A Republic of Mathematics publication

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

Gary E. Davis & Catherine A. Pearn

5 minutes
  

-minutes
-minutes
-minutes

1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute

- - - - - - - - - -
         
minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute































                             

A guide for elementary and middle school teachers

Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

Gary E. Davis & Catherine A. Pearn

A Republic of Mathematics publication

Copyright © 2009 by Gary E. Davis & Catherine A. Pearn

Copyright holder is licensing this work under the

Creative Commons License, Attribution 3.0.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/

Please feel free to post, distribute, adapt and use this

work freely, with due attribution to the authors

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Contents

Division by whole numbers page 3

Partitive division page 3

Quotitive division page 4

Division by fractions page 6

Measurement models page 6

Simple examples of fraction division page 7

Fraction division problems with fractional answers page 9

Common multiples page 10

Keeping track of the unit of division page 11

Invert and multiply page 13

Common denominators page 15

Measuring by units larger than the quantity to be measured page 16

Fraction walls page 17

Standard fraction walls page 17

Fraction walls with fractional quantities greater than 1 page 19

Division of a quantity into an equal whole number of parts page 21

Worked word problems page 24

Why splitting pies into equal slices is not a good idea for teaching fractions page 27

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Division by whole numbers

Before looking at division of fractions let’s look at division of one whole number by another.

Suppose we want to divide 20 by 5.

There are two ways to do this, and for young children these two ways rely on quite different abilities
and skills.

In one of these ways we form equal sized groups and ask: “How many are there in each group?” The
other way, we say how many are in each group and ask: “How many groups are there?”

Partitive division

We can form 5 groups, of equal size, and find that there are 4 objects in each group.

The result of dividing 20 by 5 is the size of each group – namely 4 – and we write 20  5 4

This is called partitive division, because it focuses on partitioning, or splitting, the collection of
objects into so many groups of equal size.

The first step in partitive division is very simple: it is just like sharing, or dealing out, that young
children know how to do without being taught. For example we could say: “Here are 20 cookies. Can
you share them all out to these 5 dolls?” Then, when children do that, we can ask: “How many did
each doll get?” Now the children can count, and find that 20  5 4.

There are 5 dolls, and each doll gets 4 cookies

Notice that partitive division does not really answer a counting question – a “how many?” question
–until the end, when we have split the objects into equal groups. At that point, children count, in a
simple way, using one-to-one correspondence, how many cookies each doll has been dealt.

Another example might be partitioning 21 objects into 3 groups. We write this as a division problem
as follows: 21  3. Here we want to know if we partition, or split, 21 objects into 3 groups, each of
equal size, how many objects will be in each group?

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

When we ask children to carry out partitive division we are fixing a number of spots, or places, and
asking them to share out objects equally to each of the spots. Then we ask: “How many objects are
there at each spot?”

Notice how simple this process is: it relies on children’s abilities to share out evenly, and to count
using one-to-one correspondence. That’s all. So partitive division is relatively simple for children in
the earliest grades.

Quotitive division

There is another way to think about division, for example how many groups of size 5 can we form
from 20 objects. We write this as a division problem as 20  5 4. This way is called quotitive
division and involves forming groups of 5 objects and counting how many groups we get.

To carry out this process a child needs to bundle 5 objects into a group, and then keep bundling until
there are no more groups. The number of bundles is the answer to the division question.

How many bundles of this size … … are there in this many cookies?

his is conceptually more difficult for younger children, because many of them cannot easily carry out
counting using this bundling process. A child might bundle 5 cookies, then 5 more, and so on until all
cookies are gone, and then count the number of bundles. If so, this child is probably not counting by
bundles. Think of the bundles as shrink-wrapped unit packages.

It is relatively straightforward to check if a child can count by units. For example, many 5 and 6 year
olds can count, quite far, by 2’s. Yet if we say: “I counted to 24 by 2’s. How many times did I count?”
children might get stuck on this counting question.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Here is an example that illustrates the advantages of counting by units. Ask how many 19’s there are
in 95. Many children, even as old as year 10 students, will find the answer to this question as
follows: 19, 19+19=38, 38+19 = 57, 57+19 = 76, 76+19 = 95, so the answer is 5. Some children,
however, answer as follows: 19 is 1 less than 20 and 5 lots of 20 is 100 (a remembered fact), so 5
lots of 19 is 5 less than 100, which is 95. These latter children are counting by units of 20 and
carrying the relationship between 19 and 20 with then as they count.

