Hypothesis Testing

with Two Samples

 Testing the Difference
Between Means
(Population σ Unknown)
Independent and Dependent Samples
Two samples are independent if the sample selected from
one population is not related to the sample selected from
the second population. Two samples are dependent if each
member of one sample corresponds to a member of the
other sample. Dependent samples are also called paired
samples or matched samples.

Independent Samples Dependent Samples

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 3

Independent and Dependent Samples
Example:
Classify each pair of samples as independent or dependent.

Sample 1: The weight of 24 students in a first-grade class

Sample 2: The height of the same 24 students
These samples are dependent because the weight and
height can be paired with respect to each student.

Sample 1: The average price of 15 new trucks

Sample 2: The average price of 20 used sedans
These samples are independent because it is not
possible to pair the new trucks with the used sedans.
The data represents prices for different vehicles.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 4
 Two Sample t-Test
It is important to remember that when you perform a
two-sample hypothesis test using independent samples,
you are testing a claim concerning the difference between
the parameters in two populations, not the values of the
parameters themselves.
For a two-sample hypothesis test with independent sample
1. the null hypothesis H0 is a statistical hypothesis that
usually states there is no difference between the parameters
of two populations. The null hypothesis always contains the
symbol ≤, =, or ≥.
2. the alternative hypothesis Ha is a statistical hypothesis
that is true when H0 is false. The alternative hypothesis
contains the symbol > , ≠ , or < .
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 5
 Two Sample t-Test
If samples are taken from normally-distributed
populations and the σ is unknown a t-test may be used to
test the difference between the population means μ1 and
μ2.
Three conditions are necessary to use a t-test for
independent samples.
1. The samples must be randomly selected.
2. The samples must be independent. Two samples
are independent if the sample selected from one
population is not related to the sample selected
from the second population.
3. Each population must have a normal distribution.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 6
 Two Sample t-Test
Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between Means
A two-sample t-test is used to test the difference between two
population means μ1 and μ2 when a sample is randomly selected
from each population. Performing this test requires each
population to be normally distributed, and the samples should
be independent. The standardized test statistic is

t=
(x1 − x 2) − (μ1 − μ2) .
σ x −x
1 2

If the population variances are equal, then information from the

two samples is combined to calculate a pooled estimate of the
standard deviation σ.ˆ

σˆ =
(n1 − 1) s12 + (n2 − 1) s22
n1 + n2 − 2 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 7
 Two Sample t-Test
Two-Sample t-Test (Continued)
The standard error for the sampling distribution of x1 − x 2 is

σ x − x = σˆ  1 + 1 Variances equal
1 2
n1 n2
and d.f.= n1 + n2 – 2.

If the population variances are not equal, then the standard

error is
s12 s 22
σ x −x = + Variances not equal
1 2
n1 n2

and d.f = smaller of n1 – 1 or n2 – 1.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 8

Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between
Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically. State H0 and Ha.
Identify the null and alternative
hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of significance. Identify .
3. Identify the degrees of freedom d.f. = n1+ n2 – 2 or
and sketch the sampling d.f. = smaller of n1 – 1
distribution. or n2 – 1.

4. Determine the critical value(s). Use Table 5 in

Appendix B.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 9
Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between
Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection regions(s).

6. Find the standardized test statistic. t=

(x1 − x 2) − (μ1 − μ2)
σ x −x
1 2

7. Make a decision to reject or fail to If t is in the rejection

reject the null hypothesis. region, reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
8. Interpret the decision in the
reject H0.
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 10

Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Example:
Subjects in a study by Dabonneville et al. included a sample of 40
men who claimed to engage in a variety of sports activities
(multisport). The mean body mass index (BMI) for these men was
22.41 with a standard deviation of 1.27. A sample of 22 male rugby
players had a mean BMI of 27.75 with a standard deviation of 2.64.
Is there sufficient evidence for one to claim that, in general, rugby
players have a higher BMI than the multisport men? Let α=0.01.

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μR < μM H1: μR > μM (claim)
Step 2: Find the critical value. Let α = 0.01 and the test is a
right-tailed test, the critical value is cv = 2.390 with
d.f. = 40 + 22 – 2 = 60.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 11
 Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Step 3: Compute the test value.
x R = 27.75, sC = 2.64, x M = 22.41, sSCI = 1.27,

We now compute
(27.75 − 22.41) − 0
t= = 10.772
(22 − 1)(2.64) 2 + (40 − 1)(1.27) 2 1 1
+
22 + 40 − 2 22 40

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 12
Two Sample t-Test for the Means

Step 4: We fail to reject H0, since 10.772 > 2.390;

that is, 10.772 falls in the rejection region.

