earth science

Module 1: Characteristics of Earth

that are Necessary to Support Life

1.

 Low
temperature
slows down
chemical
reaction and
produces ice
that makes
liquid water unavailable.
 High temperature can cause break down
of important biological molecules.
 In earth’s condition: temperature is just 3.
right to support life.
 The earth is at the right distance from the  It keeps the surface warm and protects it
Sun. from radiation in small to medium sized
 Sun is a stable and long-lasting star; the meteorites.
sun warms the planet (earth) and drives  Defined as the layer or set of layers of gases
the hydrologic cycle. surrounding a planet or other material—
atmosphere can protect us from small
2. meteors.
 It can black out harmful rays insulation or
 It is one of the shielding from greenhouse gases like carbon
important dioxide and methane.
ingredient in the  It provides chemicals needed for life namely
different : nitrogen and carbon dioxide
biological  Size of the planet and its distance from the
processes. sun affects its ability to hold significant
 Absence of this will interfere reactions amount of atmosphere.
necessary for life, however, solid form of  Earth has a right size and distance from the
water will also hinder living organisms to sun that permits it to have a right amount of
use it. atmosphere.
 Water on earth has different forms: solid  The presence of Gravity also helps in
or ice in two poles, and liquid along the sustaining its atmosphere.
equator— which allows living organisms
to consume it.
 Liquid water is necessary for life to exist.
4.

 Earth has available

energy rich sunlight
to support life.  Greek word: “atmos” which means gas |
 Some “sphaira” which means globe or ball
chemosynthetic  It serves as the earth’s blanket.
organisms rely on  It is composed of gases in varying
chemical energy to support various amount and its relative abundance is
biological processes. also crucial in different parts of the
 Earth is at the right position from the sun that earth.
enables it to harness enough amount of  The air in Earth’s Atmosphere is
sunlight. generally composed of 78% nitrogen, 21
 With a steady input of either light or chemical % oxygen, 0.9 % Argon, 0.10 % others.
energy, cells can run the chemical reactions  As the altitude increases the amount of
necessary for life. gases in the atmosphere decreases.

5.

 It is an  Greek word: “geos” meaning ground.

essential factor  It pertains to the solid part of the earth.
used to build and  It is divided into 3 layers namely: Crust,
maintain mantle, core.
organism’s body  It is composed of naturally occurring
structure. solid aggregate of minerals, organic
 Insufficient or materials or natural glass called
absence of ROCKS.
nutrients can  It is also composed of loose particles of
impede synthesis rocks that enveloped the surface of the
of different earth called REGOLITH.
biological molecules.
 In earth, there are processes that recycle
nutrients: water, carbon, and oxygen;
phosphate and nitrogen cycles.  Greek word: “hydro” which means water.
 Volcanism also helps in cycling the nutrients.  It is composed of all the water on earth
in any form.
 This can either in a form of: water vapor
Module 2: Earth’s Subsystem and liquid water.
 Cryosphere—the permanently frozen
part.

 Earth is a complex system of interrelating

physical, chemical, and biological
processes.  Greek word: “bios” meaning life
 It is a system in which there are sets of  It is composed of all the living things and
interconnected components that are the areas where they were found.
interacting to form a unified whole.  It includes all: animals, microbes, and
 Earth is comprised of major smaller plants.
systems known as subsystem or spheres of
 It extends to the upper areas of
the earth.
atmosphere and deep parts of the
ocean.
 This is the zone where interaction is
dynamic.  Describes the appearance of a mineral
when light is reflected from its surface.
 It can be described as opaque,
transparent, dull, or shiny.
 The processes that move matter and - Metallic luster is opaque and very
energy from one sphere to another. reflective like gold and silver.
 Changes in any sphere greatly affect the - Nonmetallic luster is dull, silky,
other spheres as well since spheres are greasy, and pearly like silicates.
INTERCONNECTED system.
 The four subsystem are closely linked to
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES which  Cleavage refers to the tendency of
involved: biological, geochemical, and minerals to break along very smooth, flat
chemical factors. and shiny surfaces.
 It can be described as one, two, three,
four or all direction.
 Biotic – Biosphere  A mineral fracture may break along
 Abiotic – atmosphere, geosphere, random, irregular surfaces. It can be
hydrosphere. classified as conchoidal, uneven, hackly,
splintery, and earthy.
Module 3: Physical and  Some minerals break only by fracturing,
while others both cleave and fracture.
Chemical Properties of Minerals

