Topic 3 Homework HW 1 Pages 3-5 review questions 1-30 due date 10/14 HW 2 Pages 6-10 “ “ 31-66 “ * 10/17 HW 3 Pages 14-17 Z “67-100 =‘ =‘ 10/21 EXTRA CREDIT QUESTIONS (Questions for review) Extra Credit #1: Pages 17-22 Questions 1-45 Anytime Extra Credit #2: Pages 23-28 7 46-93 is FOR TOPIC #2 Questions for review are extra credit they are not HW 6,7,8,9 and their due date is anytime.TOPIC #3 Work and energy Work and Energy Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is a scalar quantity. When work is done on or by a system, the total energy of the system is changed. Work Work is the transfer of energy to an object when the object moves due to the application of a force. The force can be entirely in the direction of the object's motion or have a component in the diree- tion of the motion. Work is a scalar quantity. The amount of work done, W, is equal to the product of the force, F, along the direction of displacement, d, of the object. The work done on the object produces a change in the object's total energy, AE: W=Fd= AE, ‘The force F is in newtons and the displacement d is in meters. Thus, the work W or change in total energy AE,, can be expressed with the unit newton - meter. However, notice in the expres- sions below that 1 newton-meter equals 1 joule. 1 newton- meter = 1 kilogram: meter/second?- meter 1 newton meter = 1 kilogram - meter*/second? = 1 joule The joule, J, is a derived unit equal to the work done on an object when a force of one newton pro- duces a displacement of one meter. Note that the amount of work done is independent of the time the force acts on the object. When a force is applied to a mass, but the mass does not move, no work is done. Ifa student was to hold an object at a constant height above the ground, no work would be done no matter how heavy the object might be and how much effort the student expended. SAMPLE PROBLEM ‘A 2.3-kilogram block rests on a horizontal surface. A constant force of 5.0 newtons is applied to the block. atan angle of 30:*to the horizontal, as shown in the diagram. The diagram is drawn to scale. 23kg EnergyDetermine the work done in moving the blocka dis- tance of 2.0 meters along the surface. Solution: Identify the known and unknown values Unknown F.=IN Wa?) Find the component of the applied force that isin the x-direction, that iin the direction of the dis- placement. There are two ways to do this. (1) Use the trigonometic relationship F, = Feos 8. Substitute the known values and solve. F, = (GONYcos 30°) =43N (2) Project the 5.0 N force onto the horizontal dashed line in the diagram and measure the line segment. This is the component of the applied force inthe direction of motion, 43 N. Use the equation that defines work to determine the work done. W=Fd Substitute the known values and solve. W= (43 N)20m) = 86) POWER The rate at which works done is a scalar quantity called power. By definition, power P is given by the equation P =“. However, W = Fd and = 4. Therefore, the equation can be rewritten as follows: Fis the foree applied to an object that causes it to move with an average speed 0. If work W is in joules and time ¢ is in seconds, then power can be expressed in joules per second. One joule of work done per second equals one watt, W, the SI derived unit for power. If watt = 1 Joule/second and 1 Joule = 1 kilogram: meter’/second?, then 1 watt = kilogram: meter'/second’/second = 1 kilogram. meter*/second®. (Do not confuse the symbol W, which is used for the quantity of work, with the abbreviation W for the unit watt.) Because power is inversely proportional to time, the less time required to do a given amount of work, the greater the power developed. For example, as the length of time it takes a student to swim 25 meters decreases, the power developed by the student increases. SAMPLEPROBLEM ‘A7.B0 X 102-newton man does 8.58 X 10? joules of workin 12.3 seconds by running up three flights of stairs to a landing vertically above his starting point. ‘What power does the man develop during his run ‘and what is his vertical displacement? Solution: identify the known and unknown values. ‘Known Unknown F,=780X10N ‘JésorW W= 858x107) d=?m t=1235 Write the equation that defines power. w t ‘Substitute the known values and solve. ’ _ 858X108) 123s Tofind the displacement, use the equation that defines work. P = 698W W=Fd Solve the equation ford. w ane ‘Substitute the known values and solve. 858 x 10°) 4 = 50 x 10°N ae. SAMPLE PROBLEM ‘constant horizontal force of 6.0 newtons is applied toa boxona counter to overcome friction. Determine how much power is dissipated in moving the box 3.0 meters along the counter in 1.5 seconds. ‘Solution: Identify the known and unknown values. Known Unknown =60N P= d=30m t=15sUse the formula that defines power. Substitute the known values and solve, (6.ON)(30m) _ yoy Review Questions 1, Which combination of units can be used to express work? (1) newton: second/meter (2) newton: meter/second (3) newton/meter (4) newton: meter 2. Ajackexerts a force of 45 X 10° newtons to raise a car0.25 meter, What is the approximate work done bythe jack? (1)5.6 x 10°5J (2) 11x 10°) (3)45 x 109) (4)18 x 104) 3. If a2.0-kilogram mass is raised 0.050 meter vertically, the work done on the mass is approximately (10.104 (2)0.98) (3)98 (4) 40.5 4, Ahorizontal force of 80.0 newtons pushes a 50.0-kllogram object for 8.00 meters across a level floor. The work done in pushing the object is (1) 10.04 (2)400.) (3) 640.5 (4) 3.2 10° 5. Work s being done when a force (1) acts vertically ona cart that can only move horizontally (2) s ex erted by one team in a tug of war when there is no movement (3) is exerted while pulling awagon up a hill (4) of gravitational attraction acts on a person standing on the surface of Earth 6. In the following diagram, 200-newton force is. Used to push a 2.00-kilogram carta distance of 5.00 meters. Oo) Determine the amount of work done on the cart. 7. How much work is done on a downhill skier by an average braking force of 98 X 10? newtons to stop herin adistance of 10.0 meters? (1) 1.0 x 10' J (2)98 10"J (3) 1.0 x 10° (4) 9.8 x 10°) 8. A student does 300. joules of work pushing a cart 3,0 meters due east and then does 400. joules of work pushing the cart 40 meters due north.The total ‘amount of work done by the student is (1) 100.1 (2) 500.4 (3) 700.4 (4) 2500 3 9. Aconstant horizontal force of 20.0 newtons applied toa box causes it to move ata constant speed of 4,0 meters per second. Determine how much work is done against friction on the box in 6.0 seconds. 