.
The second physical property of sound is intensity. Changes in intensity are perceived as
variation in the loudness of a sound. Intensity is measured in decibels (dbs). Any sound has duration,
it is its length or quantity or time during which the same vibratory motion, the same pattern of
vibration are maintained. The duration of speech sounds is usually measured im milliseconds
(msecs).
The analysis of a sound frequency and intensity at a definite period of time can be presented
graphically with the help of a sound spectrograph. Spectrographic analysis gives basis for acoustic
definitions and classification of speech sounds.
Although acoustic descriptions, definitions and classifications of speech sounds are considered
to be more precise than articulatory ones, they are practically inapplicable in language teaching,
because the acoustic features of speech sounds cannot be seen directly or felt by the language
learner. Acoustic descriptions, however, can be applied in the fields of technical acoustics. They are
also of great theoretical value.
2.Mechanisms that take part in the production of speech sounds.
Speech is impossible without the following four mechanisms: 1) the power mechanism, 2) the
vibrator mechanism, 3) the vibrator mechanism, 4) the obstructor mechanism.
The power mechanism consists of the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, the windpipe (or
trachea), the glottis, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the nasal cavity.
The vibrator mechanism consists of the vocal cords, they may be opened or closed (completely
or incompletely).
Acoustic investigations show that besides the vocal cords there are two sources that participate
in the production of speech sounds. First one, the turbulent noise(result of some constriction in the
flow of air). Second, the impulse wave is formed when the complete obstruction to the flow of air in
the mouth cavity is suddenly broken. These sources of speech sounds may work separately or
simultaneously. The vocal cords produce vibration in the articulation of voice sounds, the turbulent
noise helps to produce voiceless constrictive consonants such as [f], [h],[v] the impulse source helps
to produce voiceless plosive consonants such as [p],[t],[k].
The two sources – vocal and turbulent participate in the production of voiced constrictive
consonants such as [v],[z],[d̠ʒ]. The vocal and impulse sources participate in the production of voices
plosive consonants such as[b],[d],[g].
The resonator mechanism consists the pharynx, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the nasal
cavity.
The obstructor mechanism consists of the tongue, the lips the soft palate with the uvula, the
hard palate.
3. Articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants.
 Articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants depend on the three
articulatory criteria. They are: 1) the presence or absence of an articulatory obstruction to the air
stream,2) the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension,3) the force of exhalation.
On the basis of these criteria consonants may be defined as sounds, in the production of which
(a) there is an articulatory obstruction to the air stream (complete, incomplete, intermittent); (b)
muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction; (c) the exhaling: force is rather strong.
Vowels may be defined as sounds in the production of which (a) there is no articulatory
obstruction to the air stream; (b) muscular tension is diffused more or less evenly throughout the
supra-glottal part of the speech apparatus; (c) the exhaling force is rather weak.
Sonorants are sounds intermediate between noise consonants and vowels because they have
features common to both. There is an obstruction, but not narrow enough to produce noise. Muscular
tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction but the exhaling force is weak. English sonorants
are: /m, n, g, 1, w, r, j/.
Lecture № 3
FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS
Questions to be discussed:
1. Phonology as the branch of linguistics.
2. The theory of phonemes.
3. Phonemes and phonemic variants.
4. Patterns of phoneme distribution.
5. Types of phonemic opposition.
6. The nature of the phoneme. Its definition and functions.

1. Phonology as the branch of linguistics.

Phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units. Phonology investigates sounds as
units which serve communicative purposes. Phonetics and phonology are closely connected. The unit
of phonetics is a speech sound; the unit of phonology is a phoneme. Phonemes can be discovered by
the method of minimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one
phoneme. For example, if we replace /b/ by /t/ in the word ban we produce a new word tan. Tan-ban
is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are
termed “minimal pair”. It is possible to take this process further. We can also produce can – ran –
man – fan – than – it is a “minimal set”.
The phonemes of a language form the system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is
usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position in at least one lexical or grammatical
minimal or sub-minimal pair. (If there is more than one distinctive feature in a pair it is called sub-
minimal).
2. The theory of phonemes.
The founder of the phoneme theory was I.A. Baudouin de Courteney, the Russian scientist of
Polish origin. His theory of phoneme was developed and perfected by L. Scherba – the head of the
Leningrad linguistic school, who stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of
sounds than we are aware of. In every language these sounds are united in a comparatively small
number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and form of words, i.e. they
serve the purpose of social intercommunication.
The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants, or allophones of phonemes. Allophones
are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, i.e. their acoustic and articulatory
features have much in common. At the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of
differentiating words. For example, in speech we pronounce not the sound type /t/, which is
aspirated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive, voiceless-fortis – according to the
classificatory definition, but one of its variants,
e.g. labialized in the word twice,
dental in the word eighth,
post-alveolar in the word try,
exploded nasally in the word written,
exploded laterally in the word little,
pronounced without aspiration in the word stay.
The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each language is much smaller than the number of
sounds actually pronounced.