 Is one of the most obvious properties of a

mineral but not reliable alone.
 Minerals are naturally occurring.  Some minerals come in just one color,
 It is chemically inorganic. while others come in many colors and
 It is homogenous solids. varieties.
 It has definite chemical composition.
 Ordered internal structure or crystal
structure.
 Refers to the color of the mineral in its
powdered form, which may or may not be
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL the same color as the mineral.
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS:  According to Bayo-ang (2016) streak is
obtained by scratching the mineral on an
unpolished piece of white porcelain
 Refers to the overall shape or growth called a streak plate. When the excess
pattern of the mineral. It can be described powder is blown away, what remains is
as equant, elongate and platy. the color of the streak.
- Equant – three dimensions of the  Streak is a more reliable property than
mineral have about the same color as streak shows the true color of
length, like that of a cube or minerals. It does not vary even if color
sphere. does.
- Elongate – forms prismatic or
prism-like crystals that are thicker
than the needle as in a pencil.
 Is a measure of the mineral’s resistance
3. Oxides
to scratching
 It is formed from the combination of a
 Different hardness that ranged from a
very soft mineral (talc) to a very hard metal with oxygen.
mineral (diamond).  This group ranges from dull ores like
bauxite to gems likerubies and
sapphires.

4. Sulfides
 These are made of compounds of sulfur
usually with a metal.
 They tend to be heavy and brittle.

5. Sulfates
 These are made of compounds of sulfur
combined with metals and oxygen.
 It is a large group of minerals that tend
to be soft, and translucent.

6. Halides
 They form from halogen elements like
chlorine,bromine, fluorine, and iodine
combined with metallic elements.
 They are very soft and easily dissolved
in water.
1. Native elements
 These minerals are naturally occurring
in nature in an uncombined form with 7. Carbonate
a distinct mineral structure.  These are group of minerals made of
 It can be classified as metal, carbon, oxygen, and a metallicelement.
semimetals and non-metals.
8. Phosphates
2. Silicates  They are often formed when other
 This is the largest group of minerals. minerals are broken down by
 It contains silicon and oxygen, with weathering.
some aluminum,magnesium, iron and  They are often brightly colored.
calcium.
9. Mineraloid
 It is the term used for those substances
that do not fit neatly into one of the eight
classes.
Module 4: Classification of Rocks C. Organic Sedimentary Rock
 It is formed from the build-up of plant or
animal debris.
1. Igneous Rocks - formed through the  Examples: coal, fossilliferous limestone.
cooling and solidification
of magma or lava. Igneous rock can be
classified into:
A. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
 This type of igneous
rock is formed from 3. Metamorphic
solidification of Rock – forms
magma below the from existing
surface. types called
 Examples: granite, “parent rock” in
diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and peridotite. the process
called metamorphism.
B. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
A. Foliated Metamorphic Rock
 This type of
igneous rocks is  It is formed through pressure due to
formed through compression of rocks that creates bands
a faster rate of called foliation.
solidification.  Example: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and
 Examples: slate.
andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian,
pumice, rhyolite, and tuff. B. Non-foliated Metamorphic Rock
 It has no foliations or bonds.
2. Sedimentary Rock - is formed by the
 Example: hornfels, marble, quartzite, and
deposition and
novaculite.
cementation of
mineral or organic
particles on the floor
of oceans and other
bodies of water at the
Earth’s surface.
A. Clastic Sedimentary Rock
 It is formed from the mechanical
weathering debris of rocks.
 Examples: breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, and, shale.