10. A horizontal force of 3 newtons moves a 10-kilogram ‘mass horizontally a distance of 3 meters at constant velocity. The work done against friction is (1) 6) (294 (3)3J (4) 30) 11. Astudent pulls block along a horizontal surface at constant velocity. The following diagram shows the components of the force exerted on the block by the student. Horizontal surface Determine how much work is done against friction. 12. A constant horizontal force of 2.0 newtons is used to push a 3.0-kilogram mass 4.0 meters across a counter ‘top. How much work is done on the mass? (1) 6.05 (2)805 (3) 12) (4)24) 13, The diagram that follows shows a 9.8-newton cart being pulled a distance of 0.50 meter along a plane inclined at 15° to the horizontal. The amount of work required is 1.3 joules. 50 ‘ Ifthe cart was raised 0.50 meter vertically instead of being pulled along the inclined plane, the amount of ‘work done would be (1) ess (2) more (3) the same Energy14. Acrane raises a 200-newrton weight to a height of 50 meters in 5 seconds. The crane does work at the rate of (1)8 x 10-W (2)2x 10'W (3)2 x 10;W 5x 10'W 15. A machine is used to move an object. As the power of the machine is increased, the time required for it tomove the object a fixed distance (1) decreases (2)increases (3) remains the same 16. An engine rated at 5.0 x 10* watts exerts a constant force of 25 x 10 newtons on a vehicle. Determine the average speed of the vehicle, 17. The following diagram shows 1.0 x 10-newton rate to be lifted at constant speed from the ground toa loading dock 1.5 meters high in 5.0 seconds. l 1m Thisendup 1.0x10N Loading dock TOT d What power is required to lft the crate? (1) 15 x 10° (2)20 x 10?W (2) 3.0.x 10?'W 75x 10°W 18, As the time required to doa given quantity of work decreases, the power developed (1) decreases (2)increases (3) remains the same 19, Determine the power developed by a man weighing 6.0 x 10? newtons who climbs @ rope ata constant speed of 0 meters per second, 20. One elevator lfts a mass a given vertical distance in 8 seconds and a second elevator does the same work in 4 seconds.Compared to the power developed by the first elevator, the power developed by the second elevators (1) one-half as great (2) twice as great {3)the same (4) fourtimes as great 21, A5.0 x 10?newton girl takes 10.0 seconds to run up two fights of stairs to a landing, total of 5.0 meters vertically above her starting point. What power does the girl develop during herrun? (1) 25 W (2) 50.W (8) 250W (4) 2500W 22, Amotor having a maximum power rating of 8.1 X 10* watts is used to operate an elevator with weight of 1.8 x 10' newtons. What isthe maximum weight this motor can lift at an average speed of 3.0 meters per second? (1) 6.0 X 10° N (2)1.8X 104N (3)2.4 x 108N (4)27 x 10'N Topic 3 4 23. A gitl weighing 500.newtons takes 50.0 seconds to climb a fight of stats 18 meters high. Determine the girls vertical power output. 24, Ifthe time required fora student to swim 500 meters is doubled, the power developed by the student will be (I)halved (2) doubled (3) quartered (4) quadrupled 25. Determine the average speed of a4.0 x 10%-newton weight being lifted vertically by a 2.00 x 10%-watt motor. Forms of Energy AAs already noted, energy and work are related. The joule is the SI unit for both quantities, which are scalar. When one system does work on another sys- | tem, the second system gains an amount of energy equal to the amount of work done on it. This process is called a transfer of energy. Energy has many forms, including thermal, chemical, nuclear, electromagnetic, sound, and mechanical. Whatever its form, energy is measured by the amount of work it can do. Thermal energy, or heat, is the total kinetic energy possessed by the individual particles that comprise an object. (The term “thermal energy” is also used by nuclear physicists to describe the average kinetic energy, 0.025 electronvolt, possessed by neutrons at room temperature.) Internal energy refers to the total potential energy and kinetic energy possessed by the particles that make up an object, but excludes the potential and kinetic energies of the system as a whole. Nuclear energy is the energy released by nuclear fission, the division of a heavy atomic nucleus into parts of comparable mass, or nuclear fusion, the combining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. Electromagnetic energy is the energy associated with electric or magnetic fields. Electromagnetic energy can take many forms, such as visible light, microwaves, and radio waves. Potential Energy ‘The energy possessed by an object due to its posi- tion or condition is called potential energy. If there is no energy lost due to friction, the work done to bring the object to a different position or condition from its original condition or position is equal to the object's change in potential energy.GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY Ifan object, originally