Comparative table of phonemes in different languages
Language Consonants Vowels Total
Ukrainian 32 6 38
English 24 20 44
French 17 15 32
German 22 18 40
Finnish 13 8 21

3. Phonemes and phonemic variants.

Phonemic variants, or allophones, are very important for language teaching because they are
pronounced in actual speech and though their mispronunciation does not always influence the
meaning of words; their misuse makes a person’s speech sound as foreign.
That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most representative and free from the
influence of the neighbouring phonemes is considered to be typical, or principal. The variants used in
actual speech are called subsidiary. Subsidiary allophones are used in certain positions traditionally.
For example, the English /l/ is realized in actual speech as a positional allophone:
e.g. it is clear in the initial position, and dark in the terminal position,
compare: light, let – hill, mill.
Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of one
phoneme upon another.
 To distinguish the sound types from their allophones in writing, two types of brackets are used:
slant-like for the phonemes proper, and square for their allophones.
4. Patterns of phoneme distribution.
Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The simplest of them is free
variation, i.e. the variation of one and the same phoneme pronounced differently:
e.g. would you [ˈwƱdju:] – [ˈwƱʤu:],
mutual [ˈmju:tjƱƏl] – [ˈmju:ʧƱƏl],
could you [ˈkƱdju:] – [ˈkƱʤu:].
Complementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme environment, when one and the
same phoneme occurs in a definite set of contexts in which no other phoneme ever occurs. The
allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in the same context, variants of one phoneme
are mutually exclusive. (When allophones of one phoneme do occur in the same context without
distinctive force, they are in free variation).
e.g. complementary distribution of /u:/: pool, youth, who, tube, rouge, duke. Each word is
given as an example of different /u:/environment, it cannot be observed in other words.
Contrastive distribution is one more pattern of phoneme environment,
e.g. contrastive distribution of /u:/: book – beak, book – back, book – bark.
5. Types of phonemic opposition.
Minimal distinctive features are discovered through oppositions. This method helps to prove
whether the phonemic difference is relevant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or
multiple:
e.g. /t/ and /d/ differ along the following lines:
/t/ voiceless fortis, /d/ - voiced lenis
Their other characteristic features are irrelevant, thus /t/ and /d/ have only one distinctively
relevant feature, thus the opposition is single.
We can prove that this opposition is really phonemic by the minimal pairs:
e.g. ten – den, time – dime, try – dry.
If there are two distinctively relevant features, the opposition is double,
e.g. /p/ and /d/ differ along the following lines:
/p/ - voiceless fortis, /d/ - voiced lenis
labial, bilabial lingual, forelingual,
This opposition is really phonemic. It can be proved by the minimal pairs:
e.g. pie – die, pail – dale, pry – dry.
The opposition /b/ - /h/ is multiple because these phonemes differ along the following lines:
/b/ - voiced lenis /h/
voiceless fortis
 labial, bilabial pharyngal
occlusive constrictive
The phonemic nature of this opposition can be proved by minimal pairs:
e.g. be – he, bit – hit, bait – hate.
The method of minimal pairs helps to establish the inventory of phonemes; it is one of the two
main problems of phonological analysis.
There is one more big problem in phonology – theory of distinctive features. It was originated
by N. Trubetskoy and developed by such foreign scientists as R. Jackobson, C. Fant, N. Chomsky, G.
Monroe and others. Distinctive features are the main, basic elements of variability in different
languages. The communication of meaning and utterance is effected due to these features.
6. The nature of the phoneme. Its definition and functions.
There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its definition.
I.A. Baudouin de Courteney defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He
originated the “mentalist” view of the phoneme.
The abstractional conception of the phoneme was originated by Ferdinand de Saussure, the
famous Swiss linguist and the Danish linguist L. Hjelmslev. It was advocated by their pupils in the
Copenhagen circle. The “abstract” view regards the phoneme independent of the phonetic properties.
N.S. Trubetskoy, L. Bloomfield, R. Jakobson viewed the phoneme as the minimal sound units
by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the features of the phoneme involved in
the differentiation of words are called distinctive. They can be found in contrastive sets.
The physical view on the phoneme was originated by D. Jones. He defined the phoneme as a
“family” of sounds. The members of the family show phonetic similarity. No member of the family
can occur in the same phonetic context as any other member.
L.V. Scherba was the first to define the phoneme as a real, independent distinctive unit which
manifests itself in the form of allophones.
Prof. Vassilyev developed L. Scherba’s theory and presented a detailed definition of the
phoneme. He stated that a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects: 1) material, real and
objective; 2) abstractional and generalized; 3) functional.
It serves to perform the following functions: a) constitutive; b) distinctive; c) recognitive.
V. Vassilyev states that phoneme is material, real and objective because it really exists in the
material form of speech sounds, allophones. It is an objective reality, existing independently from
our will or intention. It is an abstraction because we make it abstract from concrete realizations for
classificatory purposes. It functions to make one word or its grammatical form distinct from the
other. It constitutes words and helps to recognize them.
 Lecture 4
Articulatory transitions of vowel and consonant phonemes
1. Factors that condition the modifications of sounds.
2. Assimilation. Its definition and types.
3.Ways of joining the sounds.
