CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Introduction
Project portfolio management is concerned with managing groups of
projects, programs, and operational activities (hereafter referred to as
portfolio components) that compete for scarce resources and that are
­conducted to achieve strategic business objectives. Earlier l­ iterature related
to project portfolio management focused attention on the selection and
prioritization of projects and programs; however, merely choosing the
right portfolio components is not enough as decisions made during
the management of the portfolio could negate the very effort in setting
up the portfolio. Instead, the focus needs to shift toward finding ways
to ensure that the right decisions are made with regard to terminating,
accelerating, or delaying portfolio components. This leads to portfolio
and, ultimately, business success.
Project portfolio management is by no means a solution to all an
organization’s problems; however, it is intended to enable organizations
to do more with less. As the world deals with the current financial crisis,
it is more important now than in the past few decades for organizations
to ensure they are spending their money on the right project investments.
This is reliant on influential stakeholders playing a crucial role in the
choices made when managing the portfolio.
This chapter outlines the remainder of this book and includes the
positioning of project portfolio management in terms of its (i) role in
the management of project-related investments, as well as (ii) its role in
contributing toward organizational success.

Project Portfolio Management-Overview

Many authors are of the view that while project and program management
is traditionally focused on doing projects right, portfolio management
is focused on doing the right projects. The term portfolio is also associ-
ated with a collection of financial investment instruments, that is, stocks
and bonds; however, this book does not attempt to address such types
of portfolios. Instead, the area of concern encompasses project portfolio
management and is hereafter referred to as PfM.
PfM comprises a set of managed technology assets, process invest-
ments, human capital assets, and project investments that are allocated
to business strategies according to an optimal mix based on assumptions
about future performance. The Project Management Institute (PMI)
defines PfM in The Standard for Portfolio Management as “the coordinated
management of one or more portfolios to achieve organizational strate-
gies and objectives” and “includes interrelated organizational processes
by which an organization evaluates, selects, prioritizes, and allocates its
limited internal resources to best accomplish organizational strategies
consistent with its vision, mission, and values.” They further state that,
“Portfolio management produces valuable information to support or alter
organizational strategies and investment decisions.”1
The Office of Government Commerce (OGC) in the United Kingdom
define PfM as “a co-ordinated collection of strategic processes and
decisions that together enable the most effective balance of organizational
change and business as usual.”2
A goal of PfM is to guide investment decisions to maximize value and
minimize risk or uncertainty thus optimizing the organization’s return
on investment. PfM is an effective way to communicate value in business
language. Value is achieved from balancing risk and reward and making
the right decisions in this regard. The approach of the remainder of this
book is based on this understanding of PfM.

Project Portfolio Management

The Decision-Making Challenge
Early approaches to PfM emphasized the categorizing of the landscape
of existing projects in organizations without paying much attention to
portfolio management decision making. Ward and Peppard, for example,
illustrated that categories such as strategic, operational, high potential,
and support could be used as a means for facilitating agreement between
senior management on the available and required portfolio of projects.3
Individual projects could then be categorized according to their business
contribution. This is an important step forward in the developing disci-
pline of PfM; however, selecting the right projects upfront is meaningless
if the wrong decisions are taken later on in the PfM process.
PfM improves organization success if the right decisions are made
when managing the portfolio. Further, successful organizations have a
shared reporting approach to channel information flows from compo-
nent level to portfolio level. Such organizations share responsibility for
decisions at the portfolio level. The decision making at the portfolio level
is the key focus of this book, since enabling decision making is becoming
increasingly important given the economic downturn and renewed focus
on corporate governance mentioned earlier. The selection of the right
portfolio components only goes part of the way to achieve success, but
making the right decisions during the course of managing the p ­ ortfolio
will contribute further to the success of the portfolio and, by extension,
the success of the organization. Specifically, this book focuses on the
­process or approach that enables decision making with regard to deter-
mining which portfolio components to delay, accelerate, or terminate.
When making decisions, consideration must be given to the contri-
bution of portfolio components (strategic fit) to organizational objec-
tives. An assessment of the contribution that portfolio components make
to organizational objectives will depend on an evaluation of multiple
criteria. Therefore, the problem statement that this book is focused on
addresses the following issue.
When managing a project portfolio, an understanding of both the
individual and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to
organizational objectives and the likely impact of such decisions on the
achievement of these objectives is important in decision making. Without
this understanding, the decisions regarding whether to delay, accelerate,
or terminate portfolio components will be poor.

Structure of the Book

The book consists of five chapters. Figure 1.1 provides a diagrammatic
layout of the book followed by a more detailed overview of each chapter.
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Chapter 2
Decision-making model

Chapter 4
Chapter 3
Illustrating how the
Extending the model
model would be used

Chapter 5
Conclusion

Appendix 1
Related theories

Figure 1.1  Chapter layout

Chapter 1 provides the introduction, motivation for the book,

problem statement, and layout of the book.
Chapter 2 discusses the complex relationship between portfolio com-
ponents and organizational objectives and presents the model, which is
developed to address the problem of determining the cumulative contri-
bution of portfolio components to organizational objectives. This is done
by taking as input the qualitative evaluations of multiple criteria for each
portfolio component and producing a single quantitative value represent-
ing the cumulative contribution.
Chapter 3 extends the conceptual model presented in Chapter 2.
The fundamental principles presented in Chapter 2 are used in this chap-
ter, but instead of viewing the problem from the perspective of the contri-
bution of multiple components to individual objectives, Chapter 3 looks
at the contribution of a single component to multiple objectives. This
chapter illustrates how the concepts presented in Chapter 2 can be used
in a different way.
Chapter 4 looks at illustrating how the model could be used using
actual portfolio components and organizational objectives from a
­participating organization. The illustration of the model in this chapter
shows the mechanics of the model and confirms how the impact of deci-
sions regarding portfolio components can be quantified.
 Chapter 5 provides a summary and makes final recommendations for
the application of the model presented in this book.
Appendix 1 presents a review of the literature on PfM and discusses the
definition for PfM. It also describes five theories that provide a theoretical
foundation for PfM. The theories described are Modern Portfolio Theory,
Multi-Criteria Utility Theory, Organization Theory, Systems Theory, and
Complexity Theory.

Conclusion
This chapter provides an overview of PfM and describes the
decision-making challenge, which is addressed by the model presented
later in this book. This chapter further outlines the structure for the rest
of the book.
PfM is intended to guide investment decisions such that value is
maximized, risk or uncertainty is minimized, and organizational suc-
cess is achieved. The global economic crisis, prevalent at the time of
conducting the research that lead to this book, forced organizations
to carefully consider their spending in terms of project-related invest-
ments. PfM is a mechanism that can address this issue provided the
decision makers have a means to evaluate component contribution to
strategy. The requirement for organizations to comply with legislative,
regulatory, and governance requirements—as well as the factors listed
earlier—means that the decisions taken during the management of the
portfolio must be well informed so that the objectives of PfM can be
achieved.
To ensure that decisions are well informed, or to put it differently,
to improve PfM decision making, it is necessary to show how decisions
will impact the success of the portfolio and ultimately the success of the
organization. Organizational success is measured by the achievement
of objectives, and portfolio components are executed to deliver organi-
zational objectives. It can be deduced that finding a way to show the
contribution of portfolio components to the organizational objectives
will enable decision makers to test the impact of their decisions regard-
ing portfolio components on the portfolio before committing them.
This will enable decisions to have a minimum impact on the portfolio
and organization while achieving maximum effect.
 A Model for Decision
Making
Introduction
This chapter discusses a decision-making model for portfolio management
(PfM) and is based on a response to findings from an investigation
into the practice of PfM in various organizations. The key finding that
motivated this chapter and the need for a model for decision making in
PfM was the fact that many organizations lacked a clear approach when
deciding which portfolio components to terminate, fast track, or put on
hold during the course of managing the portfolio. Some organizations
take the easy route and trim budgets across all portfolio components by a
specified percentage in order to make the affordability constraints. Other
organizations cancel portfolio components on the basis that they have
not commenced yet. Most, if not all, reasons are related to short-term
affordability rather than an understanding on the longer-term strategic
consequence of these decisions.
In order to understand the implications of decision making in PfM,
we need to (a) establish the relationship between organizational objec-
tives and portfolio components, (b) describe the process for evaluating
the individual and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to
organizational objectives, and (c) describe the value and utility of the
model in improving PfM decision making.
Later, motivating the need for a model, describing the objectives of
the model, and the considerations that gave rise to the development of
the model are discussed. This is followed by an exploration into the rela-
tionship between organizational objectives and portfolio components
and a description of the complex nature of this relationship. A discussion
on the model itself is then presented. The inputs, processes, and outputs
of the model are explained, showing how the qualitative evaluation of
components can be converted into a quantitative value that represents
the contribution to organizational objectives. The chapter concludes with
a discussion on the value and utility of the model with regard to PfM
decision making in organizations.

Motivation for a Model

Earlier approaches to PfM focused on the selection and categorization of
projects and had less to do with the management and decision-making
processes involved in managing the portfolio. The focus in the literature
began to shift later, however, toward aligning IT and business strategy,1
managing IT projects like an investment portfolio,2 and using IT PfM to
unlock the business value of technology.3
Subsequently, authors have given increasing focus to the role of sin-
gle project management in achieving portfolio efficiency;4 alignment of
the project portfolio to corporate strategy, vertical integration, and value
creation through PfM;5 the translation of strategy into programs and
projects, organization performance, and the role of the project/program
management office;6 project portfolio control and performance;7 and the
influence of business strategy on PfM and its success.8 Most recently, the
third edition of The Standard for Portfolio Management9 introduced three
new knowledge areas (portfolio strategic management, portfolio perfor-
mance management, and portfolio communication management) that
expand on the previous edition significantly. This illustrates the increased
emphasis on strategic alignment and portfolio performance specifically.
An understanding of the purpose or objective of PfM is important:
“The objective of portfolio management is to determine the optimal mix
and sequencing of proposed projects to best achieve the organizational
strategy and objectives.”10 They add that managing the performance of
a portfolio is critical in closing the gap between organizational strategy
and the fulfillment of that strategy. This implies that successfully man-
aged portfolios (and hence successful projects, programs, and opera-
tional activities) are measured by the achievement of organizational
strategy and objectives (hereafter referred to collectively as organizational
objectives). A key consideration, therefore, is the contribution made by
projects, programs, and operational activities (portfolio components)
toward achieving the organizational objectives. The author had to con-
sider the quantitative and qualitative measures of assessment of portfolio
components to determine the contribution of portfolio components to
organizational objectives. This enabled a form of reasoning that would be
suitable to model such a system.
The factors that served as input toward the development of the model
were:

1. The observation from an earlier investigation into the practice of

PfM that decision making regarding the management of portfolios
was poor.
2. The objective of PfM, which is the determination and management
of the optimal mix of portfolio components toward achieving the
organizational objectives.
3. The need to understand the relationship between portfolio com-
ponents and organizational objectives in order to understand the
impact of decisions regarding portfolio components on organiza-
tional objectives.
4. The consideration of qualitative and quantitative ways of determin-
ing portfolio component contributions to organizational objectives.
5. The application of the theories related to PfM (refer to Appendix 1).