at rest on Earth’s surface, is lifted to some height, work is done against gravitational force. The work done in lifting the object to a height above Earth’s surface is equal to the object’s gravitational potential energy relative to Earth’s surface. The work done is equal to the gravitational potential energy acquired by the object. Ifthe object falls, work is done by gravity on the object, and the object loses gravitational potential energy. However, the work done by gravity on the object increases its energy of motion (kinetic energy) as the object's speed inereases during its fall. This kinetic energy can, in turn, do an amount of work equal to the loss in gravitational potential energy. Recall that work is described by the formula W = Fad. For a falling object, F equals F,, the weight of the object given by the formula F, = mg, and the displacement d corresponds to \f, the change in height. Thus, the change in gravitational potential energy is given by this equation: APE = mgAh ‘The mass m is in kilograms, g is the acceleration due to gravity in meters per second? (or gravita- tional field strength in newtons per kilogram), and Ah is the change in height of the mass. Thus APE, the change in potential energy, can be expressed in kilogram: meter’/second! or joules. The change in potential energy of an object equals the product of its weight, mg, and its vertical change in height. ‘This formula is valid only for displacements that are small compared to Earth's radius, so that g ean be considered constant. _ SAMPLE PROBLEM How much potential energy is gained by an object, with a mass of 2.00 kilogram thats lifted from the floor to the top of a 0.92-meter high table? Solution: Identify the known and unknown values. Known Unknown m= 200kg PE=?) h=092m 9 =9.81 mis? Substitute the known quantities and solve, APE = mg&h = (2.00kg)(9.81 m/s*)(0.92m) = 18 Devices for Converting Energy ‘A photocell (photovoltaic cell) is a device that con- verts light, a form of electromagnetic radiation, into electrical energy. A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by rotating a large coil of wire in a magnetic field. On the other hand, a motor is a device that con- verts electrical energy into mechanical energy as @ result of forees on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. A battery is a direct-current volt- age source that converts chemical, thermal, nuclear, or solar energy into electrical energy. Measuring Power From the definition of power, P = 7, it follows that W = Pt. Thus, one watt of power used for one second transfers one joule of energy or does ‘one joule of work. One joule is equivalent to one watt - second, and energy can be measured in watt - seconds. Electric utility companies charge their customers for kilowatt “hours of energy rather than for watts of power. Review Questions 26, Which isa scalar quantity? (1) force (2) energy @)displacement (4) velocity 27. Work is measured in the same units as (1) force (2) momentum (3) power (4) energy 28. Which quantity and unit are correctly paired? (1) velocity; m/s? (2) momentum; kg m/s? (energy; kg: m?/s? (4) work kg/m 29. Aunitfor elastic potential energy isthe (1) watt {2)joule (3) newton (4) kilogram: meter/second 30. Which mass has the greatest potential energy with respect to the floor? (1) 50-kg mass resting on the floor (2) 2.0-kg mass 10.m above the floor (3) 10--kg mass 2.0m above the floor (4) 6.0-kg mass 5.0 m above the floor Energy31. As an object slides across a horizontal surface, the gravitational potential energy of the object (I) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same 32. The following diagram represents a cart traveling with initial speed v from left to right along a friction- less surface, Earth's surface 8 At which points the gravitational potential energy ofthe cart least? (1)A (2)B (3)C (4)D 33. Determine the gain in potential energy ofa '5.00-kilogram mass as itis raised 2.00 meters from the surface of Earth. 34, Which graph best represents the relationship between potential energy PE and height above the ‘ground h fora freely faling object released from rest? —"L a a PE \ Pe 7 7 2) @ | 35. At the top of an incline, a 0.50-kilogram sphere has a potential energy of 6.0 joules. After rolling halfway down the incline the sphere’ potential energy is | (1)0.0J (2)6.0) (3)3.0J (4)12) 36. A balls thrown upward from Earth's surface. While the balls rising its gravitational potential energy is, (1) decreasing (2) increasing (3) remaining the same 37. When a 5-kilogram massislifted from the ground to a height of 10 meters the gravitational potential ‘energy of the mass is increased by approximately (1)054 (2)24 (3)505 (4) 500) Topic3 38, Three people of equal mass climb a mountain using paths A,B, and C shown in the following diagram. Fish Start Along which path{s) does a person gain the greatest amount of gravitational potential energy from start tofinish? (1) Aonly (2) Bonly (3)Conly (4) The gain is the same along all paths. Elastic Potential Energy ‘The energy stored in a spring, when work is done in compressing or stretching it, is called elastic potential energy. The compression or elongation of a spring is the change in spring length from its equilibrium position when a force is applied to it. Provided the elastic limit of the spring is not exceeded, the compression or elongation of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force. This relationship, called Hooke’s law, is given by the following equation: Fi= he In the equation, & is the spring constant, the con- stant of proportionality between the applied force F,and the compression or elongation + of the spring. If F, is in newtons and x is in meters, then is in newtons per meter. The SI unit