4. The work of the vocal cords affected by assimilation.
5. The place of articulation and the manner of noise production affected by assimilation.
6. The notion of adaptation (accommodation).
7. Vowel reduction.
8. Elision. Its types.
1. Factors that condition the modifications of sounds.
In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one
sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications
can be conditioned:
a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-
advanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In
the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully
front /i;/ which follows it:
b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the
alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence
of /ð/ which follows it;
c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins may turn into

as a result of the intercourse between consonants, consonants and within each class there
appear such processes of connected speech:
as assimilation
accommodation (adaptation)
vowel reduction and elision (deletion).
2. Assimilation. Its definition and types.
Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants of
phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.
Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living.
Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called
historical.
As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is concerned it can be:
 1) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second
sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks, pegs, the
sounds /k/ and /g/make the plural inflection /s/ similar to the voiceless Jkl in /desks/ and to the
voiced /g/ in /pegz/;
2) regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assim
ilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combina
tion^ the the alveolar It/ becomes dental, assimilated to the inter
dental Id/ which follows it;
3) double, or reciprocal, when the two adjacent sounds influence
each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the 'influence of /w/ and /w/
is partly devoiced under the influence of the Voiceless /t/.
Each sound pronounced in isolation has three stages in its articulation.
1.During the first stage the organs of speech move to the position which is necessary to
pronounce the sound. It is called differently by different authors: initial stage, on-glide, excursion.
2.During the second stage the organs of speech are kept for some time in the position necessary
to pronounce the sound. This stage is called: medial stage, stop-stage, retention stage, the hold.
3.During the third stage the organs of speech move away to the neutral position. This stage is
called final stage, off-glide, recursion, release.
3.Ways of joining the sounds.
There are two ways of joining the sounds:
(1) merging of stages — when the final stage of the first sound merges with the initial stage of
the second sound, loose type of articulatory transition.
(2) interpenetration of stages — when the final stage of the first sound penetrates not only the
beginning but also the middle of the second sound —close type of articulatory transition.
For example, in the word law the two sounds III and /o:/ are joined by way of merging their
stages.
Interpenetration of stages takes place when sounds of a similar, or identical nature are joined
together:
For example: in the words act, bottle, vehicle the clusters /kt/, /tl/, /Id/ are pronounced with the
"loss of plosion".
/tl/, /kl/ are pronounced with the lateral plosion.
When the two neighbouring sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence:
1) the work of the vocal cords;
2) the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.
4. The work of the vocal cords affected by assimilation.
Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent
consonants becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless
— under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. For example, in the word gooseberry
Is/ became voiced under the influence of the next voiced /b/ — regressive assimilation. 
In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r, j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel,
preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, cry. In this case
partial progressive assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords both in English and in Russian.
In Russian voiceless-voiced distinction can be completely lost, compare: суп, субпродукты where /
6/ undergoes complete regressive assimilation to /n/ which follows it. Russian learners should be
careful about the cases where regressive assimilation may fully affect the work of the vocal cords
due to the Russian habit of regressive voicing.
Two obligatory assimilations of this type in English are used to and have to (must), e.g.; / used
to wear a suit /ai Jju:st t9 'wee э ssju:t/
but / used two /ai iju:zd Ни:/ (шаш verb), / have to be ■early /ai 'haef ta bi V3:h/ but / have
two /ai 'hsev 'tu:/ (main verb).
5. The place of articulation and the manner of noise production affected by assimilation.
Assimilation affecting the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.
Consonants are modified according to the place of articulation. Assimilation take place when a
sound changes its character in order to become more like a neighboring sound.
It can be illustrated as follows:
1). In the word clusters at the coccid that the dental /t/ and /d/ become interdental under the
influence of the next interdental / ð /. It’s regressive assimilation.
2). In the word free, true, dream the alveolar /t/ and /d/ become post-alveolar under the
influence of the next post-alveolar /r/. it’s partial regressive assimilation.
3). In the word clusters’ horse-shoe, does she, this shop the alveolar /s/, /z/ become post-
alveolar under the influence of the next post-alveolar / ʃ / . it’s complete regressive assimilation.
4). In the words and combination’s’ graduate, congratulate did you, could you the alveolar /t/
and /d/ become affricated under the influence of the affricative combinations /t+j/. Its incomplete
redressive assimilation.
By analogy with alveolar consonants it’s possible to speak about nasal ASM which operates
not only within the morpheme as in thank but also within:
-syllable boundaries: symphony;
- morpheme boundaries: in prefixes –in, -un (incomplete, ungrateful, impractical);
-and word boundaries: in case, in fact.
The manner of articulation is also changed as a result of articulation in the following cases:
Loss of plosion. In the sequence of two plosive consonants the former loses its plosion (glad to
see you, great trouble).
Nasal plosion. In the sequence of a plosive followed by a nasal sonorant the manner of
articulation of the plosive and the work of the soft palate are involved, which results in the nasal
character of plosion release (sudden, at night). There are cases of partial regressive ASM.
 Lateral plosion. In the sequence of the plosive stop is changed into that of the lateral stop
(settle, candle, at last). There are cases of partial regressive ASM.
When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel (or vice versa
phenomenon) is called adaptation or accommodation.