The objective of the decision-making model presented in this

chapter is to qualitatively evaluate portfolio components using multiple
criteria to determine the individual and cumulative contribution of
these components to organizational objectives so that the right PfM
decisions regarding which components to stop, progress, or terminate
can be made.

Relationship Between Portfolio Components

and Organizational Objectives
Having a well-defined strategy and organizational objectives without the
ability to execute them, or having efficient and effective operations with-
out a strategy or organizational objectives limits the success organizations
could have. This notion is supported by Drs Kaplan and Norton who
state the following:

A visionary strategy that is not linked to excellent operational

and governance processes cannot be implemented. Conversely,
operational excellence may lower costs, improve quality, and
reduce process and lead times; but without a strategy’s vision and
guidance, a company is not likely to enjoy sustainable success.11

This emphasizes the need not only to link strategy and execution, but
also to be able to assess the degree of contribution the components make
toward achieving the strategy.
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI), organizations
build strategy to define how their vision will be achieved. The vision
is enabled by the mission, which directs the execution of the strategy.
The organizational strategy is a result of the strategic planning cycle, where
the vision and mission are translated into a strategic plan. The strategic
plan is subdivided into a set of initiatives that are influenced by market
dynamics, customer and partner requests, shareholders, government
regulations, and competitor plans and actions. These initiatives establish
portfolio components that, through their execution, ultimately achieve
the organizational objectives. Linking the organization’s objectives
directly to the portfolio components reveals that there is a many-to-many
relationship between objectives and components.
This relationship can be illustrated as in Figure 2.1. Each portfolio
component (PC) contributes to one or more objectives. For example,
PC1 could contribute to partly achieving objectives 1, 3, and (n), while
the remainder of objective 1 is achieved through the execution of PC3.
PC2 could contribute to fully achieving objective 2, and objective (n)
could be achieved by components 1 and (m). The degree of contribution
of each component varies one from the other.
An alternate depiction of this relationship is given in Table 2.1.
In addition to mapping the components to their related objectives, it
is also important to understand the relationships between portfolio com-
ponents. For example, while PC1 and PC3 contribute to the achievement
of objective 1, they do not necessarily have to be related to each other in
 PORTFOLIO
COMPONENT 1

OBJECTIVE PORTFOLIO
1 COMPONENT 2

OBJECTIVE PORTFOLIO
2 COMPONENT 3

MISSION
VISION

OBJECTIVE PORTFOLIO
3 COMPONENT 4

OBJECTIVE PORTFOLIO
4 COMPONENT 5

OBJECTIVE PORTFOLIO
(n) COMPONENT 6

PORTFOLIO
COMPONENT (m)

Figure 2.1  Many-to-many relationship between organizational

objectives and portfolio components
Source: Adapted from Enoch and Labuschagne.12

Table 2.1 Relationship between organizational objectives and portfolio

components
Vision
Objective Objective Objective Objective Objective
1 2 3 4 (n)
Portfolio Component 1 a d i
Portfolio Component 2 c
Portfolio Component 3 b
Portfolio

Portfolio Component 4 e
Portfolio Component 5 g
Portfolio Component 6 f h
Portfolio Component (m) j

Source: Enoch and Labuschagne.13

any other way. They could be singular, independent projects managed by

different teams and not dependent on each other through deliverables or
resources. On the other hand, for objective 3, PC1, PC4, and PC6 could
be run as a program where all components are related to each other and
have interdependency through, for instance, deliverables and/or resources.
Each component contributes to objectives to varying degrees. For example,
the degree of contribution of PC1 to objective 1 is represented by (a), and
the degree of contribution of PC3 to objective 1 is represented by (b).
The degree of contribution of these two components to objective 1 is not
equal. Additionally, PC1 also contributes to objectives 3 and (n) and the
degree of contribution to each of these objectives (including objective 1) is
represented by (a), (d), and (i). The degree of contribution of a single com-
ponent (PC1) to each of the three objectives is not equal. The degrees of
contribution, represented by the letters (a) to (j) in Table 2.1, vary for each
component-to-objective relationship. The challenge is in understanding
the degree of contribution of each component to each objective, as well
as the collective contribution of many components to a single objective.
Understanding the degrees of contribution of portfolio components
to the achievement of organizational objectives also aids the organization
in understanding the impact of decisions made in relation to those com-
ponents. When certain constraints are applied to the portfolio, such as
a reduction in budget or a change in strategy, the organization needs a
mechanism to aid management in decision making regarding rebalanc-
ing the portfolio. For example, if there is a reduction in the available
funds for portfolio components, the organization can choose to stop or
slow down components that make a low contribution to organizational
objectives. Alternatively, a change in strategy may reprioritize certain
objectives, resulting in the fast tracking of associated components that
make a medium or high contribution. Low, medium, and high refer to the
qualitative assessment of the degree of contribution of components.
In addition to the preceding, assessing the degree of contribution
of portfolio components to objectives will also achieve the benefit of
­determining gaps in the portfolio. If the combined contribution of com-
ponents 5 and 6 to objective 4 is determined to be less than 1, it may be
necessary for the organization to consider additional portfolio compo-
nents to close the gap and achieve the objective fully.
The evaluation of portfolio component contribution is done subjec-
tively. Linguistic values such as low, medium, or high are used to describe
the degree of contribution. In order to effectively compare components,
however, quantitative values would need to be used. The challenge is in
converting the qualitative assessments into quantitative values. In addi-
tion, a mechanism for dealing with the cumulative contribution of port-
folio components is required. To address these requirements, a technique
is required for the model that can deal with converting qualitative values
into quantitative values while simultaneously computing the cumulative
contribution of multiple components to single objectives. Following a
review of various techniques, it was determined that Fuzzy Logic would
be a suitable technique to use in the model as it addresses the challenge
of converting qualitative assessments into quantitative values. The use of
Fuzzy Logic when developing the model is discussed in more detail in the
upcoming paragraphs.

Model
The following discussion gets slightly technical as it goes into how the
model uses Fuzzy Logic to achieve its outcomes. However, the author
briefly describes the Fuzzy Logic process and its applicability to the model
to avoid distracting from the real purpose of the model. Fuzzy Logic is
an extensive topic and its application is varied across many disciplines.
Various publications are listed in the Reference section that provides more
detail to the Fuzzy Logic process.
Fuzzy Logic is a technique that can deal with qualitative and quanti-
tative information. It is a technique that can take subjective information
and make it more objective and has proved to be very successful in a wide
range of applications. The various disciplines in which Fuzzy Logic has
been used successfully include, but are not limited to, decision support,
control theory, artificial intelligence, genetic algorithms, and mechanical
engineering.
The use of Fuzzy Logic in the decision-making model follows a com-
bination of the systems approach, multicriteria utility theory (MCUT),
and complexity theory. These theories and their relatedness to PfM are
discussed in Appendix 1. Qualitative evaluations of portfolio components
using MCUT are taken as INPUT, PROCESSED through the applica-
tion of rules in the fuzzy system, and an OUTPUT is produced (systems
approach). The relationships between organizational objectives and port-
folio components make up a complex system—(complexity theory).
A complex system comprises numerous interacting parts, each of which
behave according to some rule(s) or force(s).
In order to represent a complex business system, such as a ­portfolio
of projects and their cumulative contribution to strategic objectives, a
combination of multiple fuzzy models is required.14 The reason is to
allow for the variability in the number of portfolio components contrib-
uting to the organizational objectives. For each portfolio component,
values for the input variables are obtained, rules are applied to the input
values, and a qualitative output value is derived. The fuzzification and
application of fuzzy rules is done for each portfolio component and the
contribution is determined by aggregating the qualitative outputs of the
related components and only then applying defuzzification to produce a
crisp (numeric) value that represents the cumulative quantitative contri-
bution of portfolio components to objectives. This process is illustrated
in Figure 2.2 and a detailed description of the model and its processes
follows.
The stages and phases of the model will now be described.

Stage A

Before we get into the description of the model in detail, it is import-

ant to outline the responsibilities of the executive management team and
the PfM team. Table 2.2 describes the responsibilities while Figure 2.3
illustrates the interaction between both teams.

Stage A
Portfolio Component 1
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT
FUZZIFICATION
PCVar2 (RULES) (before defuzzification)
Portfolio Component 2
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT
FUZZIFICATION
PCVar2 (RULES) (before defuzzification)

Stage B

FINAL
AGGREGATION OUTPUT DEFUZZIFICATION
OUTPUT

Figure 2.2  Combined Fuzzy Logic model

Table 2.2 Responsibilities of the executive management and PfM
teams
Team Responsibilities
Executive Management • Provide criteria for portfolio component evaluation.
(Investment management • Evaluate portfolio components in terms of the selected
Committee) criteria.
• Makes decisions regarding the project portfolio.
PfM (Enterprise PfM • Facilitates a meeting with the executive to agree to the
Office) criteria to be used for evaluating portfolio components.
Criteria should remain constant but may change to a
limited extent when circumstances in the organization
change.
• Sets up the model for evaluating portfolio components.
This should only need to be done once and updated
when evaluation criteria change.
• Apply the model. This entails facilitating the evaluation
of portfolio components based on the selected criteria
and determining the individual and cumulative contribu-
tions of the portfolio components to the objectives.
• Present the portfolio component as an objective matrix
to the investment committee. The matrix indicates the
portfolio component contributions to objectives and is
used to determine which components can be terminated
or fast tracked when such a decision is required.
• Facilitate scenario planning and record the decisions
made at the investment committee meetings.