for the spring constant is the newton/meter, N/m. Acommon laboratory activity is to vary the force applied to a spring and measure the resulting elongation or compression. Force is the independ- ent variable and change in spring length is the dependent variable. However, force is often indi- cated on the vertical axis and change in spring length on the horizontal axis when the data from. the experiment is graphed. If'a graph of F, versus x is plotted for the data collected for a given spring, the slope of the line of best ft is equal to the spring constant for that spring. For an ideal spring, the line is straight and passes through the origin. A stiff spring has a larger value of k than a weak spring.Potential Energy of a Spring When no force is applied to a spring, there is no change in spring length from the equilibrium posi- tion. That is, when F, = 0 N,x = 0 m. According to Hooke's law, as F, increases, x increases. Because F increases uniformly from 0 to kx, the average applied force equals kx. The work done in stretch- ing the spring is equal to the product of the average force F, and the elongation x. 1 W=Ex bea = bet 2 Because the work done on the spring is equal to the spring's elastic potential energy PE,, the equation can be rewritten in this way: The spring constant & is in newtons per meter, the ‘change in spring length from the equilibrium posi- tion x is in meters, and the potential energy stored in the spring PE, is in newton meters, or joules. As the following Sample Problem shows, the area under an F. versus x curve yields a number equal to the number of joules of work done in stretching the spring, and thus, the potential energy stored in the spring. SAMPLE PROBLEM Determine the potential energy stored in the spring in the previous Sample Problem when a force of 2.50 newtons is applied to it. identify the known and unknown values. ‘Unknown PE,=73 Find Ay, the area under the curve in the previous Sample Problem. At F = 2.50 the area isa triangle with height h equal to 2.50 N and base b equal to (0.100 m.\Write the formula for the area of a triangle. Substitute the known values and solve. Ay = PE, = 410.100) (250 N) PE, = 0.125) ‘An alternative solution is to use the relationship Solve the equation for x. Substitute the known values and solve. 250N 25.0N/m Write the formula that relates PE, and x. 0.100 m Review Questions 39. A spring has a spring constant of 25 newtons per meter, Determine the magnitude of the minimum force required to stretch the spring 0.25 meter from its equilibrium position. 40. Which graph best represents the relationship between the force applied to a spring and the elon- 9 of the spring? (Assume the spring's elastic imit has not been reached.) Woy Elongation Elongation Elongation Elongation, 0 @ 8) ® 41. A 20-newton weight is attached to a spring causing itto stretch, as shown in the following diagram. Unstretched spring Stretched spring 20.N Whats the spring constant of this spring? (10.050 N/m (2)0.25 N/m (3)20.N/m (4) 40.N/mIn an experiment,a student varied the force applied the information in the data table and the grid toa spring and measured the resul elongation. provided, complete (1) through (4). ‘The table shows the average elongation for three (1) Mark.an appropriate scale on the axis labeled trials with each force. “Average elongation (m):, (2) Plot the data points. Force N) | Average Elongation (m) (3) Draw the line of best fit. 0.00 0.000 (4) Use your line to determine the spring constant k. 1.00 0.040 2.00 0.075 3.00 0.120 4.00 0.165 5.00 0200 Forces. Average Elongation Force (N) ‘Average elongation (m) Solution: The spring constant kis the slope of the line. Force vs. Average Elongation 600 00 Force (N) 8 0.000 0.040080) 0.120 0.160 02000240 ‘Average elongation (m) Energy42, The graph that follows shows the relationship between the elongation of a spring and the force applied to the spring causing itto stretch, Elongation vs. Applied Force 060 Elongation (m) eek bE 0 10. 20, 30. Force (N) What is the spring constant for this spi (10.020 N/m (2) 2.0NN/m (3)251N/m (4) 50.N/m. 43, Amass hanger is attached to a spring,as shown in the following diagrams. cA em. tH 020g Meter. stick oy 3.1 Unloaded Loaded Whats the magnitude of the ‘mass hanger H after a 0.20-kilogram mass is loaded ‘on it? (Assume the hanger is at rest in both positions) 44. Graphs A and B represent the results of applying an increasing force to stretch a spring.The spring did not exceed its elastic limit. Force applied Force applied Spring displacement ‘Work done on spring a 8 ‘The spring constant can be represented by the (1) slope of graph A (2) slope of graph B (3) recipro- cal ofthe slope of graph A (4) reciprocal of the slope of graph B 9 45. Force Fis applied to a spring causing it to stretch a distance x. If force 2F is applied to the spring and the elasticity of the spring is not exceeded, the spring will stretch a distance (1)x (2) 2x (3)} (4)5 46. A spring having a spring constant k is cut in half. Each of the newly formed springs has a spring constant thatis equal to (1) (2) 2k (3) (4) 4k 47. Aforce is applied to a spring causing it to stretch. If the applied force is halved, the potential energy stored in the spring will be (1) halved (2) doubled (3) quartered (4) quadrupled 48, Ifthe distance a spring is stretched is doubled and the elastic limit is not exceeded, the potential eneray stored in the spring is (1) halved (2) doubled (3) quartered (4) quadrupled 49. When a spring is stretched 0.200 meter from its equi- librium position it possesses a potential energy of 10.0 joules. What s the spring constant for this spring? (1) 100.Ném (2) 125 N/m (3) 250.N/m (4)500.N/m 50. A spring has spring constant of 120 newtons per ‘meter. Determine the potential energy stored in the spring asit.s stretched 0.20 meter. 