The counting technique that is most helpful when we look at division of fractions is counting by
bundled units. If a child is not strong on counting by whole number units, practicing this will be of
great help when they come to division of fractions.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Division by fractions

Measurement models

We model division of fractions on quotitive division – counting by bundled units.

What is of great use in explaining fraction division to children is a measurement model of fractions.

The usual model of a fraction using a whole number of equal parts of an object, such as a pie or a
candy bar, is valid, and it is the model with which most teachers are very familiar - which is why they
probably use it exclusively. However, modeling fractions as potentially continuous parts of a
continuously divisible quantity, such as time, or volume – of water, for example – or space, is much
more helpful to a child when learning fraction division. We call this a measurement model because
we use an arbitrary part of an object with which to measure. We take this measurement unit and
repeat it as many times as needed to get a quantity equal to what we are measuring.

Let’s use time and water as our continuously variable quantity in the following examples. You could
use length - for example, length of a snowboard track – or even a pie if you allow arbitrary divisions
of the pie, and not just divisions into whole numbers of pieces.

Measurement models are very useful for helping children make a transition to fractions as numbers
in whole number division problems.

For example, children are commonly taught in the early years that the result of diving 2 into 7 is 3,
remainder 1. This type of answer does not focus on the relationship of the remainder to the unit of
division.

Suppose a child is asked to distribute 7 cookies evenly to 2 toy dolls. The child shares out 3 cookies
to each doll and has 1 cookie left over – a remainder of 1 cookie. If we want all the cookies shared

out to the two dolls, and if the cookies are able to be split into pieces, then each doll gets 3


cookies. So the result of the division of 2 into 7 is not 3 remainder 1, but 3 .


Fractions come into play as numbers in a way that expresses a reality for the child. The fraction
measures something that whole numbers cannot.

This becomes very clear if we use quantities such as liquid measure or time.

Suppose we want to share all of 7 cups of lemonade evenly between 3 children. We can give each

child 2 cups of lemonade and then evenly share out  of a cup more to each child. So the result of

dividing 7 cups of lemonade by 3 is 2 .


By using measurement models, teachers can help children make a transition to seeing fractions as
numerical answers to sharing or division problems.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Simple examples of fraction division

A simple question: what is 1  ?
 

We interpret this as a counting question: “How many units of are there in 1 ?” or, to make it
 


more concrete in terms of a water model, “How many -cups are there in 1  cups ?”

Notice that, in this question, “ -cup” is the unit by which we measure. The answer, of course, is 3, as

we can see from a diagram:

2 cups

1 cups


1 cup

cup



cup measure


We can also interpret this question in terms of a time model: “How many -minutes are there in 1
 
minutes?”

1  minutes

1 unit of -minute


3 units each of -minute


Notice, too, that the answer of “3” means 3 lots of -minutes.

When we carry out division of fractions with children we need to keep track of the original quantity


– 1 minutes in this example – and the measurement unit by which we are dividing – -minutes in
 
this example.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

The result of the division – the answer – is always a certain number of units by which we are dividing


– 3 -minutes in this example.

Some more examples

1. How many minutes are there in 2 minutes?


2. What answer do you get when you divide of a minute into 2 minutes?



3. What is 1    ?

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Fraction division problems with fractional answers

The answer to a fraction division problem might not be a whole number, as it was in the examples
above. It might be a fraction too.


For example, let’s ask: “How many -minutes are there in 1 minutes ?”
 

We know that 3 ( -minutes) is 1 minutes.
 

We can also see that 4 ( -minutes) is 2 minutes.



So the answer to the question: “How many -minutes are there in 1 minutes ?” is somewhere
 
between 3 and 4.


How much more of a -minute unit is there left in 1 minutes when we get to 1 minutes?
  

minute 1 minute 1 minutes 2 minutes
 


1 minutes


There is minute left over, and this is exactly of a -minute unit.
  

1  -minute 2  -minute 3  -minute 4  -minute
 

3  -minute
 


So, there are exactly 3  ( -minute) units in 1  minutes.


This means, 1  3
  

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Common multiples


The question: “How many -minutes are there in 1 minutes ?” can be looked at from a different
 
perspective.