For example: some slight degree of nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal
sonorant as never, man;
Labialization of consonants preceding the vowels /o/ and /y/ in Ukraine as in боляче, думати.
When the two neighboring sounds are affected by accommodation, it may influence the active
organ of speech.
Lip position may be affected by the accommodation, the interchange of consonant + vowel.
Labialization of consonants is traced under the influence of the neighboring back vowels.
For example: pool, moon, rude, soon, who. It’s possible to speak about the spread lip position
of consonant followed or preceded by front vowel /i:/, /i/.
e.g. meet-ham, seat – miss.
The position of the soft palate is also involved in the ASM. Slight nasalization as the result of
prolonged lowering of the soft palate is sometimes traced in vowels under the influence of the
neighboring sonorants /m/ and /n/ and (morning, men, come in)
One of the wide-spread sound changes is vowel reduction. Reduction is actually qualitative or
quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions (man – postman, board – blackboard).
8. Elision. Its types.
Elision or complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants is often observed in English.
Elision is likely to be minimal in show careful speech and maximal in rapid relaxed colloquial
forms of speech. Thus, when one of the neighboring sounds are not realized in rapid or careless
speech this process is called elision.
Elision can be historical can be historical and contemporary English spelling is full of ‘silent’
letters which bear witness to historical elision, e.g. chalk, walk, knee, knight, castle, write, wrong,
wrist.
The most common cases of contemporary elision are the following:
a). /ft, st, ʃt,  θt, vd, zd, ðd/ sequences: waste [weis], paper [peipə], crushed strawberries [krʌ ʃ
strɔ:briz].
b). /pt,kt,bd,tʃt,dʒd/ sequences: cracked pots [‘kræk pɒts]
c). /md,nd, ŋd/ sequences: slammed the door ['slæm ðədɔ:].
In this case elision most frequently remove the marker of past tense in verbs. The meaning is
usually clear from the context.
There are some words and verbal forms in which elision frequently exists in everyday speech.
There are:
1). Months and clothes with elided dental fricatives [‘mʌnθs] – [‘mʌns], [‘kləʊðz], [kləʊz].
 2). Fifth and sixth elide the consonants which preceac /θ/ [‘fifθ] – [fif], [‘siksθ] – [siks].
3). Of elided /v/ before /ð/: seven of those apples [‘sevən ə ðəʊz æplz].
Six of the best [‘siks ə ðə best]
4). Tt is reduced to /t/ in the following verbal forms: I want to drive [ai ‘wants, draiv], going to
[‘gɒnə] in all cases except very careful speech: we’re going [‘gɒnə] to move the house.
Lecture 5
Accentual structure of English words
1.Nature of stress. Its definition.
2. Types of stress.
3. Fixed and free stress.
4. Degrees of word stress.
5. Factors that determine the place and different degree of word stress.
6. Rules of word stress.
1.Nature of stress. Its definition.
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. It can be perceived as
stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress. Stress in connected speech is termed
sentence stress. Stress is defined differently by different authors.
Bogoroditsky defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory
and articulatory activity.
D. Jones states that stress in the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of
exhalation and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet established the connection of stress with
the force of breath. The English linguists D. Crystal, A. Gimson agree that in English word stress or
accent is a complex phenomenon, marked by variations in force, pitch, quantity, and quality. Stress is
the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force
of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is
usually a vane.
2. Types of stress.
In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more significant
than the others.
According to the most important feature different types of word stress are distinguished in
different languages.
If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the
intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dyname (force).
If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through its change of pitch or
musical tone, such accent is called musical (tonic).
If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change of in the
quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables, such type of stress is called
quantitative.
 Quantitative type of is achieved though the changes in the quality of a vowel under stress.
3. Fixed and free stress.
All English vowels may occur in accented syllable; the only exception is /ə/, which is never
stressed. Stress can be characterized as fixed and free.
In languages with fixed type the place of stress is always the same, e.g. in Czech and Slavak
the stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In French, Welsh, Polish is on the penultimate syllable.
In English, Ukrainian and Russian word stress in free, I.e. it may fall on any syllable in a word:
On the first (mother); on the second (occasion); on the third (detonation) etc.
Word stress in English and to a much greater extent in Ukrainian; is dynamic or shifting.
e.d. syllable – syl’lable, trans’port – transpor’tation – trans’porting. It helps to differentiate
different parts of speech.
e.g. ‘insult – to in’sult, ‘import – to im’port, ‘conduct – to con’dect.
In English ‘billow’ is морський вал, ‘be’low’ is донизу. Similar cases can be observed in
Ukrainian and Russian: му’ка – мука’ , за’мок – замо’к, образи’ – обра’зи о’брази
In Russian: у’зко, Ки’сло, ма’ло are adjectives, but узко, кисло, мало are adverbs.
4. Degrees of word stress.
There is some controversy about the degrees of the word stress terminology and about placing
the stress marks.
Most British phoneticians term the strangest stress primary, the sound strongest secondary, and
all the other degrees of the stress-weak.
The stress marks placed before the stressed syllables indicate simultaneously their place and
the point of syllable division, e.g. ‘examination.