551, A force of 0.2 newton is needed to compress a spring a distance of 0.02 meter. The potential eneray stored in this compressed springis (1) 8 x 10-5) (2)2X 109 (B)2x 10-8) (4)4X 10-5) 52. A pring of negligible mass with a spring constant of 2.0 x 10? newtons per meter is stretched 0.20 meter. How much potential eneray is stored in the spring? (1)8) (2)80J (3)4) (40) 53. In the diagram below,a child compresses the spring ina pop-up toy 0.020 meter. Uncompressed Compressed spring spring Ifthe spring has a spring constant of 340 newtons per meter, how much energy is being stored in the spring? (1)0.068 (2)0.14J @)3.4J (4)68) EnergyBase your answers to questions 54 through 56 on the following graph, which represents the relationship between the force applied to a s5 and its elongation. Force vs. Elongation aL 18 10 ‘The net work done in accelerating an object from rest to some speed is equal to the kinetic energy of the object. The following equation describes the relationship: ke = Lm Mass m is in kilograms, velocity or speed v is in meters per second, and kinetic energy KE is in kilogram-meter*/second? or joules. Force (N) 60 © 010 020 030 040 Elongation (m) 54, How much work must be done to stretch the spring VF 0.40meter? (1) 484 (2)60J (3)98, (4)24J 55, Determine the spring constant kfor the spring. 56. On the grid, sketch a line that represents the relation- ship between applied force and elongation for a stiffer spring. Kinetic Energy When a moving object strikes another object and displaces it, the moving object exerts a force on the second object and does work on it. The moving object possesses energy due to its motion. The energy an object possesses due to its motion is called kinetic energy. The equation for kinetic energy is KE = dmv? and can be derived from the definition of work and Newton’s second law. W = Fd and F = ma W = mad where a = ? from rest, d = Ut, and from rest. SAMPLE PROBLEM _ How much kinetic energy is possessed by @ 27-kilogram cart traveling at 1.5 meter per second? Solution: Identify the known and unknown values. Known Unknown m=27kg Ke=?) v=15smis Write the equation for kinetic energy. Ke= jm Substitute the known values and solve. (2.7 kg) (1.5 m/s}? = 3.0) Note:lf the weight ofthe cart had been given, it would have been necessary to use the formula i g= ne ‘determine the cart’s mass. Review Questions 57. Ifthe speed ofa car is doubled, ts kinetic energy is (1)halved (2) doubled (3) quartered (4) quadrupled 1.0 x 10°-kilogram caris moving at a constant speed of 4.0 meters per second. What is the kinetic ‘energy of the car? (1) 1.6 X 10° (2)20 x 108) (3) 80 x 10° (4)40 x 10°) 59. A3.0-kilogram cart possesses 96 joules of kinetic energy. Determine the speed of the car. 58. 60. A cartof mass m traveling at speed vhas kinetic energy KE, fthe mass of the cart is doubled and the speed is halved, the kinetic energy of the cart will be (i) halfas great (2) twiceas great (3) one-fourth as great (4) four times as great61. Which cart has the greatest kinetic energy? v=30mis v=101m/s i) La] @ @ 62. A2.0-kilogram cartis initially at rest on a level floor. Determine the kinetic energy of the cart after a con- stant horizontal 8.0-newton force is applied to the cart over a distance of 1.5 meters. 63. Apperson does 100 joules of work in pulling back the string of a bow. What is the initial speed ofa (0.5-kilogram arrow when its fired from the bow? (1) 20 m/s (2) 50 m/s (3) 200 m/s (4) 400 m/s 64, An 8.0-kilogram object and a 4.0-kilogram object are released simultaneously from a height of 50. meters, above the ground. After falling freely for 2.0 seconds, the objects have different (1) accelerations )speeds (3) kinetic energies (4) displacements 65, The work done in raising an object must result in an increasein the object's (1) internal energy {@) kinetic energy (3) gravitational potential energy (4) elastic potential eneray 66. Two cars having different weights are traveling on alevel surface at different constant velocities. Within the same time interval, greater force is always required to stop the car that has the greater (1) weight (2) kinetic energy (3) velocity (4) momentum Work-Energy Relationship 11 from the floor to a 0.92-meter high tabletop is equal to the box’s change in gravitational potential energy. W = APE = mgAh = (10.0 kg)(9.81 m/s*)(0.92 m) W=90.5 Figure 3,1 shows that the work done in moving the box from the floor to the tabletop is the same regardless of the path taken. When work done against a force is independent of the path taken, the force is said to be a conservative force. Gravitation is an example of a conservative force. The elastic force of a spring is also a conservative force, Potential energy has meaning only in rela- tion to work done against conservative forces. Figure 3-1. A conservative force: Because gravitation Isa con- servative force, the same amount of workis done when raising the box from the floor to the tabletop regardless of which path \sfollowed. Air resistance and friction are examples of nonconservative forces. The work done against a noneonservative force is dependent upon the path taken. In Figure 3-2, the same box is moved from the floor to the tabletop by sliding it along an inclined plane A. Once again, 90. joules of work is, done to change the gravitational potential energy of the box, but because additional work must be done against friction, the total work done is greater than 90. joules. If there is no friction, all the work done in lifting an object to a new height is equal to the object's increase in gravitational potential energy. The change in potential energy depends only on the change in