For two fractions, such as and 1 , we ask the question: “What whole number multiple of both
 
fractions will give a whole number answer in both cases?”

For example, 4   2 and 4  1 =7. The common multiple of 4, stretches the unit -minute to 2

minutes, and stretches the quantity 1 minutes to 7 minutes.



Now, the number of -minute units in 1 minutes is the same as the number of 2-minute units in 7
 
  
minutes, namely  3 . In other words 1     3 .


By stretching both the unit of a -minute, and the quantity 1 minutes, by a common amount, we
 

changed the fraction division problem 1  into the whole number division problem 7  2 which
 

has the fractional answer of  3 .

Some more examples

Figure out the answers to the following fraction division problems by finding common whole
number multiples of the measurement unit, and of the quantity to be measured, that are also whole
number quantities:

1. 1   


2. 2 
 

3. 3 
 

 
4. 1 
 

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Keeping track of the unit of division

Notice how important it is to track, and keep a mental picture, or an actual drawing, of the unit by


which we are dividing: the “ “ in the answer to 1    means 
of a -minute unit.


Let’s illustrate this point again with the answer to the question: “How many –minutes are there in

3 minutes?”

We mark off a measurement unit of  –minute and repeat it 4 times to get not quite 3 minutes. The

bit left over is of a minute:


1 minute 2 minutes 3 minutes


minute minute
 

A measurement

unit of minute



4 lots of of minute



This bit left over is of the measurement unit of –minute.
 

 
So there are 4 units of –minute in 3 minutes. We write this as 3  4 .
   


To illustrate this point again, let’s ask the question: “How many –minutes are there in 3 minutes?”

Does this look impossibly hard? Should we revert to “invert and multiply?” Not yet! Because we
want to get the conceptual basis of division by fractions as counting by units, in place before we
jump to unexplained procedures. Mathematics is not inexplicable magic – it is a rational, clear,
logical process of thought, that – properly explained – can be understood by anyone.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

The thing to bear in mind with this question – as for the question: “How many -minutes are there


in 1 minutes?” – is the following:


When a child first learns to count, the question: “How many?” is answered by a whole
number. But not all “How many?” questions have a whole number answer: “How many 2’s
are there in 11” for example. Fractions help us answer “How many?” questions like the
latter.

The fractional answer to “How many 2’s are there in 11” is not “5 with remainder 1” but “5 “.


Thinking of 2 as the unit of measurement, the quantity 11 is 5 lots of 2.


 
To answer: “How many –minutes are there in 3 minutes?” – that is, to calculate 3  – we will


first try to answer “How many –minutes are there in 1 minute?”.


Let’s imagine 1 minute divided equally into 11 equal parts, and then let’s count by units of –

minutes:

1 minute divided into 11 equal parts


of a minute


5 lots of

of a minute

 
We see that 5 lots of –minutes is of 1 minute.

To get to 1 minute we need of a minute more.

Now here is a really important bit: of a minute is of the unit we are using to measure – the unit


we are dividing by – namely of a minute.

 
So there are 5 lots of -minutes in 1 minute. In other words, using division notation: 1  5 .
 


To answer the original question: “How many –minutes are there in 3 minutes?” we multiply this

 
answer by 3 to get 16 lots of -minutes in 3 minutes. Using division notation: 3  16 .
 

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Invert and multiply

A commonly stated rule for fraction division is “invert and multiply”.

 
For example to carry out the fraction division 3  we “invert” the quantity to get 
and then

multiply: 3  16 .
  

This is the same answer we got before, and it seems quick and easy.

Where did this rule come from?


Look back at the drawing, above, that shows 1 minute divided by -minutes.


The “11” in tells us in how many pieces the 1 minute should be evenly divided. It is called the

denominator of the fraction.

The “2” in tells us how many of these 11 equal parts of 1 minute we should bundle together to

form a measurement unit. It is called the numerator of the fraction.
 
When we divide the 1 minute by we are counting how many of these -units fit into 1 minute.

 
If we invert we get  , and  of a
-unit is .

There are exactly 11 of these units in 1 minute because we divided the minute into 11 equal time

segments.
 
So there are 
lots of
-units in 1 minute. That is, 1  
, which is the invert and multiply
rule.