The number of words with two primary stressed in considerably larger in English than in
Ukrainian due to the prefixes un-, in-, dis-, ex-, under- and some others forming prominent syllables,
which is not observed in Ukrainian.
5. Factors that determine the place and different degree of word stress.
English words consisting of two, three or more syllables have on obligatory secondary stress
next to the primary, e.g. abo’lition, possi’bility, neces’sarity. This phenomenon is almost alien to
Ukrainian, though a weaker stress can be traced in distinctly or carefully pronounced polysyllabic
words, e.g. загальноосвітній.
It should be acted that due to the different origin of several layers in the Modern English word-
stock the accentual structure of English word is instable.
In Germany languages the word stress originally fell on the initial or the second syllable, on the
root syllable in the English words with prefixes. This tendency was called recessive. Most English
words of Anglo-Saxon origin as well as French borrowings are subjected to the recessive tendency.
Unrestricted recessive tendency is observed in:
the native English words having no prefix, e.g. daughter [‘dɔ:tə], mother [‘mʌðə];
in assimilated French borrowings, e.g. colour [‘kʌlə].
 restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes, e.g. become [bi’kʌm], begin
[bi’gin].
A great number of words of anglo-saxon origin are monosyllabic, both national words and
form words. They tend to alternate in the flow of speech, e.g. I don’t believe he’s right.
The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables predetermined the rhythmical
tendency in the present day. English, which caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the
multisyllable French borrowings, e.g. revolution, organization, assimilation, pronunciation.
The third tendency was traced in the instability of the accentual structure of English word
stress. This tendency is termed retentive; it consists in the retention of the primary accent on the
original or poi rent word, e.g. person – ‘personal. More commonly it’s retained on the parent word as
secondary accent, e.g. ‘similar – similarity.
6. Rules of word stress.
The numerous variants of Eng. Word stress can be regulated in the system of the following
rules of word stress in English:
1). In words of two or more syllables, the primary stress mostly falls on the 1st syllable, e.g.
cabinet, sensible.
2). In prefix of words the primary stress basically falls on the syllable that follows the prefix,
e.g. impossible, recall, behind.
3). In prefix of words prefixes what have their own meaning are stressed, e.g. ex-minister,
non-party, vice-president.
4). In prefix of verbs, which are distinguished from identically spelled nouns and adjectives,
place of stress is only second syllable. Nouns and adjectives have their stress on the initial syllable,
e.g. ‘compound – to com’pound, to in’crose – ‘incrose.
5). Suffixes such as –esce, -esque, -ate, -ize, -fy, -etle, -inque, -ee, -eer, -ade have the place of
stress of the preceded syllable of themselves, e.g. picturesque, technique, specialize, dictate;
6). Suffixes such as –ical, -ic, -ion –ity, -ial, - cient, -ience, -eaus, -ual, -uous, -ety, -itous, -ive,
-ative, (-itive), -itude, -ident, -inal, words have the place of stress of the preceding syllable, e.g.
economic, grammatic, position, majority.
7). In words of the four and more syllables the place of stress is on the third from the end
syllable (or antepenultimate) e.g. emergency, historical, calamity.
In compound words the 1st element is stressed when:
1). Compounds are written as one word, e.g. apple-tree, bedroom, caretaker, watchdog;
2). Nouns are compounded of a verb and an adverb, e.g. ‘pick up, a make-up;
3). Nouns in the possessive case are followed by another noun, e.g. a ‘doll’s house.
In compound words the second element is stressed when:
1). In the name of roads, parks and squares are implied, e.g. Cathedral ‘Road, Park ‘Place (but
‘Cathedral street);
2). Parts of the house and other buildings are implied, e.g. front ‘door, kitchen ‘window;
 3). Adjectives with past participle characterizing persons, e.g. fold-Hooded, thick – skinned;
4). Compound nouns ending in –er,or –ing are followed by adverbs, e.g. passer ‘ by.
Two equal stresses are observed in:
a). composite verbs, e.g. to ‘give’up, to’come’in;
b). in numerals from 13 to 19, e.g. six’teen.
It should be mentioned that the rhythmic tendency is very strong in modern Eng. Due to its
influence there are such accentual variants as: hospitable [hu’spitəbl], [hus’pitəbl].
In sentences with two equal stresses words can be pronounced with one-single stress under the
influence of rhythm, e.g. ‘thirty, but: He number is thir’teen.
Under the influence of rhythm, a shifting of word-stress can be observed in words with the
secondary stress, e.g. ‘qualifi’cation - ‘just qualification.
The rhythmic stress affects the stress pattern of a great number of words in the Eng. Language
the result in the secondary accent, e.g. employee.
Under the influence of rhythm compounds of three elements may have a single stress on the
second element, e.g. hot’ water bottle.
In every day speech the following variants of stress patterns can also be observed in:
1). Stylistically conditioned accentual variants,
e.g. territory [‘tərətæri], [‘terətri]
2). Individual, free accentual variants,
e.g. hospitable - hospitable [hu’spitəbl], [hus’pitəbl].
similar cases can be observed in Russian and Ukrainian.
Творог [тво‘рог], [творог’], допо‘вісти.
Both variants of pronunciation are correct but free accentual variants should not be confused
with or the epically incorrect accentuation.