height, not on the path taken. For exam- ple, the work done in lifting a 10.0-kilogram box Figure 3-2, Anonconservative force: Because friction isa ronconservatve force, moving the box from the floor to the table- top requires more workon incline 8 than on incline A.In this case, the path makes a dfference_in the amount of work required. (Read the explanation in the text) EnergyIf inclined plane B is used instead of inclined plane A, the work done against friction, W, = Fd, is greater, even though the coefficient of friction is the same for both planes. The force of friction F, is greater when a plane is inclined at a smaller angle because the normal force F for the same object on the incline is larger and F, ~ uF, In addition, the frictional force acts over a greater distance on incline B. Because frietion is a nonconservative force, the work required to raise the box from the floor to the top of the table on incline B is greater than the work required to raise it on incline A. Conservation of Energy Acclosed system is one in which there are no exter- nal forces doing work on the system, no external ‘work being done by the system, and no transfer of energy into or out of the system. In a closed sys- tem, the sum of the potential energy (gravitational and/or elastic), kinetic energy, and internal energy remains constant. Although the energy within a closed system may be transformed from one type to another, the total energy of the system always remains the same. These ideas are expressed in the law of conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. In other words, the sum of the changes in energy (potential, kinetic, and internal) within a closed system is zero. Mechanical Systems The sum of the kinetic and potential energies in a system is called the total mechanical energy. An ideal mechanical system is a closed system in which no friction or other nonconservative force acts. In an ideal mechanical system, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is constant, or the sum of the changes in kinetic and potential energy is zero. Topic 3 12 The relationship between potential and kinetie energy for an ideal simple pendulum is shown in Figure 3-3. A simple pendulum consists of a mass (bob) attached to one end of a string or wire that is attached at the other end to a pivot point. ‘An object falling freely from rest in a vacuum is another example of an ideal mechanical system. If a stationary object having mass m is located a ver- tical distance h above Earth’s surface, the object has initial potential energy, PE, = mgh and kinetic energy, KE, = 0. As the object falls, its potential energy decreases, but because its speed increases, the object’s kinetic energy increases. These energy changes can be expressed by the law of conserva- tion of energy: APE + AKE=0 or (KE = —APE As the object falls from rest, its change in potential energy is given by APE = —mgh, and its change in kinetic energy is AKE = }mv*. These expressions can be substituted into the previous equations: mgh =0 or 1 wt pie? = meh The common factor, m, can be eliminated: Jot = gh, sou? = 2gh andy = V2gh ‘The acceleration due to gravity, g, can be consid- ered constant near Earth's surface, so the last equa- tion can be used to determine the speed of an object falling from rest from a known height. Note that the speed of the object is independent of its mass. Figure 3-3. Therelation- ship between potentialand kinetic energy for an ideal simple pendulumNonideal Mechanical Systems When a system is acted upon by a nonconser- vative force, such as friction, it is called a nonideal mechanical system. In reality, friction opposes the motion of two objects in contact with each other and moving relative to each other. Frictional force converts some or all of the kinetic energy of a moving object into internal energy, that is, potential or kinetic energy of the individual par- ticles that comprise the object. The “lost” kinetic energy usually appears as an increase in tempera ture of the objects in contact. For example, a simple pendulum set in motion in air does not swing back to its original release point. The pendulum experi- ences both friction at the pivot point and air resist- ance. A piece of paper dropped to the ground from some height has more initial gravitational poten- tial energy than it has kinetic energy at the instant it reaches the ground. A lead sphere dropped from some height onto a steel surface does not bounce; all ofits initial gravitational potential energy is converted into internal energy when it hits the steel. ‘The total energy of a nonideal system is given by this equation: E,=PE+KE+Q E,, represents the total energy, PH is potential energy, KE is kinetic energy, and Q is internal energy. All quantities are expressed in joules. SAMPLE PROBLEM ‘A1.0-kilogram cart A and a 2.0-kilogram cart B are at rest on a frictionless table, as shown in the diagram. ‘Acord anda spring of negligible mass join the two carts.The spring is compressed 0.060 meter between the two carts until the spring's potential energyis 12 joules. When the cord is cut, the spring will force the carts apart. Cord ene cut ce ‘Compressed spring with PE=12J (1) Determine the total amount of work done in compressing the spring. (@) Determine the spring constant for the spring. 13 (8) Determine the magnitude of the average force required to compress the spring 0.060 meter. (4) Compare the following quantities while the spring is pushing the carts apart: {a) the forces acting on the two carts (0) the change in momentum of the two carts (Q) the total initial and final momentum of the ‘twocarts {d) the acceleration of the two carts (5) Determine the final velocity of cart A. (6) Determine the ratio of the maximum kinetic ‘energy of cart A to the maximum kinetic energy of cart B. Solution: Identify the known and unknown values. Unknown w=? k=7Nm F=?N v= 2s (1) The work done in compressing the spring is ‘equal to the potential energy stored in the spring. W=PE,=12) (2) Write the equation for the potential energy of aspring. 