Step 5: we do have sufficient evidence to support

the claim that, in general, rugby players have a
higher BMI than the multisport men

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 13
Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Example:
The purpose of a study by Tam et al. (A-6) was to investigate
wheelchair maneuvering in individuals with lower-level spinal cord
injury (SCI) and healthy controls (C). Subjects used a modified
wheelchair to incorporate a rigid seat surface to facilitate the
specified experimental measurements. Interface pressure
measurement was recorded by using a high-resolution pressure-
sensitive mat with a spatial resolution of four sensors per square
centimeter taped on the rigid seat support. During static sitting
conditions, average pressures were recorded under the ischial
tuberosities (the bottom part of the pelvic bones). The data for
measurements of the left ischial tuberosity (in mm Hg) for the SCI
and control groups are shown in Table 7.3.1.We wish to know if we
may conclude, on the basis of these data, that, in general, healthy
subjects exhibit lower pressure than SCI subjects.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 14
Two Sample t-Test for the Means

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μC > μSCI H1: μC < μSCI (claim)
Step 2: Find the critical value. Let α = 0.05 and the test is a
left-tailed test, the critical value is cv = –1.734 with d.f. = 10 +
10 – 2 = 18.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 15
Two Sample t-Test for the Means
Step 3: Compute the test value.
x C = 126.1, sC = 21.8, x SCI = 133.1, sSCI = 32.2,
Next, we pool the sample variances to obtain

9(21.8) 2
+ 9(32.2) 2
s 2p = = 756.04
9+9
We now compute
(126.1 − 133.1) − 0
t= = −0.569
756.04 756.04
+
10 10
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 16
Two Sample t-Test for the Means

Step 4: We fail to reject H0, since –1.734 < -0.569;

that is, –0.569 falls in the nonrejection region.

Step 5: On the basis of these data, we cannot

conclude that the population mean pressure is less
for healthy subjects than for SCI subjects.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 17
Try This Yourself

Researchers wished to know if they could conclude that two

populations of infants differ with respect to mean age at which
they walked alone. The following data (ages in months) were
collected:
Sample from population A:
9.5, 10.5, 9.0, 9.75, 10.0, 13.0 10.0, 13.5, 10.0, 9.5, 10.0, 9.75
Sample from population B:
12.5, 9.5, 13.5, 13.75, 12.0, 13.75, 12.5, 9.5, 12.0,
13.5, 12.0, 12.0
What should the researchers conclude? Let α = 0.05.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 18

Try This Yourself
The number of grams of carbohydrates contained in 1-
ounce servings of randomly selected chocolate and
nonchocolate candy is listed here. Is there sufficient
evidence to conclude that the difference in the means
is significant? Use ɑ = 0.01.
Chocolate: 29 25 17 36 41 25 32 29 38 34 24 27 29
Nonchocolate: 41 41 37 29 30 38 39 10 29 55 29

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 19

Testing the Difference
Between Means
(Dependent Samples)
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
To perform a two-sample hypothesis test with dependent
samples, the difference between each data pair is first
found:
d = x2 – x1 Difference between entries for a data pair.

The test statistic is the mean d of these differences.

d Mean of the differences between paired
d = . data entries in the dependent samples.
n

Three conditions are required to conduct the test.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 21

t-Test for the Difference Between Means

1. The samples must be randomly selected.

2. The samples must be dependent (paired).
3. Both populations must be normally distributed.

If these conditions are met, then the sampling distribution

for d is approximated by a t-distribution with n – 1
degrees of freedom, where n is the number of data pairs.

d
–t0 μd t0

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 22

t-Test for the Difference Between Means
The following symbols are used for the t-test for μd .

Symbol Description
n The number of pairs of data
d The difference between entries for a data pair, d = x1 – x2
μd The hypothesized mean of the differences of paired data
in the population
d The mean of the differences between the paired data
entries in the dependent samples
d = d
n
sd The standard deviation of the differences between the
paired data entries in the dependent samples
n(d 2 ) − (d )
2
sd =
n(n − 1)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 23
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
A t-test can be used to test the difference of two population
means when a sample is randomly selected from each
population. The requirements for performing the test are that
each population must be normal and each member of the first
sample must be paired with a member of the second sample.
The test statistic is
d = d
n
and the standardized test statistic is
d − μd
t= .
sd n
The degrees of freedom are
d.f. = n – 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 24
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
Using the t-Test for the Difference Between Means
(Dependent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically. State H0 and Ha.
Identify the null and alternative
hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of significance. Identify .
3. Identify the degrees of freedom d.f. = n – 1
and sketch the sampling
distribution.
4. Determine the critical value(s). Use Table 5 in
Appendix B.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 25
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between
Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection region(s).
6. Calculate d and sd . Use a table. d = d
n
n( d 2 ) − ( d )2
sd =
n(n − 1)