The process for stage A of the fuzzy model is illustrated in Figure 2.4,
followed by an explanation of the steps involved.
For each portfolio component that contributes to an o­ rganizational
objective (in this case portfolio components 1 and 2), the model ­considers
input values for the input linguistic variables PCVar1 and PCVar2.
The input values are passed through a fuzzification process, after which
the rules in the inference engine are applied to determine a qualitative
value of contribution for each portfolio component. Linguistic ­variables
are variables of the system whose values are words from a natural
­language, instead of numerical values. Each input variable is qualified
by values, such as poor, average, and good for PCVAR1 and low, medium,
and high for PCVAR2. Different linguistic terms are used for PCVAR1
and PCVAR2 here to show that different terms can be used—provided
they describe the evaluation of the relevant criteria appropriately. In other
 Portfolio
Provide portfolio
Evaluate decision making
component
portfolio based on
evaluation
components scenario
criteria
planning
Executive management
/investment committee

Apply model
Define portfolio Setup model for to determine Present portfolio
component evaluating component Capture portfolio
component/
evaluation portfolio contribution to decisions
organizational objective matrix
Project portfolio criteria components
objectives
management/enterprise
portfolio office

Figure 2.3 Interaction between the executive and PfM teams

 Stage A
Portfolio Component 1
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT
FUZZIFICATION
PCVar2 (RULES) (before defuzzification)
Portfolio Component 2
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT
FUZZIFICATION
(RULES) (before defuzzification)
PCVar2

Figure 2.4 Stage A of the combined fuzzy model

POOR AVERAGE GOOD

1.0
MEMBERSHIP VALUES

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
a

µ (PCVar1 = POOR) = 0.6 µ (PCVar1 = AVERAGE) = 0.4 µ (PCVar1 = GOOD) = 0.0

Figure 2.5 PCVar1—Value

words, poor may be a better term than low for a particular criterion. Alter-
natively, the PfM team may choose to use low, medium, and high for all
criteria evaluations. The output variable (contribution) is qualified by the
values very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. Five values were chosen
for the output variable to facilitate a clearer distinction when determin-
ing the contribution values. However, it is not recommended to exceed
seven values for the output variable. Membership functions are used in
the fuzzification process to quantify a linguistic variable value. A mem-
bership function is a curve (triangular in this case) that defines how each
point in the input space (domain) is mapped to a membership value (or
degree of membership) between 0 and 1 (y-axis). Refer to Figures 2.5 and
2.6 for a depiction of membership functions.
 LOW MEDIUM HIGH
1.0
0.9
MEMBERSHIP VALUES

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
b

µ (PCVar2 = LOW) = 0.2 µ (PCVar2 = MEDIUM) = 0.8 µ (PCVar2 = HIGH) = 0.0

Figure 2.6 PCVar2—Durability of competitive advantage

An important characteristic of Fuzzy Logic is that a numerical value

does not have to be fuzzified using only one membership function.
In other words, a value can belong to multiple sets at the same time.

Phase 1—Input Variables

For the purpose of illustrating the model, only two input variables are used.
In a typical organization, a group of PfM experts could decide on a number
of input variables to be used for evaluating the contribution of portfolio
components to organizational objectives. The model is designed to cater
for more than two input variables but for illustrative purposes, only two are
used. The two input variables are described in the following text.

Portfolio Component Variable 1 (PCVar1)

To give some meaning to the following example, PCVar1 represents value.

The value that a portfolio component is expected to deliver is an import-
ant criterion when determining the portfolio component’s contribution.
Value considers the strategic alignment of the portfolio component—in
particular, the decision maker’s perception of how the component serves
the organization’s objectives in the long term—as well as the financial
attractiveness of the component—that is, the economic feasibility, which
is measured by the component’s cost, contribution to profitability, and
the component’s growth rate.

Portfolio Component Variable 2 (PCVar2)

In this example, PCVar2 represents the durability of competitive advan-

tage. If the portfolio component is delivering a product for which a
­competitor already exists, then the portfolio component will be rated
low. If the product can be copied within a specified period, let us say
two years, then the portfolio component will be rated as medium. If the
likelihood of copying the product extends beyond two years, then the
portfolio ­component is rated as high, as the contribution of the portfolio
component to an objective related to market share is high.

Phase 2—Fuzzification

Fuzzy Logic starts with the concept of a fuzzy set. A fuzzy set is a set
without a clearly defined boundary. It can contain elements with only a
partial degree of membership. For each input variable in this example,
three membership functions are defined. The qualitative categories for the
membership functions for PCVar1 are poor, average, and good, while the
qualitative categories for the membership functions for PCVar2 are low,
medium, and high.
The membership functions for PCVar1 and PCVar2 are illustrated in
Figures 2.5 and 2.6, respectively.
In Figures 2.5 and 2.6, the x-axis represents the domain and the y-axis
represents the membership values.
As mentioned earlier, a membership function is a curve (triangular
in this case) that defines how each point in the input space (domain)
is mapped to a membership value (or degree of membership) between
0 and 1 (y-axis). The PfM experts in the organization in accordance with
their knowledge and experience in PfM and the organization would do
the definition of the membership functions. This will be done before the
model is used for the first time. The membership functions will vary from
one organization to the next.
 The domain is not numeric since the input values are qualitative.
Subjective information can now be modeled mathematically as the
­
­qualitative inputs can be converted into quantitative values.
The next step in the fuzzification process is to take the qualitative
inputs, PCVar1 (represented by a in Figure 2.5) and PCVar2 (represented
by b in Figure 2.6), and determine the degree to which these inputs belong
to each of the respective membership functions. In an organization, the
PfM experts would evaluate the input variables of a portfolio component
and determine to what degree it is poor, average, or good or low, medium,
or high—as the case may be.
As an example, in Figure 2.5, this is represented by the dark bold verti-
cal line that intersects POOR at a membership value of 0.6 and AVERAGE
at a membership value of 0.4. In other words, PCVar1 is assessed as being
poor to a degree of 0.6 as well as average to a degree of 0.4 simultaneously.
Similarly, the PfM experts would evaluate PCVar2 of the same
­portfolio component and determine to what degree it is low, medium, or
high. In Figure 2.6, the dark bold vertical line intersects LOW at a mem-
bership value of 0.2 and MEDIUM at a membership value of 0.8. In this
­example, the input variable PCVar2 is assessed as being low (to a degree
of 0.2) as well as medium (to a degree of 0.8) simultaneously.

Phase 3—Inference Engine

A number of rules are determined by a knowledgeable group of individ-

uals in the organization who can determine the outputs based on specific
conditions within the inference engine. This would also be done before
using the model for the first time. An example of a rule would be:
IF PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is
VeryLow.
The rules in Table 2.3 were applied to the input variables in the infer-
ence engine.

Rule Evaluation

The next step in the Fuzzy Logic process is to take the fuzzified
inputs (for the preceding example these would be: μ(PCVar1 = poor) = 0.6,
Table 2.3 Fuzzy rules
Rule 1 If PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is Very Low.
Rule 2 If PCVar1 is Good AND PCVar2 is High, THEN Contribution is Very High.
Rule 3 If PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is Low.
Rule 4 If PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is High, THEN Contribution is Moderate.
Rule 5 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is Low.
Rule 6 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is
Moderate.
Rule 7 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is High, THEN Contribution is High.
Rule 8 If PCVar1 is Good AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is Moderate.
Rule 9 If PCVar1 is Good AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is High.

μ(PCVar1 = average) = 0.4, μ(PCVar2 = low) = 0.2, and μ(PCVar2 = medium) = 0.8) and
apply them to the antecedents of the fuzzy rules. If a given fuzzy rule
has multiple antecedents, the fuzzy operator (AND or OR) is used to
obtain a s­ingle value that represents the result of the antecedent evalua-
tion. The rules used here have been developed for illustration purposes.
In an organization, a group of PfM experts would need to design the rules
and agree on the consequent values for the respective input value combi-
nations before using the model for the first time.
The rules transform the input variables into an output that will indi-
cate the degree of contribution of the portfolio component. This output
variable is defined with membership functions (very low, low, medium,
high, very high). Once the rules have been defined according to expert
knowledge, they become the knowledge base of the model. Table 2.4
represents the knowledge base associated with the rules described in
Table 2.3.

How the Rule Base Works

The next step is to compute the degree of membership to the membership

functions (Very Low, Low, Moderate, High, or Very High) of the output
variable (contribution). Once a variable is fuzzified (refer to the section
on fuzzification described earlier), it takes a value between 0 and 1 indi-
cating the degree of membership to a given membership function of that
specific variable. The degrees of membership of the input variables have
Table 2.4 Knowledge base associated with fuzzy rules
PCVar2
Low Medium High
PCVar1 Poor Very low Low Moderate
Average Low Moderate High
Good Moderate High Very high

to be combined to get the degree of membership of the output variable.

In this instance where there is more than one input variable, the degree of
membership for the output value will be the minimum value of the degree
of membership for the different inputs. Referring back to ­Figures 2.5 and
2.6 as well as Tables 2.3 and 2.4, input (a) for PCVar1 has a membership
degree of 0.6 to the membership function POOR, which applies to rules
1, 3, and 4 (Table 2.3), and a membership degree of 0.4 to the membership
function AVERAGE, which applies to rules 5, 6, and 7. Similarly, input
(b) for PCVar2 has a membership degree of 0.2 to the membership func-
tion LOW, which applies to rules 1, 5, and 8, and a membership degree
of 0.8 to the membership function MEDIUM, which applies to rules 3,
6, and 9. When a rule is totally satisfied (indicated by  in Figure 2.7), it
will have an output with a membership degree to an o­ utput membership
function equal to the lower degree among the inputs. The rules satisfied
in this example are given in Table 2.5.
Figure 2.7 shows the graphical representation (rule view) of the rules
in the system. The MATLAB tool from MathWorks was used to build
the simple fuzzy system and generate the rule view using the Fuzzy Logic
Toolbox. In Figure 2.7, each row, numbered 1 to 9, represents a rule in
the system. The two input variables are shown alongside each other and
the output variable is to the right of the figure. The extended vertical lines
indicate the points of intersection on the relevant membership functions
associated with the membership values for each input variable.
The next section describes how the output values are derived.