Here is another example. Suppose we want to figure out how many of a cup of water there are in 1


cup of water. That is we want to calculate 1  .


1 cup


cup


cup cup measure
 


cup measure


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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009


The answer, as we can see from the diagram, is 1 lots of cup measure.
 

 
If we invert we get  , and  of a -cup is -cup.

There are exactly 3 of these - cups in 1 cup because we divided the cup into 3 equal parts.


 
So there are lots of -cup in 1 cup, which again is the invert and multiply rule.
 

In the invert and multiply rule for this example, the numerator 2 is the count of how many multiples

of make up the measurement unit of . It becomes the denominator of the fraction of how many
 

lots of we need to make 1 cup. The denominator 3 tells us how many of the units there are in 1
 

cup. It becomes the numerator of the fraction of how many lots of  we need to make 1 cup.

Some more examples

Explain the invert and multiply rule for the following fractions:

1. 2. 3.
  

  
4. 
5. 
6. 

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

Common denominators

For some fraction division problems the unit of measurement with which are dividing, is not easily
comparable to the quantity into which we are dividing. For example suppose we want to know how

many hours are there in a -hour. The quantity is not easily measurable directly by the unit . In
   

order to carry out this measurement, we can express both the quantity and the unit of


measurement as multiples of a smaller unit of measurement. In this example we can choose as a
 

measurement unit because then  2   and  3  :

1 hour


hour


hour


hour

Looking at the diagram we can see that in the quantity -hour, there are 1 lots of hours.
  

Some more examples

1. How many  hours are there in a  hour?

 
2. How many hours are there in hour?
 

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Measuring by units larger than the quantity to be measured

Fractions are wonderful in their flexibility! We can take a unit of measurement, such as 1 hours,


and ask: “How many 1  hours are there in a  hour?”

How many of these measurement units:

1 minutes


are there in this quantity:


minute

Now, we cannot physically repeat the measurement unit 1 hours so many times to get the


quantity 
hour, simply because the unit 1  hours is bigger than the quantity  hour that we are
trying to measure.

But we can measure the quantity 1 hours by the unit -hour, and the result is 3: 1  3.
   

This means that 3 equal lots of -hour is the same time as 1  hours. Expressed another way, this

means a -hour is of 1 hours.
  

So measuring a -hour by units of 1 hour gives us .
  

The quantity hour is of the measurement unit of 1 hours.
  

This example illustrates how important is the relationship between the measurement unit and the
quantity to be measured. When the quantity to be measured is larger than the measurement unit,
the result of the division is a whole number or fraction bigger than 1.

When the quantity to be measured is smaller than the measurement unit, the result of the division
is a fraction smaller than 1.

Some more examples


1. How many 1 hours are there in a hour?
 


2. How many 2 hours are there in hour?
 

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Fraction walls

Standard fraction walls

Fraction walls are in common use in elementary schools all over the world. Typically, a fraction wall
consists of a large unit, denoted “1” and subdivisions of that unit into equal parts in various ways:

1



 

  

    

     

The fraction wall above was constructed by making a table with 5 rows and 30 columns.

There were 30 columns because we need to have a multiple of 2  3  5 30.

An easy way to do this is to construct the table in a spreadsheet and import the table into a word
processing document.

The columns are then set to equal widths.

The columns in the first row were merged into one column, for the unit “1”.

The columns in the second row were merged into two equal lots for the unit and so on for the

remaining rows.

The reason that is not represented is that we would have needed 60 columns (2  2  3  5


60) in order to have 4 lots of , as well as equal lots of the other unit fractions.


The very important issue for a student of how we make equal parts of a continuous whole is done
automatically by the word processor, as a hidden procedure. We do not know how it does this, just
that it does.

We can also begin with a single column to represent “1” and use the split cells feature of the word
processor to split cells into appropriate numbers of pieces.

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Division of fractions – Davis & Pearn, 2009

How can we use the fraction wall to illustrate the division  ?
 

One way is to use a common denominator and measure both and division in terms of the smaller
 

unit  :

 

    























The quantity is 5 lots of , and the unit is 2 lots of the smaller unit .
   


So there are  2  lots of  in .

We can still use a measurement model by taking the “1” to represent, for example, 1 hour, or 1 mile,

or 1 kilometer. With units of miles, for example, we are trying to measure how many -mile units


there are in  a mile.