LECTURE № 6
SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS
1. The notion of a syllable.
2. The structure of an English syllable.
3. Theories of syllable formation.
4. The rules of syllable division.
5. Functional characteristics of the syllable.
1. The notion of a syllable.
Though the basic phonological units are phonemes, human intercommunication is actualized in
syllables. The study of the syllable has for a long time occupied an important place in linguistics as a
field of theoretical investigation. But though phonetics has progressed far enough the problem of the
syllable is still an open question.
The syllable as a unit is difficult to define. That is why there exist a great number of different
interpretations and views on the syllable. According to J.Kenyon, the syllable is one or more speech
sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly
recognized subdivision of a word. The syllable can be: a single word as in chair [ʧeə], a part of a
word as in English [ˈıŋ-glıʃ], a part of a grammatical form of a word as in later [ˈleı-tə].
2. The structure of an English syllable.
Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant.
Vowels are usually syllabic (слоговой; силлабически) while consonants are not, except for /l/,
/m/, /n/ which become syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final position preceded by a noise
consonant,
e.g. little [ˈlıtl], blossom [ˈblɒsəm], garden [ˈgɑ:dn].
The structure of the syllable is known to vary because of the number and the arrangement of
consonants. In English there are distinguished four types of syllables:

1 Open [nəʊ] no CV
2 Closed [ɒd] odd VC
3 Covered [nəʊt] note CV(C)
4 Uncovered [əʊ], [əʊk] oh, oak V(C)

As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from one to eight: e.g. 1 – come
[kʌm], 2 – city [ˈsɪtɪ], 3 – family [ˈfæmɪlɪ], 4 – simplicity [sɪmˈplɪsɪtɪ], 5 – unnaturally [ʌnˈnəʧərəlɪ],
6 – incompatibility [ˈɪnkɒmˌpætɪˈbɪlɪtɪ], 7 – unintelligibility ˈ[ˈʌnɪnˌtelɪʤɪˈbɪlɪtɪ] etc.
The syllable like the phoneme can be studied on four levels: acoustic, articulatory, auditory and
functional. It means that the syllable can be approached from different points of view. The
complexity of the phenomenon gave rise to many theories.
3. Theories of syllable formation.
The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels.
This theory is primitive and insufficient (несоответствующий) since it does not take into
consideration consonants which can also form syllables in some languages, neither does it explain
boundary of syllables.
The expiratory [ɪk'spɪrət(ə)rɪ] (выдыхательный, экспираторный) theory states that there are
as many syllables in a word as there are expiration pulses. The borderline between the syllables is,
according to this theory, the moment of the weakest expiration. This theory is inconsistent
[ˌɪnkən'sɪst(ə)nt] (нелогичный, противоречивый) because it is quite possible to pronounce several
syllables in one articulatory effort or expiration, e.g. [ˈsi:ıŋ].
The sonority (звонкость, звучность) theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as
there are peaks of prominence or sonority. Speech sounds pronounced with uniform (одинаковый
force), length and pitch differ in inherent [ɪn'her(ə)nt] (присущий) prominence or sonority. Being
pronounced on the same level, sounds have different acoustic intensity or sonority. Within the
framework of this theory the scale of sonority of sounds was established (O.Jespersen), i.e. the scale
of their inherent prominence. According to this scale the most sonorous are back vowels (low, mid,
high), then go semi-vowels and sonorants, then – voiced and voiceless consonants.
SCALE OF SONORITY
1 Low vowels /a:, Ɔ:, ɒ, æ/
2 Mid vowels /e, ɜ:, ə, ^/
3 High vowels /i:, I, u:, ʊ/
4 Semi-vowels /w, j/
5 Sonorants /l, r, m, n, ŋ/
6 Voiced constrictive consonants /v, z, ʒ, ð/
7 Voiced plosive consonants /b, d, g/
8 Voiced constrictive consonants and affricates /ʃ, ʧ, ʤ, f. s, h, Ɵ /
9 Voiceless plosive consonants /p, t, k/

According to this theory sounds are grouped around the most sonorous ones, which form the
peaks of sonority in a syllable. Two points of lower sonority constitutes the beginning and the end of
one syllable.
The sonority theory helps to establish the number of syllables in a word but fails to explain the
mechanism of syllable division because it does not state to which syllable the weak sound at the
boundary of the two syllables belongs.
There is one more theory named “arc [ɑːk] (дуга) of loudness” based on L. Scherba’s
statement that the centre of a syllable is the syllable forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or
follow it constitute (составлять) a chain, or an arc, which is weak in the beginning and in the end
and strong in the middle.
None of the theories mentioned above is reliable in the definition of the syllable boundary. The
linguistic importance of syllable division in different languages is in finding typology of syllables
and syllabic structure of meaningful units of a language, i.e. morphemes and words. It is the syllable
division that determines (определять) the syllabic structure of the language.
4. The rules of syllable division.
The syllabic structure of a language is patterned (образован); it means that the sounds of
language can be grouped into syllables according to certain rules. Electro acoustic analysis makes it
possible to formulate the following rules of syllable division in English:
In affixal words the syllabic boundary coincides [ˌkəuɪn'saɪd] (совпадать) with the
morphological boundary, e.g. dis – place , be – come, un – able, count – less.