Phase 4—Outputs

The output is the aggregation or sum of the membership functions from

the satisfied rules. Aggregation is the process of unification of the outputs
Table 2.5 The satisfied rules
Rule 1 IF PCVar1 is Poor (degree of 0.6) AND PCVar2 is Low (degree of 0.2), THEN
Contribution is Very Low (degree of 0.2), the lowest degree among the inputs.

Rule 3 IF PCVar1 is Poor (degree of 0.6) AND PCVar2 is Medium (degree of 0.8),
THEN Contribution is Low (degree of 0.6).
Rule 5 IF PCVar1 is Average (degree of 0.4) AND PCVar2 is Low (degree of 0.2),
THEN Contribution is Low (degree of 0.2).
Rule 6 IF PCVar1 is Average (degree of 0.4) AND PCVar2 is Medium (degree of 0.8),
THEN Contribution is Moderate (degree of 0.4).

PCVar1 PCVar2 Contribution

1 
2
3 
4
5 
6 
7
8
9
0 1 0 1
0 1

Figure 2.7 Rule View

of all rules. We take the membership functions of all rule consequents and
combine them into a single fuzzy set. The input of the aggregation process
is the list of consequent membership functions, and the output is one
fuzzy set for each output variable. Among the satisfied rules, the member-
ship degree of each output membership function will be the higher among
the rules that have as a result that membership function.
In Figure 2.8, the shading of the triangles indicates the degree of
membership.

• For the membership function Very Low the degree of mem-

bership is 0.2 (based on the result of rule 1 in Table 2.5).
• For the membership function Low the degree of membership
is 0.6 (based on the higher result of rules 3 and 5 in Table 2.5).
 Very High
Moderate
Very Low

High
Low
1

9
Output
0 1

Figure 2.8 Output of rules

• For the membership function Moderate the degree of

­membership is 0.4 (based on the result of rule 6).
• For the membership function High the degree of membership
is 0.
• For the membership function Very High the degree of
­membership is 0.

To calculate the quantitative contribution of a single portfolio com-

ponent with two input variables, the aggregated output must be defuzzi-
fied to get a single output value. While the most popular defuzzification
method is the centroid method, the method used here is the MOM (mean
of maximum) defuzzification method.
In this example, the output value 0.25 represents the contribution
of the portfolio component to an objective. An output value of 1 would
imply that the objective is fully achieved; hence, the output value in this
example (0.25) indicates that the portfolio component contributes to
the objective to a degree of 0.25. This implies that if this were the only
portfolio components selected to achieve an organizational objective,
then only a low degree of the objective would be achieved. The organi-
zation would need to select other portfolio components or amend the
scope of the component such that more of, or the entire, objective, is
achieved.
 However, we want to determine the cumulative contribution of two
or more components and so, before we defuzzify the qualitative output
of a single component, we move to stage B where the contribution of
multiple components is considered.

Stage B

Phase 5—Additive Aggregation

The aggregation in stage A earlier is the unification of the outputs of

all rules per portfolio component. The aggregation in stage B is the
aggregation (sum) of the outputs of all portfolio components before
defuzzification.
To maintain the information in the complete system, the fuzzy
regions (outputs of portfolio components in stage A) are combined using
the additive aggregation method before defuzzification.15 The process
adds the truth membership values of the consequent fuzzy set and the
­solution fuzzy set at each point along their mutual membership ­functions.
The bounded sum method is applied so that the composite member-
ship value can never exceed 1.0. Figures 2.10 through 2.13 illustrate the
aggregation of the portfolio component outputs into a single aggregated
output before defuzzification.
The additive technique adds the consequent fuzzy sets (stage A
outputs) to the solution variable’s output fuzzy region. The process adds
the truth membership value of the consequent fuzzy sets and the solution
fuzzy set at each point along their mutual membership functions.
Using the output of the example used earlier for one portfolio compo-
nent, Figure 2.10 shows the first step in the aggregation process.
For the second portfolio component, let us assume the stage A process
is followed as was done for the first portfolio component, and an output
for the second portfolio component is derived, such that

• For the membership function Very Low the degree of

­membership is 0.0.
• For the membership function Low the degree of membership
is 0.2.
 • For the membership function Moderate the degree of
membership is 0.4.
• For the membership function High the degree of membership
is 0.2.
• For the membership function Very High the degree of
membership is 0.

Figure 2.11 shows how the second output is added to the final output
(solution fuzzy region).
The combined output of both portfolio components is illustrated in
Figure 2.12.
To summarize, Figure 2.10 showed the addition of the consequent
fuzzy set for portfolio component 1 being added to the final output
region (cumulative contribution).
Figure 2.11 showed the addition of the consequent fuzzy set for port-
folio component 2 being added to the final output region. Figure 2.12
showed the combined view of Figures 2.10 and 2.11.

Phase 6—Aggregated Output

The aggregated output, also known as the solution fuzzy region, is

illustrated in Figure 2.13.
The solution fuzzy region (cumulative contribution) is described as
satisfying the membership functions Very Low to Very High such that:

The membership function Very Low has a membership value of 0.2.

The membership function Low has a membership value of 0.6.
The membership function Moderate has a membership value of 0.4.
The membership function High has a membership value of 0.2.
The membership function Very High has a membership value of 0.0.

Stage B

FINAL
AGGREGATION OUTPUT DEFUZZIFICATION
OUTPUT

Figure 2.9 Stage B of the combined fuzzy model

 VERY VERY
LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 VERY VERY

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
0.1 LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH
0.0 1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9
INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTION 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
MEMBERSHIP VALUES 0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
CUMULATIVE CONTRIBUTION

Figure 2.10 Additive aggregation—first portfolio component

 VERY VERY
LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
0.1
VERY VERY 0.0
LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH 0.0
0 0 0.1 0.2 00.3
3 0.4 0.5 0.6 00.77 0.8 0.9 11.0
0
1.0
CUMULATIVE CONTRIBUTION
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTION

Figure 2.11 Additive aggregation—second portfolio component

 VERY VERY
LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
VERY VERY
0.2
LOW MODERATE

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
0.1 LOW HIGH HIGH
1.0
0.0
0.9
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.8
INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTION 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
VERY VERY 0.2

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH HIGH 0.1
1.0
0.0
0.9
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.8
0.7 CUMULATIVE CONTRIBUTION
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

MEMBERSHIP VALUES
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTION

Figure 2.12 Additive aggregation—combining both portfolio components

 VERY VERY
LOW HIGH
LOW MODERATE HIGH
1.0
0.9
MEMBERSHIP VALUES

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.8 0.9 1.0
CUMULATIVE CONTRIBUTION

Figure 2.13 Aggregated output

Now that the aggregated output (solution fuzzy region) has been
determined, the quantitative value representing cumulative contribution
must be determined through the process of defuzzification.

Phase 7—Defuzzification

The last step in the Fuzzy Logic process is defuzzification. Fuzzification

helps us to evaluate the rules, but the final output of a fuzzy system has
to be a crisp number. The input for the defuzzification process is the
aggregate output fuzzy set and the final output is a single number. For this
model, the MOM defuzzification method16 proved to be more predictable
and accurate than other defuzzification methods.

Phase 8—Final Output

As indicated earlier, the application of the MOM defuzzification method

results in a quantitative value. In this instance, the defuzzification method
is applied to the aggregated fuzzy output to produce a quantitative value.
The quantitative value (result) represents the combined contribution of
the portfolio components. In this example, the combined contribution
is less than one, implying that the objective is partially achieved. This
would mean that if these were the only portfolio components considered
for achieving this objective, the organization would fail in achieving the
objective completely.

Interpretation and Utility of the Model

From the preceding discussion, while the portfolio components make a
contribution to the organizational objective, it can be seen that there is
still a gap in fulfilling the objective completely. This is indicated by the
fact that the degree of contribution is not equal to one. There is still
potential for additional portfolio components to be added to achieve the
objective fully. Alternatively, the scope of the selected portfolio compo-
nents could be amended such that their contribution can be improved
toward meeting the objective. The results obtained from the model can
assist in decision making regarding the composition of the portfolio.

Value of the Model

The ability to quantitatively determine the cumulative contribution of
portfolio components in achieving objectives after making qualitative
assessments of those components using multiple criteria improves the
decision-making capability of decision makers when considering the
portfolio mix and the potential to achieve organizational objectives.
Decisions regarding the portfolio composition still lie with people but the
model acts as a tool for enabling better-informed decisions. For example,
if the organization, due to budget constraints, wants to determine which
portfolio component can be terminated, it would use the model to test
the effect on the whole system by removing individual components and,
based on the results, make the decision as to which components can be
terminated.
Many current approaches focus on assessing only individual portfolio
components and lack the ability to determine the cumulative ­contribution
of portfolio components to organizational objectives. The assessment of
components is usually based on decision makers offering a subjective
score in order to rank components in the portfolio, whereas this model
uses Fuzzy Logic—a tried and tested technique—for taking linguistic
evaluations of components based on multiple criteria, and converting
them into quantitative values, based on predefined rules, to determine
the individual and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to
organizational objectives.
This model considers the complex relationship between ­portfolio
components and organizational objectives and it is illustrated in a sub­
sequent chapter, how the model can be used to improve decision m ­ aking
when managing the project portfolio. Instead of simply applying a
­percentage reduction in budget across all portfolio components when
the organization is faced with budget constraints, for example, the model
shows the contributions of portfolio components and the impact on
the achievement of organizational objects if any of the components are
terminated.