d − μd
7. Find the standardized test statistic. t=
sd n

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 26

t-Test for the Difference Between Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between
Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
8. Make a decision to reject or fail If t is in the
to reject the null hypothesis. rejection region,
reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.
9. Interpret the decision in the
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 27

t-Test for the Difference Between Means
Example:
John M. Morton et al. (A-14) examined gallbladder
function before and after fundoplication—a surgery used to
stop stomach contents from flowing back into the
esophagus (reflux)—in patients with gastroesophageal
reflux disease. The authors measured gallbladder
functionality by calculating the gallbladder ejection
fraction (GBEF) before and after fundoplication. The goal
of fundoplication is to increase GBEF, which is measured
as a percent. The data are shown in Table 7.4.1. We wish to
know if these data provide sufficient evidence to allow us
to conclude that fundoplication increases GBEF
functioning.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 28
t-Test for the Difference Between Means

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μd < 0 H1: μd > 0 (claim)
Step 2: Find the critical value. Let α = 0.05 and the test is a
right-tailed test, the critical values are t = 1.796
with d.f. = 12 – 1 = 11.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 29
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
Step 3: Compute the test value.
Preop (%) 22 63.3 96 9.2 3.1 50 33 69 64 18.8 0 34
Postop (%) 63.5 91.5 59 37.8 10.1 19.6 41 87.8 86 55 88 40
Difference 41.5 28.2 -37 28.6 7 -30.4 8 18.8 22 36.2 88 6

d = 18.075, sd = 32.68

We now compute
18.075 − 0
t= = 1.916
32.68
12
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 30
t-Test for the Difference Between Means

Step 4: Reject H0, since 1.9159 is in the rejection

region.

Step 5: We may conclude that the fundoplication

procedure increases GBEF functioning.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 31
A medical researcher wants to determine whether a drug
changes the body’s temperature. Seven test subjects are
randomly selected, and the body temperature (in degrees
Fahrenheit) of each is measured. The subjects are then given
the drug and, after 20 minutes, the body temperature of each is
measured again. The results are listed below. At ɑ = 0.05, is
there enough evidence to conclude that the drug changes the
body’s temperature? Assume the body temperatures are
normally distributed.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 32

Try This Yourself
The purpose of an investigation by Morley et al. (A-17) was to evaluate the
analgesic effectiveness of a daily dose of oral methadone in patients with chronic
neuropathic pain syndromes. The researchers used a visual analogue scale (0–
100 mm, higher number indicates higher pain) ratings for maximum pain
intensity over the course of the day. Each subject took either 20 mg of methadone
or a placebo each day for 5 days. Subjects did not know which treatment they
were taking. The following table gives the mean maximum pain intensity scores
for the 5 days on methadone and the 5 days on placebo. Do these data provide
sufficient evidence, at the .05 level of significance, to indicate that in general the
maximum pain intensity is lower on days when methadone is taken?

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 33

Try This Yourself
Ellen Davis Jones (A-15) studied the effects of reminiscence therapy for older
women with depression. She studied 15 women 60 years or older residing for 3
months or longer in an assisted living long-term care facility. For this study,
depression was measured by the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Higher
scores indicate more severe depression symptoms. The participants received
reminiscence therapy for long-term care, which uses family photographs,
scrapbooks, and personal memorabilia to stimulate memory and conversation
among group members. Pre-treatment and posttreatment depression scores are
given in the following table. Can we conclude, based on these data, that subjects
who participate in reminiscence therapy experience, on average, a decline in
GDS depression scores? Let α = 0.01.

Pre–GDS: 12 10 16 2 12 18 11 16 16 10 14 21 9 19 20
Post–GDS: 11 10 11 3 9 13 8 14 16 10 12 22 9 16 18

Source: Data provided courtesy of Ellen Davis Jones, N.D., R.N., FNP-C.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 34
 Grammatical Errors
A teacher claims that a grammar seminar will help students
reduce the number of grammatical errors they make when
writing a 1000-word essay. The table shows the number of
grammatical errors made by seven students before
participating in the seminar and after participating in the
seminar. At ɑ = 0.01 is there enough evidence to conclude that
the seminar reduced the number of errors?

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 35