In words with CVCV structure two ways of the syllabic boundary are possible, either after the
long accented (ударный) vowel, e.g. farmer [ˈfɑ:-mə], or within the intervocalic (интервокальный)
consonant, e.g. city [ˈsɪtɪ], pity [ˈpɪtɪ].
 In words of CSCV structure the syllabic boundary is within the intervocalic sonorant, e.g. inner
[ˈɪnə], cinema [ˈsɪnɪmə], enemy [ˈenɪmɪ].
English diphthongs are unisyllabic (одно-) because they consist of one vowel phoneme,
English triphthongs are dissyllabic because they consist of two vowel phonemes, e.g. science [ˈsaɪ-
əns], flower [ˈflaʊ-ə].
5. Functional characteristics of the syllable.
The syllable as a phonological unit performs three functions: constitutive [kən'stɪtjutɪv]
(основополагающий), distinctive, identificatory (опознавательный). They are closely connected.
Constitutive function lies in the ability to be a part of a word or a word itself. Syllables
constitute (составлять) words, phrases and sentences through the combination of their prosodic
(интонационный) features: loudness – stress, pitch – tone, duration – length and tempo. Syllables
may be stressed, unstressed; high, mid, low, rising, falling; long and short. All these prosodic
features form the stress-pattern of words and the rhythmic and intonation structures of an utterance.
Distinctive function (differentiatory) demonstrates the ability of the syllable to differentiate
words and word-forms. To prove that a set of minimal pairs should be found so that qualitative
and/or quantitative peculiarities of certain allophones could indicate the beginning or the end of the
syllable.
e.g. an aim – a name; I scream – ice-cream;
в ранці – вранці; цеглина – це глина.
It can be seen from the examples that syllable division changes the allophonic context of the
word because the realization of the phoneme in different positions in a syllable (initial, medial, final)
results in different allophones.
The distinctive function of the syllabic boundary makes it possible to introduce the term
“juncture” стык (морфем, фонем, синтаксических структур) (the place where two sounds are
joined together). Close juncture or conjuncture (соединение) occurs between sounds within one
syllable:
e.g. a name (the close juncture is between /n/ and /eɪ/);
I scream (the close juncture is between /s/ and /k/).
Open juncture or disjuncture occurs between two syllables. If we mark open juncture with +
then in our examples it will occur between a + name, I + scream. It is easy to turn open juncture into
close one:
e.g. a name for it → an aim for it
a black tie → a blacked eye.
Identificatory function is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speaker. The listener can
understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary –
syllabodisjuncture:
e.g. pea stalks (стебель) → peace talks; my train → might rain.
The existence of such pairs demands special attention to teaching not only the correct
pronunciation of sounds but also the observation of the correct place for syllabodisjuncture.
 Lecture № 7
INTONATION
1. The notion of intonation.
2. The main approaches to the problem of intonation.
3. Melody.
4. Sentence stress.
5. Rhythm and tempo.
6. Pausation and tamber.
7. Stylistic use of intonation.

1. The notion of intonation.

Intonation is a complex unity of prosodic features of speech: 1)melody, pitch of the voice;
2)sentence stress; 3)temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4) rhythm; 5) tamber
(voice quality).
Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of
sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and
phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main functions of intonation are communicative
and expressive.
2. The main approaches to the problem of intonation.
There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known
as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical.
The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H.Sweet, D.Jones, C.Palmer,
L.Armstrong, J.O’Connor, A.Gimson and others. It is traditional and widely used. According to this
approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone group (sense group).
Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional “blocks”. They
pay much attention to these blocks but not to the way they are connected. In fact, in the framework
of this approach the aim of communication determines the intonation structure, not vice versa.
The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M.Halliday. In his
opinion the main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex unity of three systemic
variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality
marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group.
Tones, which can be primary or secondary, convey the attitude of the speaker.
3. Melody.
Speech melody or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sentence stress.
Successive contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined differently: sense
groups, breath groups, tone groups, intonation groups, tone (tonetic) units, pitch and stress patterns.
 The tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. It contains one nucleus
or peak of prominence. The interval between the highest and the lowest pitched syllable is called the
range of a sense group. The range usually depends on the pitch level: the higher the pitch, the wider
the range. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone group is called a nuclear
tone. It may occur not only in the nucleus but extend to the tail – terminal tone.
The inventory of tonal types given by different scholars is different. H Sweet distinguishes 8
tones: level, high rising, low rising, high falling, low falling, compound rising, compound falling,
rising-falling-rising. C. Palmer states that there are 4 basic tones: falling, high rising, falling-rising,
low rising. M. Halliday recognizes 7 major types.
Prof. Vassilyev discriminates 10 tone units. He states that tones can be moving and level.
Moving tones can be: simple, complex and compound. They are: Low Fall, High Wide Fall, High
Narrow Fall; Low Rise, High Narrow Rise, High Wide Rise; Rise-Fall; Rise-Fall-Rise. Level tones
can be pitched at High, Mid and Low level.