Conclusion
During the investigation into the practice of PfM, it was observed that
decision making regarding portfolio components were being made with
little knowledge of the contribution of these components to organiza-
tional objectives. This led to a lack of understanding of the impact of the
decisions to stop or terminate the components. The focus of this chapter,
therefore, was to present a model that would address the problem.
This chapter began with a motivation for a conceptual model by firstly
describing the factors that led to the need for a model and, ­secondly,
describing the objective of the conceptual model. The relationship
between portfolio components and organizational objectives was then
discussed, illustrating that components have varying degrees of contri-
bution to objectives and that one or more objectives can contribute to
one or more objectives. This results in a complex relationship between
components and objectives. The model, using Fuzzy Logic as a technique,
considers the qualitative evaluation of portfolio components, applies a set
of rules to convert the input values into qualitative outputs, aggregates
the outputs, and defuzzifies the aggregated outputs to produce a quan-
titative value that represents the cumulative contribution of portfolio
­components to organizational objectives.
 The ability to determine the contribution of portfolio components
using this model implies that decision makers now have a mechanism to
enable them to determine the impact of their decisions on the achieve-
ment of organizational objectives, as they now understand the degree of
contribution the components make to organizational objectives.
This model is significant for a number of reasons. First, it provides
a mechanism for taking qualitative evaluations and converting them
to quantitative values for comparison. Second, multiple criteria can be
used when evaluating portfolio components. This allows flexibility as any
organization can choose whichever criteria and any number of criteria
to apply in this process. Third, while other models evaluate individual
portfolio components, this model allows the simultaneous evaluation of
multiple components and is able to determine a cumulative contribution
value. Fourth, the approach or thinking of a number of theories discussed
in Appendix 1 was applied in the development of the model. Lastly, by
being able to also determine the individual contribution values, decision
makers can view the component—objective relationship from an alterna-
tive perspective—that is, the contribution of individual components to
multiple objectives.
Chapter 3 uses the fundamental concepts presented in this chapter
and discusses the alternate perspective mentioned earlier. This implies that
the concepts presented here could be applied in other ways and would be
useful in dealing with various aspects that influence PfM decision making.
 CHAPTER 3

Extending the Model

Introduction
The previous chapter presented the relationship between portfolio com-
ponents and organizational objectives. Figure 2.1 illustrated the many-
to-many relationships between organizational objectives and portfolio
components while Table 2.1 showed that more than one portfolio com-
ponent could contribute to a single objective. In Table 2.1, it could also be
seen that a single component could contribute to multiple objectives—as
in the case of Component 1 contributing to Objectives 1, 3, and (n).
The model presented in the previous chapter showed how the qualitative
assessment of multiple components, based on multiple criteria, could be
taken as input, processed through the application of fuzzification, rules,
aggregation, and defuzzification. This provided a quantitative output
that represented the cumulative contribution of portfolio components to
organizational objectives. This chapter extends the discussion on the use
of the model presented earlier.
The goal of this chapter is to illustrate how the model could be re-used
to present an alternate perspective on the component-to-objective
relationship. Demonstrating how the total contribution of individual
components to multiple objectives can be computed and discussing
how this information can be used in the decision-making process
achieves this.
The perspective presented in this chapter on the portfolio ­component
contribution to strategic objectives is aimed at determining which
­components make the highest individual contribution to the o­ bjectives
in the system. Once the cumulative contributions of the individual
­components are determined, the components will then be ranked in
order of their individual contribution to multiple objectives. Finally,
36 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

a weighting is applied to the organizational objectives based on which

objectives the organization considers as more important than others.
The weighting acts as a factor that influences the outcome of the rank
order of the portfolio components. Components that contribute to more
important objectives will receive a higher contribution score. Decision
makers can use this information when deciding on which components to
accelerate, suspend, or terminate.

Determining the Contribution of Single Portfolio

Components to Multiple Objectives
In the previous chapter, it was determined that portfolio components
could contribute to multiple objectives. Table 2.1 showed that portfolio
component (PC) 1 contributes to multiple objectives (OBJ) 1, 3, and n.
The data is repeated in Table 3.1 for ease of reference. The degree of
contribution to each objective varies from one to the other. The degree
of contribution of PC1 to OBJ1 could be 0.35 while its degree of con-
tribution to OBJ3 could be 0.17, and its contribution to OBJ(n) could
be 0.25. The total contribution that a component makes to multiple
objectives does not need to be equal to 1. The fact that PC1 contrib-
utes to three objectives, rather than just one, intuitively suggests that it
is an important component. However, it needs to be determined how

Table 3.1 Relationship between organizational objectives and portfolio

components
Vision
Objective Objective Objective Objective Objective
1 2 3 4 (n)
Portfolio Component 1 a d i
Portfolio Component 2 c
Portfolio Component 3 b
Portfolio

Portfolio Component 4 e
Portfolio Component 5 g
Portfolio Component 6 f h
Portfolio Component (m) j

Source: Enoch and Labuschagne.1

 Extending the Model 37

important it is in relation to PC2, for example, which contributes to only

one objective.
Let us assume that PC2 contributes to OBJ2 to a degree of 0.88.
The contribution of PC2 is greater in terms of degree than PC1, which
has a total contribution of 0.77 (0.35 + 0.17 + 0.25) but PC1 contributes
to three objectives instead of just 1. The impact of decisions regarding
PC1 in terms of the portfolio mix is likely to be greater. If the investment
committee decides to cancel PC1, for example, it would imply that three
objectives would be impacted. These three objectives will not be fully
achieved as a result of PC1 being cancelled.
The model described previously can be reused to address the aspect
of a single component contributing to multiple objectives. The following
discussion describes how the model can be applied.
Figure 3.1 shows that input variables (PCVar1 and PCVar2) for port-
folio component (PC) 1 are evaluated for each instance that PC1 makes
a contribution to an objective. In this example, it is indicated that PC1
contributes to three objectives, and hence the figure shows three instances
of the Stage-A process (fuzzification, inference engine, and output) for
PC1.
The process of fuzzification, rule evaluation (inference engine), and
determination of a qualitative output is described in the previous chapter.
To avoid repetition, the process will not be re-explained here but will be
used to illustrate the degrees of contribution of PC1 to each of the three
objectives.

Stage A
PC1 – Objective 1
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT (before 1
FUZZIFICATION
PCVar2 (RULES) defuzzification)
PC1 – Objective 3
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT (before
FUZZIFICATION 2
(RULES) defuzzification)
PCVar2
PC1 – Objective (n)
PCVar1
INFERENCE ENGINE OUTPUT (before
FUZZIFICATION 3
(RULES) defuzzification)
PCVar2

Figure 3.1 Stage A process—single portfolio component contribution

to multiple objectives
38 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Degree of Contribution of a Single Component (PC1)

to Multiple Objectives

The following section briefly describes the process of determining the

individual contribution of a single component (PC1) to multiple objec-
tives (OBJ1, 3, and [n]). For each contribution relationship, the process
is followed:

1. The fuzzified membership value following the evaluation of each

input variable in terms of the components contribution to a specific
objective
2. The rule view from the MATLAB tool following the evaluation of
the input variables
3. A table listing the satisfied rules associated with the evaluation of the
input variables
4. The output membership functions once the membership functions
of the two input variables have been aggregated
5. The output fuzzy region that equates the aggregation of the output
membership functions
6. The defuzzified value representing the degree of contribution to the
specific objective

Degree of Contribution of PC1 to Objective 1

Let us assume that the input variables are evaluated as follows:

PCVar1 = Good (with a membership degree of 0.784)

PCVar2 = High (with a membership degree of 0.812)

Figure 3.2 illustrates the membership degrees for each of the variables
through the shading of the membership functions.
Applying the rules in the inference engine will result in the rules given
in Table 3.2 being satisfied.
Figure 3.3 shows the rule view of the output membership functions.
The shaded triangles illustrate the degree of membership following the
aggregation of the membership functions from the satisfied rules in
Table 3.2. Among the satisfied rules, the membership degree of each
 Extending the Model 39

PCVar1 PCVar2

(0.784) (0.812)

Figure 3.2 Rule view of the input variables for PC1 contribution to
Objective 1

Table 3.2 Satisfied rules for PC1 contribution to Objective 1

Rule 4 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is High, THEN Contribution is High.
Rule 5 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is Moderate.
Rule 7 If PCVar1 is Good AND PCVar2 is High, THEN Contribution is Very High.
Rule 8 If PCVar1 is Good AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is High.

output membership function will be the higher among the rules that have
as a result that membership function.
The output fuzzy region for the degree of contribution of PC1 to
Objective 1 is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
The defuzzified value, using MoM, resulting from this output fuzzy
region = 0.935.
The dark solid vertical line in the figure indicates this.

Degree of contribution of PC1 to Objective 3

Let us assume that the input variables are evaluated (see Figure 3.5) as:
40 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Figure 3.3 Rule view of the output membership function

Figure 3.4 Output fuzzy region

Figure 3.5 Rule view of the input variables for PC1 contribution to
Objective 3
 Extending the Model 41

PCVar1 = Average (with a membership degree of 1.0)

PCVar2 = Medium (with a membership degree of 1.0)

Applying the rules in the inference engine, the rules given in Table 3.3
will be satisfied.
The output membership function based on the satisfied rule is
­illustrated in Figure 3.6 while the output fuzzy region for the degree of
contribution of PC1 to Objective 3 is illustrated in Figure 3.7.
The defuzzified value resulting from this output fuzzy region = 0.5.
The dark solid vertical line in the figure indicates this.

Table 3.3 Satisfied rules for PC1 contribution to Objective 3

Rule 5 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is
Moderate.

Figure 3.6 Rule view of the output membership function

Figure 3.7 Output fuzzy region

42 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Degree of contribution of PC1 to Objective (n)

Let us assume, as illustrated in Figure 3.8, that the input variables are
evaluated as:

PCVar1 = Poor
PCVar2 = Medium

Applying the rules in the inference engine will result in the rules given
in Table 3.4 being satisfied.
The output membership function based on the satisfied rules is
­illustrated in Figure 3.9 while the output fuzzy region for the degree of
contribution of PC1 to Objective (n) is illustrated in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.8 Rule view of the input variables for PC1 contribution to
Objective (n)

Table 3.4 Satisfied rules for the contribution of PC1 to Objective (n)
Rule 2 If PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is Low.
Rule 3 If PCVar1 is Poor AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is Very Low.
Rule 5 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Medium, THEN Contribution is
Moderate.

Rule 6 If PCVar1 is Average AND PCVar2 is Low, THEN Contribution is Low.