1 PE, = Mot Solve the equation fork. ‘Substitute the known values and solve, pa 22d (0.060 m)? k= 67x 108N/m (3) Write the equation for the average force needed tocompress the spring, Fak Substitute the known values and solve. E,= (67 X 10° N/m\(0.060m) F=40X10N (4a) The forces are equal in magnitude and oppo- site in direction. (4b) Momentum must be conserved.Thus,the change in momentum is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction for the two carts at all times. (4c) The total momentum iszero at all times, because the carts were intially at rest. Energy(4d) The forces on the two carts are equal in magni- tude and the mass of A is one half the mass of B. Thus, the acceleration of cart A is twice that of cart B and opposite in direction, (5) Write an equation for the relationship between the initial and final momentum of the system. Because momentum must be conserved, the initial momentum of the system, which is zero, must equal the final momentum. B= P=0 Write this equality in terms of mass and velocity. My, + yyy = 0 Solve the equation for vq. MX = 4 y Recognizing that energy is conserved, write an equation that equates the total initial energy of the system and the total final energy of the system. PE, + KE, + PE, = PE,+ KE, + PE, PE, = PE, PE, = O,and KE, = 0 ‘Thus, because energy is conserved, the final kinetic energy of the two carts equals the initial potential energy of the spring. PE, KE, Write an equation in terms of mass and velocity that states this relationship. 1 1 PE, = Smglva)? + 5mglve)? Substitute known values and solve for vy. 123 = org)? + Laotei(—4)" 2 2 2 2 12) = (050kg) (va)? + otei(2) 123 = (0.75 kgWyz Topic3 14 rks? Vi = 16.kg = 16 v4 = 40ms (6) Ithasalready been determined that the speed of, cart is one-half that of cart A, thus ia kg) (4.0m/s)? 3020 kg)(2.0 m/s)? Review Questions 67. As the speed of an object falling toward Earth increases, the gravitational potential energy of the object with respect to Earth (1) decreases {2)increases (3) remains the same 668. Atwhat point in its fall does the kinetic energy of a freely falling object equal its potential energy? (1) atthe start of the fal (2) halfway between the start and the end (3) at the end of the fall (4) at all points during the fall 69. A20-kilogram mass falls freely for 10. meters near the surface of Earth. The total kinetic energy gained by the object during its free fallis approximately (1) 4001 (2) 200 (3) 100) (4) 50 70. A20.0-kilogram object falls freely from rest and strikes the ground with 1,962 joules of kinetic energy. How far above the ground was the object when it was released? 71. A1.0-kilogram mass gains kinetic energy as it falls freely from rest a vertical distance d, How far would a 2.0-kilogram mass have to fall freely from rest to gain ‘the same amount of kinetic energy? (1) d (2) 2d @g ag 72, Abasketball player, who weighs 600 newtons,jumps 0.5 meter vertically off the floor. Determine her kinetic energy just before hitting the floor.Base your answers to questions 73 through 75 on the following information and diagram. A 10-kilogram block starts from rest at point A and slides along a frictionless track. (Neglect air resistance.) 15 73, As the block moves from point A to point B,the total amount of gravitational potential energy that changes to kinetic energy is approximately (1)5J (2)20J (3)50J (4) 5003 74. What is the approximate speed of the block at point B? (1) 1 m/s (2) 10 m/s (3)50 m/s (4) 100 m/s 75. What is the approximate potential eneray of the block at point? (1) 20 (2) 2005 (3)300J (4)500J 76. As an object fais freely in a vacuum, the total ‘energy of the object (1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same 77. In the diagram that follows, an ideal pendulum released from point A swings freely through point B. ‘Compared to the pendulums kinetic energy at A, its potential energy at Bis (1) halfas great (2) twice as great (3) the same (4) four times as great Base your answers to questions 78 through 80 on the following information and diagram. A1.00-kilogram block is held at rest on a frictionless plane inclined at 30.°to the horizontal. 78. The blocks released and slides down the length of | the incline, Determine the blocks kinetic energy at the bottom of the incline. 79. Ifthe angle between the plane and the horizontal Is. increased, the magnitude of the force required to. hold the block at rest on the incline will (1) decrease (2)inerease (3) remain the same 80. As the block slides down the incline, the sum ofits gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy (1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same EnergyBase your answers to questions 81 through 85 on the following information and diagram. A2.0-kilogram mass is placed on a frictionless track at point A and released from rest. (Assume that the gravitational potential energy of the system is zero at Point E,) 81. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the system at point A. 82, Compared to the kinetic energy of the mass at point B, the kinetic energy of the mass at point Eis (1)the same (2) twice as great (3) halfas great (4) four times as great 83. On the diagram, markan X on the trackto indicate the maximum height the mass will ach above point € after the object has passed through point E. 184, If the mass was released from rest at point Bits speed at point C would be (1) 0 m/s (2) 0.50 m/s (3) 10.m/s (4) 14 m/s 85. Compared to the total mechanical energy of the sys- ‘tem at point A, the total mechanical energy of the system at point Fis (1) less (2) more (3)the same Base your answers to questions 86 through 92 on the ilogram box starts from rest at point A and is accelerated uniformly to point B in 4.0 seconds by the application of a constant horizontal force F. At point B, the speed of the box is 10.0 meters per second as it begins to move up a plane inclined at 30.