B. Chemical Sedimentary Rock

 It is formed when dissolved materials
precipitate from the solution.
 Example: salt, iron, ore, chert, flint, some
dolomites.
Module 5: Important Minerals to
Society

 Minerals are important in our life.

 We utilized minerals on a daily basis.
 We are surrounded by it.

USES OF MINERALS 1. Open-pit mining

SECTOR MINERALS  Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in
Energy  Coal the ground.
Medicine  Phosphorus  It is used to mine gravel and sand
 Potassium and even rock.
Agriculture  Phosphate Rock
 Nitrogen 2. Strip mining
 Sulfur
 This mining method is used for coal,
Contstruction  Limestone
phosphates, clays, and tar mining.
 Quartz
 This mining type involves the
 Granites
removal of a thin strip of overburden
 Iron and Carbon
(earth or soil) above a desired
Household  Copper
 Zinc
deposit.
 Nickel
 Chrome 3. Dredging
 Iron  This is the process of mining
materials from the bottom of a body
of water, including rivers, lakes, and
Module 6: Ore-minerals: How oceans.
they are FOUND, MINED, and
PROCESSED B. Underground mining

 is used to extract the rocks, minerals and

Mining - the process of mineral extraction other precious stories that can be found
from a rock seam or ore –a natural rock or beneath the earth’s surface.
sediment containing one or more valuable
mineral.

TWO METHODS OF MINING

A. Surface Mining
 Is used to extract ore minerals near the
surface of the earth.
 The soil and rocks that covered the ores
are removed through blasting.
 Blasting is a controlled use of explosives
and gas exposure to break rocks.
5 STEPS INVOLVED IN PROCESSING in transportation, electricity, and
MINERALS industries.
 They are natural and finite reservoirs
1. Sampling that has a cheaper cost production.
 Is the removal of a portion which  Considered as non- renewable energy
represents a whole needed for the source.
analysis of this material.  Over consumption of it may lead to
2. Analysis serious environment issues such as air
 Is important to evaluate the valuable pollution.
component in an ore.
 This includes chemical, mineral and
particle size analysis.
3. Comminution
 Is the process where the valuable
components of the ore are separated
through crushing and grinding.
 Grinding the ores into a powder form.
4. Concentration
 involves the separation of the valuable
minerals from the raw materials.
5. Dewatering
 Uses the concentration to convert it to
usable minerals.
 This involves filtration and
sedimentation of the suspension and
drying of the solid materials harvested
from this suspension.

1. Coal
Module 7: Formation of Fossil  Coal is composed of
carbon, hydrogen,
Fuels
oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulfur.
 There are three types of coal:
Anthricite – composed of more carbon, and
 Fossil fuels are natural resources the hardest among the three.
formed in the geological plant from the
remains of dead organisms. Lignite – the softest coal because of its low
 The are produced by natural resources number of carbon but has high component
like anaerobic decomposition of dead or in hydrogen and oxygen.
buried dead organisms. Butynamous – the not too hard and not too
 They are formed milion of years ago soft coal. It is in between the two types of
from the remains of pre-historic living coal.
organisms buried beneath the earth’s
surface.
 They are world’s primary energy source
that provide most of the energy support
 a) Peat – it is formed once the dead
organisms are decomposed. They 3. Natural Gas
are described as soft, fibrous, and  It is lighter than
spongy substance and containts the air.
large amount of water that must be  It is first
dry before use. discovered in
b) Lignite – It is formed once the peat Iran.
is compressed in between the  It is mostly made up of methane, that is
sedimentary layers. a simple chemical compound that is
c) Bitonomous Coal – it is formed made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
when there is a further compression  It is usually found in petreum
of lignite over a long period of time. undeground and they are pumped from
d) Anthracite – known as the hardest below ground and travels into pipelines
coal because it is hard and has high to storage areas.
luster.  It has no odor, and we cannot see it.

2. Oil
 Oil is formed more
 Their formation is the same with the
than 300 million years
formation of oil.
ago.
 It is formed because of these marine
 It is commonly
organism that are dead and
produced in countries such as Russia,
decomposed for a long period of time.
Saudi Arabia, USA, and China.
Due to the heat and pressure, their
 Oil has been used for more than 5000-
remains converted into natural gas.
6000 years.