 Extending the Model 43

Figure 3.9 Rule view of the output membership function

Figure 3.10 Output fuzzy region

The defuzzified value resulting from this output fuzzy region =

0.295.
The dark solid vertical line in the figure indicates this.

Calculate the Cumulative Contribution of a Single

Component to Multiple Objectives
The quantitative outputs of all PC1 contributions determined in the
previous section must be aggregated to work out the total contribution
of PC1 to the three objectives. Based on the preceding discussion, the
defuzzified degrees of contribution for PC1 to the three objectives are:

• Degree of contribution to Objective 1 = 0.935

• Degree of contribution to Objective 3 = 0.5
• Degree of contribution to Objective (n) = 0.295
44 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Table 3.5 Cumulative contribution of PC1

  Objective 1 Objective 3 Objective (n) Total
PC1 0.935 0.5 0.295 1.73

The total contribution of PC1 to the objectives in this system of port-

folio components and objectives is equal to the sum of the individual
contributions. Table 3.5 shows the quantitative contribution of PC1 to
each of the three objectives, as well as the sum of the contributions, based
on the preceding discussion.
Similarly, to determine a rank order of component contributions to
the organizational objectives, the total contribution of the remaining
portfolio components to multiple objectives can be calculated and the
total contributions compared.

Determine the Relative Contribution of Single Portfolio

Components to Multiple Objectives
The previous section assumed that each objective is equally weighted.
In reality, objectives can be prioritized and a weighting applied to each
objective to distinguish their importance in the system. This is essential
to consider when looking at the individual component contributions
to multiple objectives as it influences the importance of the individual
­components to each other in the system.
Let us assume that the objective in Table 3.5, cumulative contribution
of PC1, is weighted as follows:

Objective 1 = 1.0
Objective 3 = 0.7
Objective (n) = 0.5

The higher the weighting, the more important a particular objective is

compared to other objectives. In the example, Objective 1 has the high-
est weighting (1.0) while Objective (n) has the lowest weighting (0.5)
implying that Objective 1 is considered by the organization to be most
important while Objective (n) is considered to be least important.
 Extending the Model 45

The product of the objective weighting and the portfolio component

contribution results in a new portfolio contribution value per objective
and, by implication, a new total contribution value for PC1. This is
illustrated in Table 3.6.
By applying the weighting assigned to each objective to the portfolio
component contribution, the contributions are normalized and compo-
nents can be more realistically compared. The same process is applied to
the remaining components in the system after which the components can
be ranked from highest to lowest.
Table 3.7 shows the rank order of portfolio components based on
their total individual contribution to objectives.
The ranked order of components indicates to decision makers the
importance of components in terms of the impact of decisions made.
If the decision makers decide to cancel PC1, for example, and PC1 is
the highest ranked component, it would mean that a significant portion
of the objectives would not be achieved. Knowledge of the ranked order
of components enables decision makers to understand where to allocate

Table 3.6 Cumulative contribution of PC1 after objective weighting is

applied
Objective 1 Objective 3 Objective (n)
  (w = 1.0) (w = 0.7) (w = 0.5) Total
PC1 0.935 0.35 0.148 1.433

Table 3.7 Rank order of portfolio components after weighting is

applied to objectives
Vision
OBJ 1 OBJ 2 OBJ 3 OBJ 4 OBJ (n) Total Rank
PC 1 0.935 0.350 0.148 1.433 1
PC 2 0.655 0.655 4
PC 3 0.700 0.700 3
Portfolio

PC 4 0.455 0.455 7
PC 5 0.550 0.550 6
PC 6 0.375 0.675 1.050 2
PC (m) 0.650 0.650 5
46 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

resources. The ranked order also helps to focus attention appropriately on

the relevant components.

Conclusion
This chapter provided an alternate perspective of the contribution of
­portfolio components to organizational objectives. Here, the ­contribution
of individual components to multiple objectives was considered.
The conceptual model from the previous chapter was re-used to
determine the individual component contribution to multiple objec-
tives. The individual component contributions were then aggregated.
This allowed for the ranking of portfolio components, with those com-
ponents contributing to more objectives being ranked highly. In addi-
tion, by applying a higher weighting to organizational objectives that
had a higher priority, their respective components contribution value was
adjusted to a higher contribution value. This influenced their position in
the rank order of components. The rank order of components provides
additional information to decision makers and ensures better understand-
ing of individual components and so enables better-informed decisions
regarding those components.
 CHAPTER 4

Using the Model

Introduction
In the previous two chapters, the model for determining portfolio com-
ponent contribution has been described from two perspectives. C ­ hapter 2
introduced the core concepts of the model using fuzzy logic as the ­chosen
approach and described how the combined contribution of portfolio
components (PCs) to organizational objectives could be determined.
The  focus was on many components contributing to individual objec-
tives. Chapter 3 demonstrated how the model could be extended to
­consider the total contribution of single components to multiple objec-
tives. The model, as described in Chapters 2 and 3, therefore, addresses
the many-to-many relationship between components and objectives and
provides a mechanism for assessing or evaluating the contribution of
components to organizational objectives. Now we are in a position to use
the model in a real-life example.
In order to use real data, the author requested the participation of a
large financial services organization in South Africa that he was familiar
with. The participant organization provided data and information regard-
ing a subset of their organizational objectives and the portfolio compo-
nents initiated to address their strategy. The objective of this chapter is to
demonstrate how the model can be applied using the information from
the participant organization.
The chapter begins with a brief description of the organizational
­context of the participating organization. The portfolio components and
organizational objectives used are also described and a scenario of how
the model would be used is presented, observations from the scenario are
listed, and the benefit of using the model is discussed.
48 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Organizational Context
The organization chosen for the verification was a large financial services
organization in South Africa. Permission to use the strategy definition
and initiatives (projects and programs) in this process was granted by
the Global CIO (Chief Information Officer). It is necessary to describe
the context or business environment in which it operates to appreciate the
nature of the organization’s operations, projects, and programs (portfolio
components). The business environment within which any organization
operates involves its internal environment and external environment.
The external environment is divided into the macro and microenviron-
ments. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1 and described in the following text.

Macro Environment

The macro environment involves the local, political, economic, and social
aspects, which impact the organization. The case study organization (here-
after referred to as Company A) is a multinational organization based
in South Africa. As a result, it has to operate in the various geographic
locations in compliance with the relevant country’s political and legal

Vision

Mission
Organizational strategy
and objectives
Project portfolio planning and
management
Management of
Management of
authorized programs,
on-going operations
and projects
(Recurring activities)
(Projectized activities)

Organizational resources
ORGANIZATIONAL / INTERNAL CAPACITY & CAPABILITY

MICRO ENVIRONMENT
MACRO ENVIRONMENT

Figure 4.1 Organizational context

Source: Adapted from Project Management Institute.1
 Using the Model 49

requirements. The global financial environment at the time of writing

this book had an impact on the available funds for portfolio ­component
investments and as a result, the portfolio(s) had to be managed in terms
of component termination in response to financial pressure.

Micro Environment

The micro environment relates to the company’s customers and clients,

competitors, and industry regulator. Company A competes with other
financial services institutions for market share within South Africa,
Africa, and beyond Africa. Customers have more choice in terms of prod-
ucts and services as well as new channels for interacting with financial
services organizations, such as mobile phone and online banking through
the use of personal computers and tablet PCs. Application forms for bank
accounts and insurance policies can be done electronically in a distributed
fashion. Signatures on forms can be electronic using digital signatures,
signature tablets, or finger print verification. The organization has to opti-
mize its portfolio of projects and programs in a way that enables it to
respond adequately and appropriately to market demands.
The micro environment exists within the organizational capacity,
capability, and components that are executed to deliver value to the
organization.

Organizational Capacity and Capability

The organizational environment involves the organizational capacity

(available human and financial resources) and capability (human skills
and technology). These factors play a role in determining the mix of
­portfolio components and the organization’s ability to deliver them. Other
factors playing a role in the portfolio component investment choices in
­Company A’s recent realignment of strategy are the realignment of its
performance management systems and the influence of major share-
holders on its ­performance and operational focus. These factors must be
considered during the financial period (or subsequent periods) and the
portfolio mix of portfolio components must be adjusted in response to
the preceding.
50 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Portfolio Components and Organizational Objectives

Information gathering of the portfolio components and organizational
objectives required for this process was undertaken by direct contact
with the Enterprise Portfolio Management Office (EPMO) Operations
­Manager. This person was able to provide the author with the informa-
tion related to the projects, programs, and organizational objectives.
For the purpose of illustration, it was decided to keep the sample data to a
manageable set. Three criteria or input variables, six components, and five
objectives were used in this illustration of how the model would work.

Portfolio Components

The portfolio of projects and programs (portfolio components) at

Company A extended from mega IT (information technology) and
­
business projects and programs to small enhancements called work
­
requests. Portfolio components are categorized, firstly, as signature
­programs, if they exceed a certain budget threshold, run over multiple
years, or are implemented across multiple geographies. Large projects or
programs that are under the scrutiny of the executive management due
to persistent issues such as budget overrun, missed deliverable dates, and
so on are also included in this category. Secondly, portfolio components
are categorized as strategic initiatives. These components are under the
purview of the Group Information Technology executive committee as
strategic initiatives due to the fact that they were specifically identified
as part of the Group IT strategy definition. The remainder of the port-
folio consists of components that are (a) a mix of small, medium, and
large projects and programs; (b) address a variety of objectives, such as
innovation (new products); (c) regulatory and compliance requirements;
(d) normal product, process, and systems enhancements; and (e) devel-
opment and implementation of internal enablement systems (human
resources, marketing, finance, risk, etc.).

Organizational Objectives Selected for This Exercise

The objectives identified for this exercise were defined in the Group IT
division of Company A. The company followed the balanced score card
 Using the Model 51

methodology2 when articulating the strategic objectives and identifying

the components required in achieving those objectives. The objectives
were identified in response to key issues that the executive management
felt needed to be addressed in the short term to move the organization
forward.
Table 4.1 describes the objectives, measures, and targets. Table 4.2
lists the components that contribute toward the achievement of the
objectives.
Portfolio components are associated with the selected organizational
objectives as outlined in Table 4.2. The portfolio components are hence-
forth to be indicated by their abbreviations.

Mapping of Components to Objectives

Table 4.3 illustrates the mapping of portfolio components (PCs) to orga-

nizational objectives. The labels (A to H) in the cells (intersection of rows
and columns) indicate which components contribute to what objectives.
While Table 4.3 describes the mapping of components to objectives,
it should be noted that where a component contributes to more than
one objective, not all of its deliverables are necessarily applicable to all
objectives. The following list describes how each component contributes
to each relevant objective.