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Fraction walls with fractional quantities greater than 1

Sometimes, as we have seen, we might want to divide a fraction larger than 1 by a fractional unit

measure. For example we might want to figure out how many - minutes there are in 1 - minutes.
 


To illustrate this division with a fraction wall we can represent 1 - minutes as an equal part of a

larger whole number.

What whole number would that be, and what part of that whole number would 1 - minutes be?



3 lots of 1 - minutes is 5 minutes, so we could begin by dividing a strip representing 5 minutes into

3 equal pieces:

5 minutes
  

-minutes
-minutes
-minutes
  

1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute

We can now show the - minute unit on the same fraction wall:


5 minutes
  

-minutes
-minutes
-minutes

1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute

- - - - - - - - - -
         
minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute

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The problem now is that the quantity 1 -minutes and the measurement unit – minute do not
 

evenly overlap, so, again, it helps to measure both in terms of the smaller unit of – minute:


5 minutes
  

-minutes
-minutes
-minutes
  

1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute 1 minute

- - - - - - - - - -
         
minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute minute































                             


Now we can see that quantity 1 -minutes is 10 lots of the unit  – minute.

Also, the – minute unit is 3 lots of the unit - minute.
 

 
So 1  3 .
   

The use of fraction walls gets more difficult as we have to split the fraction measurement unit into
finer pieces to accommodate the fractional quantity being measured.

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Division of a quantity into an equal whole number of parts

When using fraction walls we leave the equal division of a quantity into several equal parts to the
word processing software: we know that it can do this, but neither we nor students know how.

Using word processing software’s ability to reproduce parallel lines, we can carry out the task of
division of a quantity into an equal whole number of pieces by the construction described below.

This construction could also be carried out in Geometer’s Sketchpad or Cabri.

We will represent the quantity to be subdivided by a line:

Let’s divide this line into 5 equal pieces.

We choose “5” because paper folding will allow most people to divide a line, or sheet of paper, into
2 or 3 equal pieces.

We begin by drawing another line from the right hand end of the given line,

drawn at any angle:

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On this new line we reproduce 5 copies of a small line segment:

We then join the left hand end of the original line segment
to the top of the last of our 5 new small line segments:

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This new line we copy and move parallel so that it passes through
the end of the second last of our set of 5 small line segments:

We repeat this to get parallel lines through all the ends

of the 5 small line segments:

The points where these parallel lines meet the original line divide that line into 5 equal parts.

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Worked word problems

Q 1. At a party there were 10 pizzas. The boys ate 6  pizzas, and the girls ate 3  pizzas. What
fraction of the 10 pizzas did the girls eat, and what fraction did the boys eat?

There were 10 pizzas:

The girls ate 3 pizzas:


If we measure in units of -pizza units, there were 20 lots of -pizzas:
 

and the girls ate 7 of these -pizzas:



So the girls ate of the pizzas.



Using the same units of -pizza we see that the boys ate of the pizzas.
 


Q 2. Melissa was making ribbons for presents. Each ribbon was of a yard. The local craft store had

8 yards of ribbon. Melissa thought that she might not be able to make an exact while number of
ribbons without a bit left over. She decided to use the bit left over to make a smaller ribbon for
another present. How many whole ribbons could Melissa make from the ribbon in the store, and
what fraction of a ribbon would be left over for the smaller ribbon?

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8 yards of ribbon

8 yards of ribbon with each yard split into 5 equal pieces


8 yards of ribbon measured by of a yard pieces



There are 13 lots of of a yard, and of a yard left over.
 


The bit left over is of of a yard, so Melissa can make 13 ribbons: 13 big ribbons and 1 small
  

ribbon that is  the size of the larger ribbons.

Q 3. Bob pumped water from a tank to water his vegetable garden. He used 5 liters of water for

every square meter of vegetable garden. The tank held 180 liters of water. How many square
meters of vegetable patch could Bob water?

We have to figure out how many units of 5 liters there are in 180 liters: in other words, to


calculate 180  5 .


One way to do this is to imagine we double the amount of water needed per square meter, and also
double the amount of water in the tank.

Imagine we needed 11 liters for each square meter, and that there were 360 liters in the tank. Then
 
we could water 32 square meters.