Methods of indicating intonation are different. The system of tonetic symbols is the most
economical and vivid, that is why it is the most popular in our textbooks.
Tonetic units that constitute the total tone pattern (contour) are the following:
Unstressed and half stressed syllables preceding the first stressed syllable constitute the
prehead of the intonation group.
Stressed and unstressed syllables up to the last stressed syllable constitute the head (body,
scale) of the intonation group.
The last stressed syllable, within which fall or rise in the intonation group is accomplished, is
called the nucleus. The syllable marked with the nuclear tone may take a level stress.
The syllables (or one syllable) that follow the nucleus, constitute the tail.
e.g. It’s been a ˈvery ˈgood ˌevening for me.
The most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries nuclear stress
(nuclear tone).
According to the changes in the voice pitch preheads can be: rising, mid and low. Scales can
be: descending, ascending and level.
According to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables, descending and
ascending scales can be: stepping, sliding and scandent.
If one of the words in the descending scale is made specially prominent, this type of scale is
called broken descending scale.
The falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categoric in character. The rising
tones are incomplete and non-categoric. Of all the level tones Mid Level tone is used most
frequently. The level tones may express hesitation and uncertainty.
4. Sentence stress.
Sentence strees or accent is a grater prominence of words which are made more prominent in
an intonation group.
The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the
dominant perceptual component is loudness. In the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an
utterance correlate with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is the strongest – it carries the most
important information. Non-nuclear stress is subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only
in the head of the intonation group. Partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail.
In tone groups stress may undergo alternations under the influence of rhythm. But there are
some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance.
Words that are usually stressed:
Nouns; adjectives; numerals; interjections; demonstrative pronouns; emphatic pronouns;
possessive pronouns (absolute form); interrogative pronouns; indefinite pronouns: somebody,
someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject); indefinite negative pronouns: no,
none, no one, nobody, nothing; indefinite pronouns: some, any (expressing quality); indefinite
pronouns: all, each, every, other, either, both; indefinite quantitative pronouns: much, many, a little,
a few; notional verbs; auxiliary verbs (negative contracted forms); two-word prepositions; two-word
conjunctions; particles: only, also, too, even, just.
Words that are usually unstressed:
Personal pronouns; reflexive pronouns; reciprocal pronouns; relative pronouns; possessive
pronouns (conjoint form); indefinite pronouns: some, any (when expressing quantity); indefinite
pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object); auxiliary
verbs (affirmative form); one-word prepositions; one-word conjunctions; articles; particles: there, to;
modal verbs (but contracted forms and general questions are exceptions).
The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they are stressed
or unstressed:
e.g. You ˈmay go. (possibility)
You may ˈgo. (permission)
Stress in an utterance provides the basis for identification and understanding of the content. It
helps to perform constitutive, distinctive and identificatory functions of intonation.
5. Rhythm and tempo.
Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so typical of an
English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English origin of the speaker even in cases
of correct pronunciation.
The phenomenon of rhythm is closely connected with the phonetic nature of stress. The units
of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or rhythmic groups. Unstressed syllables
have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables (enclitics) or to the following stressed
syllables (proclitics).
Each sense group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of time.
Unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly: the greater the number of unstressed syllables, the
quicker they are pronounced. Proclitics are pronounced faster than enclitics. Rhythm is connected
with sentence stress. Under the influence of rhythm words, which are normally pronounced with the
two equally strong stresses, may lose one of them.
6. Pausation and tamber.
 Pausation is closely connected with the other components of intonation. The number and
length of pauses affect the general tempo of speech. A slower tempo makes the utterance more
prominent and more important. It is an additional means of expressing the speaker’s emotions.
Pauses are usually divided into filled and unfilled, corresponding to voiced and silent pauses.
Another subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation. Pauses play not only segmentative
and delimitative functions. They show relations between utterances and intonation groups,
performing constitutive function. They play the semantic and syntactic role.
e.g. There was no love lost between them. (They loved each other)
There was no love lost ∣ between them. (They didn’t love each other)
The tamber of the voice quality is a special colouring of the speaker’s voice. It is used to
express various emotions and moods such as joy, anger, sadness, indignation, etc.
7. Stylistic use of intonation.
The choice of an intonational style is determined primarily by the purpose of communication
and by a number of other extra linguistic and social factors. Linguists single out several intonational
styles but term them differently. For example, S.Leontyeva identifies five functional styles: Belles-
letters Style, Publicistic Style, Newspaper Style, Scientific Prose Style, and the Style of Official
Documents. But the recent achievements in experimental phonetics made it possible to single out the
following intonational styles: Informational, Academic (Scientific), Publicistic (Oratorial),
Declamatory (Artistic), Conversational (Familiar).
It is widely accepted that the purpose of communication determines the types of intonation
conveyed in oral texts. There may be patterns used for: a) intellectual purposes, b) emotional and
attitudinal purposes, c) volitional and desiderative purposes, by which the substantive goals of
speakers are carried out.
It should be noted that any intonational style is an extremely complex phenomenon. Even a
single speech act involves an extraordinary range of factors and could be considered from any
different and sometimes even conflicting points of view.