Cell A: Component PC1 contributes to Objective 1 by establishing

an electronic trading platform that will facilitate business growth.
Cell B: Component PC2 contributes to Objective 2 by implementing
streamlined business processes and supporting technology that will
reduce the cost of operations in the retail banking division.
Cell C: Component PC2 contributes to Objective 4 by delivering
improved business processes and software applications that will
enable the sales force to offer clients value-added services and
products thereby improving revenue.
Cell D: Component PC3 contributes to Objective 2 by implementing
a system for the electronic recording—(using scanning and e-mail,
storage, and retrieval)—of client documents such as application
forms and copies of identity and proof of residence documents.
Table 4.1 IT organizational strategic objectives
52

# Objective Description Measure Target Definition and Comment

1 Business Growth The bank’s vision includes the expansion Growth 550 branches, The local market is fairly saturated with
of its operations (presence) into new global 2.6 million Customers and limited movement of customers and
markets. 3.1 million active accounts clients between existing banks in South
across the rest of Africa in Africa. Banks need to seek growth in new
the next financial year. markets beyond the country’s borders.
2 Reduce the cost of Owing to declining profits and a global Cost Reduce costs by 20% over The cost and risk associated with main-
operations in retail financial crisis, it is necessary to focus on three years taining aging systems and processes is
banking reducing costs over the short to medium increasing year on year. It has, therefore,
term to maintain shareholder value. become necessary to replace the core
banking systems and processes.
3 Adhere to compli- The banking sector authority introduces or Adherence/ Fulfil regulatory require- The executive has taken the decision
PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

ance and regulatory amends regulation periodically. The bank regulatory ment 100% and within the to fulfil regulatory requirements 100%
requirements needs to comply to maintain its banking requirement specified timeframe to avoid incurring fines or attracting
license. negative publicity.
4 Improve the revenue Revenue has been declining over the past Revenue Increase revenue by 10% The selected portfolio components will
generation capability three years due to the pressure of the global per annum focus on new and enhanced product
credit crunch phenomenon as well as new offerings that will generate new revenue.
product and service offerings from competi-
tors attracting clients away from the bank.
5 Regain market leader- Increase EQD’s competitive advantage and Market share Increase market share by The current year market share figures will
ship in the corporate achieve market share growth. 10% in year 1 following be used as the baseline against which the
investment banking technology platform target will be measured.
segment replacement


Table 4.2 Portfolio component descriptions

Portfolio
Component Abbreviation Portfolio Component Description
Global Markets PC1:GMC The aim of this program is to build an electronic trading platform for Global Markets, which provides clients with
e-Commerce research, pre-trade services, cross asset trading, pricing, risk management, liquidity distribution, and post-trade services.
The rationale of the programme is for the bank to improve the global distribution of strategic products, facilitate business
growth in less established markets, enhance cross-sell opportunities, and defend its existing franchise business.
Core Banking PC2:CBT The Core Banking Transformation Program (CBT) is a vital enabler of the company’s vision. Supported by a burning
Transformation platform (declining profitability, ageing systems), the CBT program will assist in the transformation of the company by
building the next generation bank. This will be achieved through defining and implementing a new business and operat-
ing model while rolling out a new core banking application and retiring numerous legacy systems.
Enterprise PC3:ECM This component is focused on the electronic recording, storage, retrieval, and disposal of unstructured data and provision
Content of workflow capability. Deliverables include: Retention Management, Imaging at Source, Document Workflow, Online
Management Finger Print Verification, and Electronic Formal Statements.
Consumer PC4:CPA The component’s objective is to adjust policies, processes, procedures, and systems to comply with the CPA legislation,
Protection Act while at the same time ensuring the most positive outcomes for the business.
International PC5:ITAPS The objective of this program is to provide a single integrated solution for Payments, International Trade Services, and
Trade and Pay- non-structured Trade Finance. This solution will enable Global Transactional Products Services (GTPS) to provide
ments Solutions clients with a global online channel to process payment and trade requests with straight through processing.
EQD Technol- PC6:EQD EQD is currently constrained from achieving its strategic objectives due to limitations in its technology platform. The unique
ogy Platform software platform that has been deployed for EQD does not enable EQD to launch new products efficiently and in a cost effec-
Replacement tive manner. This platform constrains EQD from managing growing trade volumes, minimizing the cost of over borrowing for
Stock Borrow facilities and reducing operational risk. From a technology perspective, the software system is unable to evolve
and cannot be supported by the vendor. The proposed solution to these challenges is a technology platform replacement.
Using the Model 53
54 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Table 4.3 Mapping of components to objectives

Organizational Objectives
1 2 3 4 5

Adhere to Compliance

Generation Capability

Corporate Investment
Improve the Revenue
Operations in Retail
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Leadership in the
Business Growth

and Regulatory

Regain Market
Requirements
Banking

PC1: GMC A
Portfolio Components

PC2: CBT B C
PC3: ECM D E
PC4: CPA F
PC5: ITAPS G
PC6: EQD H

Keeping client data and information electronically reduces the

cost of operations by eliminating the cost associated with printing,
­storing, and retrieving paper-based client documentation.
Cell E: Component PC3 contributes to Objective 3 by addressing the
requirements of the POPI (Protection of Personal Information) act
with regard to the management of client information.
Cell F: Component PC4 contributes to Objective 3 by addressing the
requirements of the Consumer Protection Act.
Cell G: Component PC5 contributes to Objective 4 by enabling
increased volume of transactions thereby increasing revenue.
Cell H: Component PC6 contributes to Objective 5 by implementing
a new software platform that will enable the business to offer new
products efficiently and cost effectively, growing trade ­volumes,
reducing risk, and minimizing cost of over borrowing for Stock
Borrow facilities. This will lead to a gain in market share.

Now that the objectives and components have been described and
a mapping of the relationships between components and objectives has
been done, we can proceed with illustrating how the model would work.
 Using the Model 55

Applying the Model

Application of the model is achieved through the following phases:

1. Set up.
2. Define the membership functions for the input and output
variables.
3. Define the rules to be used in the rule engine.
4. Describe the evaluation criteria (input variables).
5. Evaluate each component’s contribution to organizational objectives
in terms of the chosen criteria.
6. Determine the individual contribution value for each portfolio
­component.
7. Determine the combined contribution of those components that
jointly contribute to an objective.
8. Determine the total contribution of individual components to
­multiple objectives by aggregating the individual contributions.

Phase 1: Set up

The set up phase consists of two sub-phases. In the first sub-phase, the
membership functions for the input and output variables are defined,
while in the second sub-phase, the rules to be used in the rule engine are
defined. This step is done once by the portfolio management team for the
portfolio and was described in Chapter 2.
In preparation for using the model, the portfolio management team
needs to define the rules in the rule engine. This team of people will
have an understanding of the macro and micro environments, that is,
(a) the organization, (b) its competitive, regulatory, and operational envi-
ronment, and (c) the nature of its organizational objectives and projects
and programs. These factors will enable them to define the rules in a way
that will be appropriate for their organization. The variables that will be
used to evaluate each component and the specific combinations of these
variables and how they interact will influence the way in which the rules
are defined. The portfolio management team will need to think carefully
about how each variable relates to each other.
56 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Phase 2—Describe the Evaluation Criteria (Input Variables)

For the purpose of illustration, the author has chosen to look at three
input variables or criteria for evaluating portfolio components. The three
criteria used are described as follows. At the end of each description,
a table is provided that lists the possible evaluations and provides a guide-
line description for each evaluation.

PCVAR1: Input Variable 1 (Labeled as PCVar1 to Remain Consistent

with the Description in Earlier Chapters)

PCVar1 represents Value. The value that a portfolio component is expected

to deliver is an important criterion when determining the portfolio com-
ponent’s contribution. Value considers the decision maker’s perception of
how the component serves the organization’s objectives in the long term
with respect to its financial attractiveness, that is, the economic feasibility
that is measured by the component cost, contribution to profitability, and
contribution to growth. Table 4.4 describes the linguistic values—poor,
average, and good—which are used in evaluating PCVAR1.

Table 4.4  Linguistic value descriptions for Value (PCVAR1)

Evaluation Description
POOR The expected contribution to profitability is less than 1% of total profit
in a given year
AVERAGE The expected contribution to profitability is from 1% to 2.5% of total
profit in a given year
GOOD The expected contribution to profitability is more than 2.5% of total
profit in a given year

PCVAR2: Input Variable 2

PCVar2 represents longevity. Longevity refers to the length of time before

the product (delivered by the component) needs to be enhanced. This is
relevant for all types of products whether it has to do with innovation
or compliance and regulation. The longer a product is expected to last
without needing enhancements, the higher the component evaluation.
Table 4.5 describes the linguistic values: low, medium, and high, which
are used in evaluating PCVAR2.
 Using the Model 57

Table 4.5 Linguistic value descriptions for Longevity (PCVAR2)

Evaluation Description
LOW The product has a lifespan less than 2 years
MEDIUM The product has a lifespan from 2 to 4 years
HIGH The product has a lifespan of more than 4 years

PCVAR3: Input Variable 3

PCVAR3 represents the probability of successfully implementing the

portfolio component. This refers to the likelihood of success in delivering
the product of the component fully. The contribution toward organiza-
tional objective achievement is higher if the probability of implemen-
tation success is high. This variable will take into account the ability of
the component to respond positively in uncertain environments. Factors
that could influence the probability of implementation success include
dependency on other portfolio components, resource availability, orga-
nizational restructuring, changes in agreements with third parties, and
changes in technology. Table 4.6 describes the linguistic values—low,
medium, and high—that are used in evaluating PCVAR3.
Now that we have described the three input variables and how they
would be evaluated, we can perform the qualitative evaluation of each
input variable per component.