So that is also the number of square meters we can water using a tank with 180 liters and using 5
liters of water for every square meter of vegetable garden.

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Q 4. Shelley wanted to save to buy a present that cost 5 times her weekly allowance. She decided to

save  of her allowance each week. How many weeks would she need to save to be able to buy the
present?

We need to work out how many units of there are in 5. In other words, we need to calculate 10 


.



5 times Shelley’s weekly allowance, with units of and of her allowance
 

1 1 1 1 1

              

      

       


There are 7 lots of of Shelley’s allowance in 5 times her allowance, plus a small bit of of her
 
allowance left over.


That extra of her allowance is of the measurement unit of of her allowance.
  

So Shelley will have to save for 7 weeks.


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Why splitting pies into equal slices is not a good idea for teaching fractions

A common model for discussing fractions is spitting a pie into several equal pieces using radial cuts
– straight line cuts from the center of the pie to the crust:

The problem with this is that when we make the first cut, it is not obvious, other than guessing,
where we should make the second, and following, cuts.

If we can successfully make the cuts so as to divide the pie into equal slices then, by joining the
points where the cuts meet the edge – the crust – we get a regular polygon:

The problem is that there is generally no good method for constructing regular polygons.

Regular polygons with 3, 4, 5, and 6 sides can be constructed using straight lines and circles, but a
regular polygon with 7 sides cannot be constructed using straight lines and circles.

The question of which regular polygons can be constructed, and how, is fairly complicated:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructible_polygon

You may object that we can draw a regular polygon by measuring the internal angles with a
protractor. However, that method relies on setting up degrees on a protractor as an arbitrary unit of
measure. Our objective in fraction division is to use one fractional part of an object to measure
another, and placing degree measure center stage avoids the issue. This would be like solving
fraction problems by measuring lengths in millimeters, or time in seconds. It avoids the fraction
division by going to an arbitrary fine unit of measurement.

Because equal division of a pie by radial slices gives a regular polygon by joining the ends of the
slices, the construction of equal pieces of a pie is just as hard as constructing a regular polygon. This
is a hard problem.

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In the interests of truth, honesty, transparency, and full disclosure, we should tell our students this,
and not pretend that we know where to make the cuts in a pie so as to get equal pieces when we
are talking about fractions.

If, in a practical application, we did have to divide a pie very carefully, then using a protractor would
be a good method. However, realistically, how often do we need to be that careful? Mostly we will
guess. But we should tell our students we are guessing.

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The authors

Gary E. Davis, Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts

Dartmouth, USA.
Gary Davis has over 35 years experience in successfully teaching mathematics, and
more than 20 years experience in researching how children succeed in learning
mathematics. He has years of relevant experience in how children succeed at
mathematics in the USA, UK, and Australia. With Robert Hunting he is co-author of
Early Fraction Learning, published by Springer-Verlag. He has been the Boeing
Distinguished Professor of Mathematics Education at Washington State University,
Visiting Professor of Mathematics Education at Rutgers University in New Jersey,
Visiting Professor in the Mathematics Education Research Centre, University of
Warwick, UK, Professor of Education at the University of Southampton, UK, and
Director of the Institute for Mathematics Education, LaTrobe University, Melbourne, Australia. He has lectured
and given presentations on his work throughout the world.

Catherine A. Pearn, M.Ed. Lecturer in Education, University of Melbourne,

Australia.
Cath Pearn is an experienced elementary teacher with a Master's degree in
mathematics education. She has been Education Officer responsible for Numeracy
and Mathematics at the Catholic Education Office, Melbourne, Australia, formerly
a Research Fellow at the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER), and a
mathematics education lecturer for pre-service elementary teachers at LaTrobe
University in Melbourne. She was an invited member for the Australian Federal
Government's Numeracy Benchmarks, a member of the Mathematics Education
Research Group of Australasia, the Association of Teacher Educators of Europe,
and was a councilor for the Mathematics Association of Victoria for 5 years. Cath
is currently completing her PhD on the role of language in young children's
mathematical development. Working for ACER she has developed a Mathematics
Intervention program for Grade 1 students at risk in mathematics and a similar program for Grades 3 and 4
students. She has lectured and given presentations on her work in Australia, the Czech Republic, Ireland, Spain,
the UK, and the United States

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