°to the hori- zontal. (Neglect friction.) « e 86, Determine the kinetic energy of the box at point B 87. Determine the magnitude of force F. Topic3 16 88, Determine the distance the box travels in moving from point Ato point B. 89. Compared to the impulse required to stop the box at point 8, the impulse required to stop the box at poi Cis (I)less (2) greater (3) the same 90, As the mass moves up the incline, its potent energy (1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same 91. The box comes to rest ata vertical height of h (point D) when 28 = 30:.IF 26 wasincreased to 40, the box would come to rest ata vertical height (1)less than h (2) greater than h (3) equal toh 92. On the axes below, sketch a line to represent the rela- tionship between the kinetic energy of the box and its speed as it travels from point A to point B. Kinetic energy Speed Base your answers to questions 93 through 96 on the following information and diagram. ‘A1.00-kilogram sphere M, suspended by a string from point P.islfted to a height h. The sphere is released and passes through the lowest point in its swing ata speed of 10.0 meters per second, (Neglect friction) P 1 100m 1.00 kg 93, Determine the height from which the sphere was released. 94, Determine the magnitude of the centripetal force on the sphere as it passes through the lowest point in its swing,95. The magnitude of the centripetal force on the sphere could be halved as it passes through the lowest point in its swing by doubling the (1) weight of the sphere only (2) length of the string only (3) height h and the weight ofthe sphere (4) the length of the string and height h 96. Compared to the sphere’s speed through the lowest point ofits swing when released from h, the spheres speed through the lowest point when released from 2hwould be (1) lower (2) greater (3) the same 97. In the following diagram, a toy car having a mass of 4.00 x 10"? kilogram starts from rest at point A and travels 3.60 meters along a uniform track until coming to rest at point B. A m=400%102kg Determine the magnitude of the frictional force acting ‘on the car. (Assume the frictional force is constant) Questions for Practice PartA 11. Which variable expression is correctly paired with its corresponding unit? mass-distance , ee ind watt mass-distance? ge and watt time istance? and joule mass-distance 4) 1nd joule time? 2. What is an essential characteristic of an object in equilibrium? (1) zero velocity (2) zero acceleration (3) zer0 potential energy (4)zer0 kinetic eneray 17 98. Acar has a mass of 1.00 X 10? kilograms. Determine the work done in moving the car at constant speed a distance of 250 meters along a horizontal asphalt- paved road. Base your answers to questions 99 and 100 on the following information and diagram. A20.0-newton force is needed to pull a 5.00-kilogram ‘object up a hill at a constant speed of 2.0 meters per second. \B on a whee 199, Determine the work done against gravity in moving the object from point A to point B. 1100. Determine the work done against friction in mov- ing the object from point A to point B, 3, Anet force of 5.0 newtons moves 20-kilogram object a distance of 3.0 meters in 3.0 seconds. How much work is done on the object? (1) 1.05 10) 3) 15) (430 A. Aforce is applied to a block causing it to accelerate ‘along a horizontal, frictionless surface. The energy gained by the blocks equal to the (1) work done on the block (2) power applied to the block (3) impulse applied to the block (4) momentum given to the block Energy5. A22-kilogram mass is pulled by a 30-newton hori- zontal force through a distance of 5.0 meters as shown in the following diagram. 30.N 2.2 kgf + som— What is the total amount of work done on the mass? aus (1505 (2)66) (4)330J 6. Inthe following diagram,a 1.0-kilogram mass falls a vertical distance of 0.50 meter, causing a 2.0-kilogram ‘mass to slide the same distance along a tabletop. TOK if 050m mart How much workis done by the falling mass? asi 2985 49) (15) 7. Ahorizontal force of 40.newtonsis used to push a block along a level table at a constant speed of 12.0 meters per second, How much work is done on the block in 6.0 seconds? (180.3 2/120) (3)2404 (4) 4805 8. A force of 100. newtons's used to push a trunk to the top of an incline 3.0 meters long. Then a force of '50.newtons is used to push the trunk for 10.meters along a horizontal platform, What is the total work done on the trunk? (180 x 107) (2)50x 10%) (3)3.0 x 107) (90x10) Topic3 18 ‘9. The following diagram shows two identical wooden planks,A and B,at different incline angles.The planks are used to slide concrete blocks from a truck. Compared to the amount of work done against fric- tion bya block sliding down plank A, the work done against friction by a block siding down plank Bis (less 2) more ) the same 10, As the amount of time required to lift mass the same vertical distance is increased, the power devel oped (1) decreases Q)increases (3) remains the same 111, Whats the minimum power required for a conveyor to raise an 8.0-newton box 40 meters vertically in 80 seconds? (1) 260w eaw ()32w (4) 40W 12, Aweightlifter lifts a 200-Kilogram mass a vertical dis- tance of 05 meter in 0.1 second, What is the lifters power output? (1 x 10-W (24x 10-4W (3)1 x 10°W (44x 10'W