 An oil refinary or petroleum refinary is

an industrial process where oil is
 Scientist says that tiny diatoms (sea processed and refined into more
creatures the size of a pin head and petroleum useful products like gasoline,
can convert sunlight directly into stored deisel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil,
energy) are the source of oil. kerosine, and liquified petroleum gas.
 As diatoms died they fell to the sea  Once they are refined, they are now
floor. They were buried or covered ready for human consumption.
under sediments and other rock for
many years, and the rocks eventually
squeeze diatos and the energy in their
bodies cannot escape;
 Carbon then turned into oil under 1. Environmental Hazards - once fossil fuel
pressure and heat. is burned it releases gas called Carbon
Dioxide that cause global warming.
2. Acid Rain – aside from carbon dioxide that
is release during burning of fossil fuels, it
 The rising hot water and stream trapped
also releases sulfur dioxide which is one of
in permeable and porous rocks to form
the pollutants that causes acid rain.
a geothermal reservoirs.
3. Effect on Human Health – pollution from
 Reservoirs can be discovered by testing
vehicles and power plants powered by fossil
te soil and analyzing underground
fuels it can cause environental hazard that
temperature.
may affect the human health.
 It can be suspected in the areas where
4. Impact on the Aquatic Life by Oil Spill –
we find: hot spring, fumarole, volcano,
transportation of crud oil via sea can cause
geyser.
oil spill which can cause hazards on aquatic
resources.

Module 8: Energy Sources

The heat energy can be brought to the earth’s
surface by following ways:
 Directly from hot springs/geysers
 Heat is one of the types of energy that  Geothermal heat pump
is dynamic, transferable, and can be It is broadly classified as:
converted into useful forms.  Direct use
 It is the product of random motion of  Indirect use
particles that are continously colliding
and vibrating. a. DIRECT USE
 Hot springs used as spas.
 Heating water at fish farms.
 Provide heat for building.
 Raising plants in greenhouse, drying
crops.
 The heat underneath the earth that  Provides heat to industrial processes.
when harnessed can generate electrical b. INDIRECT USE
energy for community use.  Electricity generator
 This is possibly when geothermal
powerplant is equipped with the
technology that runs the process of
conversion.
 THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF
POWER PLANTS FOR ELECTRIC 3. Binary cycle power plant
GENERATION:

1. Dry steam power plant

 It does not use steam directly to spin

turbines.
 Only heat of underground water is
 It is the oldest type of geothermal power
used.
plant used.
 Vapourized hydrocarbons are used to
 Geothermal reservoir containing pure
spin the turbine.
steam is required.
 Hydrocarbons having lower boiling
 Pure steam drives turbine.
point such as isopentane, isobutane,
 Very rare type of geothermal
and propane can be used.
powerplant.
 It has no harmful gases emitted to the
 It sips directly hot steam beneath the
atmosphere because the undeground
ground through pipes to mobilize
water never disclosed to outside.
 This is the world wide accepted power
2. Flash steam power plant
plant.

Geothermal energy is used for: heating water,

building, and electricity.

 Converts
the kinetic
energy in
flowing
water into
 The most common used geothermal electric
power plant. energy.
 It contains both hot water and stream  Falling or
to function. flowing of
 Pressure changing system is required water turns
 It pipes high pressure hot water from a propeller
geothermal reservoir and convert it into like piece
steam that turn generator turbines to called turbine.
produce eletricity.
 The turbine turns a metal shaft in an electric
generator which produces electricity.
 Flowing water is directed to the turbine and it
causes the turbine to rotate, converting the
water’s kinetic energy into mechanical
energy.
 Mechanical energy produced by the turbine is
converted into electric energy using a turbine
generator.
 Unside the generator, the shaft of the turbine
spins a magnet inside coils of copper wire.
 It is a fact of nature that moving magnet near
a conductor causes an electric current.