Table 4.6  Linguistic value descriptions for Probability of successful

implementation (PCVAR3)
Evaluation Description
LOW The probability for successful implementation is less than 30%
MEDIUM The probability for successful implementation is from 30% to 70%
HIGH The probability for successful implementation is greater than 70%

Phase 3—Component Evaluation

The first step in this process is to evaluate each component in terms of

the three variables. The portfolio management team will be accountable
for evaluating each component. They may do this with the help of the
58 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

business heads or the investment committee. Essentially, a committee will

need to assess the components in the portfolio. Then with an understand-
ing of the organizational objectives as well as the portfolio components
and the overall strategy of the organization, they can make a consensus
decision regarding the evaluation of each component.
Table 4.7 illustrates evaluations that have already been done for each
component contributing to the various objectives in the system. In the
figure, the input variables described earlier are represented as follows:

V = Value  L = Longevity   P = Probability of implementation

success

When applying the model, these evaluations will form the input to
the model. The next step would trigger the fuzzification process, which
takes these qualitative inputs and determines the degree to which these

Table 4.7 Qualitative evaluations of portfolio components

in the Corporate Investment
Adhere to Compliance and

Regain Market Leadership

Regulatory Requirements

Generation Capability
Improve the Revenue
Operations in Retail
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Business Growth

Banking

Input variables V L P V L P V L P V L P V L P
PC1: GMC G M M
PC2: CBT A H H G M H
PC3: ECM G H H A H M
PC4: CPA P M H
PC5: ITAPS A L L
PC6: EQD P M M

Values used for evaluating each variable:

Value (PCVAR1): P = Poor; A = Average; G = Good.
Longevity (PCVAR2) and Probability for successful implementation (PCVAR3): L = Low;
M = Medium; H = High.
 Using the Model 59

inputs belong to each of the respective membership functions. In an

organization, the portfolio management team would evaluate the input
­variables of a portfolio component and determine to what degree it is
poor, average, or good (in the case of PCVar1) or low, medium, or high (in
the case of PCVar2 and PCVar3).

Phase 4—Determine the Individual Contribution Value of Each

Portfolio Component

In order to determine the individual contribution of each portfolio

­component to specific organizational objectives, the fuzzification process
described earlier is followed by the application of rules defined in step 1,
and the result (or output) is defuzzified to obtain a value (number) that
represents the individual component contribution.
The crisp contribution values for each of the components in this
illustration are shown in Table 4.8.

Phase 5—Determine Combined Contribution

To determine the combined contribution of components that jointly con-

tribute to specific objectives, it is necessary to enter the criteria evaluations

Table 4.8 Individual contribution values

Adhere to Compliance

Generation Capability

Corporate Investment
Improve the Revenue
Operations in Retail
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Leadership in the
Business Growth

and Regulatory

Regain Market
Requirements
Banking

PC1: GMC 0.500

PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750
PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500
PC4: CPA 0.245
PC5: ITAPS 0.375
PC6: EQD 0.500
60 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

for the relevant components into the rule engine simultaneously. For
example, to determine the combined contribution of components PC2
and PC3 to Objective 2, their evaluations are entered into the rule engine
at the same time. As described in Chapter 2, this is to ensure no loss of
information in the fuzzy logic system. The rules described earlier apply
when determining the combined contribution of two components to the
same objective.
The combined contribution of PC2 and PC3 to Objective 2, PC3
and PC4 to Objective 3, and PC2 and PC5 to Objective 4 are shown in
Table 4.9.

Phase 6—Determine the Total Contribution of Individual

Components to Multiple Objectives

The preceding phases illustrated the determination of individual and

­combined contributions of portfolio components to single objectives.
In  this section, we determine the total contribution of a single com-
ponent to multiple objectives by adding the component’s individual

Table 4.9 Combined contributions—all PCs and objectives

Operations in Retail Banking

in the Corporate Investment

Adhere to Compliance and

Regain Market Leadership

Regulatory Requirements

Generation Capability
Improve the Revenue
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Business Growth

PC1: GMC 0.500

PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750
PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500
PC4: CPA 0.245
PC5: ITAPS 0.375
PC6: EQD 0.500
Combined Contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500
 Using the Model 61

contributions to multiple objectives. For example, PC2 contributes to

Objectives 2 and 4. The total contribution of PC2 to multiple objectives
is equal to its contribution to Objective 2 (0.750) plus its contribution
to Objective 4 (0.750), which is equal to 1.500. Similarly, the total con-
tribution of PC3 to Objectives 2 and 3 is equal to its contribution to
Objective 2 (0.815) plus its contribution to Objective 3 (0.500), which
is equal to 1.315. The remaining portfolio components each contribute
only to single objectives. This view of the total contribution of portfolio
components to objectives is illustrated in Table 4.10.
There are now two perspectives to viewing the data in Table 4.10.
Firstly, for each objective we have determined the combined contribu-
tions of the contributing components using additive aggregation and the
bounded sum method described in Chapter 2. Secondly, for each com-
ponent, we have determined individual contributions per objective and
added these to give the total contributions of individual components to
multiple objectives. The total individual component contributions allow
us to determine a rank order of components. The ranking informs deci-
sion makers that the higher the rank of a component, the more significant

Table 4.10 Total contribution per component

Operations in Retail Banking

in the Corporate Investment

Adhere to Compliance and

Regain Market Leadership

Regulatory Requirements

Generation Capability
Improve the Revenue
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Business Growth

Total Individual
Contribution

PC1: GMC 0.500 0.500

PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750 1. 500
PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500 1.315
PC4: CPA 0.245 0.245
PC5: ITAPS 0.375 0.375
PC6: EQD 0.500 0.500
Combined Contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500
62 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

it is in terms of its contribution to the objectives. Whether a component

contributes to one or many objectives, understanding its total contribu-
tion will prevent a scenario where a decision to terminate the component
is made based on limited knowledge of its contribution.
The rank order of the components in Table 4.10 based on their total
individual contributions is as follows:

1. PC2 with a contribution value = 1.500

2. PC3 with a contribution value = 1.315
3. PC1 with a contribution value = 0.500
4. PC6 with a contribution value = 0.500
5. PC5 with a contribution value = 0.375
6. PC4 with a contribution value = 0.245

The next section discusses a scenario illustrating the impact of termi-

nating a portfolio component.

Scenario—What if a Portfolio
Component Is Terminated?
The management of a portfolio entails decision making about the port-
folio components. Managing the portfolio involves deciding on which
components to stop, delay, or fast track. The model presented in this book
is designed to enable better decision making with regard to the portfolio.
The researcher illustrates this through means of a scenario.
To begin, let us establish the context for managing the portfolio.
Managing the portfolio, in this context, is not concerned with the process
of selecting components that an organization would exercise when setting
up the portfolio. Instead, it is the management response to a change in the
organization’s environment that requires a change in the investment being
made in portfolio components. The validity of the portfolio components
is not questioned. It is assumed that the components in the portfolio have
been selected based on criteria the organization uses for selecting compo-
nents. It is also based on an investment management process that ensures
each component is supported by a business case that has been validated
in terms of the alignment to organizational objectives and achievement of
financial and other measures.
 Using the Model 63

The recent global economic crisis has caused many organizations to

critically evaluate their investment in projects and programs (portfolio
components). As a result, budget constraint has become a key environ-
mental factor that has caused investment committees to re-evaluate their
portfolios with a view to optimizing them. This leads to the consider-
ation of portfolio components as participants for termination to free
up resources (human and financial) for use on components that make a
higher contribution toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
When considering portfolio components for termination, stopping,
or delaying, investment committees in Company A ask the following
questions:

• How much have we invested in the component thus far and

is the cost justified? This refers to the concept of sunk cost and
the organization must evaluate whether continuing the proj-
ect will help the organization regain the sunk cost, or whether
it should walk away from the incomplete component (project
or program).
• What percentage of the total cost of the portfolio component
is required to complete the component?
• If the portfolio component has not commenced, can it be
delayed to the next financial year?
• If the portfolio component is in progress but the actual rate
of spend (burn rate) is lower than planned due to insufficient
resources, can the component be stopped or delayed until
resources are available?
• What has the portfolio component delivered to date and can
the remaining deliverables be deferred to the new financial
year?

An analysis of the preceding questions reveals that the focus is on what

portfolio components can be salvaged rather than on which components
should be completed to get the highest contribution toward achieving the
organizational objectives.
Let us assume that due to budget cuts, the portfolio investment com-
mittee chooses to terminate one of the portfolio components. Table 4.11
64 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Table 4.11 Components identified for possible termination

Portfolio
# Component Reason for terminating the portfolio component
1 PC1 (GMC) The portfolio component has been identified for termination due
to the continuous technical problems experienced by the project
2 PC3 (ECM) The portfolio component has a low probability of success and
should therefore be considered for termination
3 PC5 (ITAPS) The portfolio component can be terminated as the cost to imple-
mentation exceeds planned budget significantly

shows three possible components for termination as well as the p ­ lausible

reasons for terminating each component. The portfolio ­ investment
­committee will consider these reasons, and through a process of ­discussion
and consensus, decide on one of the components to terminate.
None of the reasons given in Table 4.11 consider the degree of
contribution toward achieving organizational objectives. Making a
­
­decision based purely on the preceding considerations will affect the level
of success the organization has in achieving its objectives. The impact
of terminating any of the three portfolio components will be illustrated
in the following diagrams using the results from applying the model
­presented in this book. Table 4.12 shows the contribution of the ­portfolio
components before the decision is made while Table 4.13 shows the
contributions of the portfolio components after the decision to terminate
the portfolio components.
Terminating PC1 would mean that no contribution is made toward
the achievement of Objective 1 (business growth), as PC1 is the only
component identified toward achieving Objective 1.
Terminating PC3 would result in the rules for determining the con-
tribution to Objective 2 (reduce the cost of operations in retail banking)
only being applied to PC2 (CBT Program). The rules for determining the
contribution of PC3 will not be considered.
Removing PC3 also impacts Objective 3 (adhere to compliance and
regulatory requirements). For Objective 3, only PC4 is considered when
determining the contribution toward achieving the objective. The result
of removing PC3 is that Objective 3 is achieved to a degree of 0.245 and
Objective 2 is achieved to a degree of 0.750.
 Using the Model 65

Table 4.12 Combined contributions before PCs are terminated

Operations in Retail Banking

in the Corporate Investment

Adhere to Compliance and

Regain Market Leadership

Regulatory Requirements

Generation Capability
Improve the Revenue
Reduce the Cost of

Banking Segment
Business Growth
PC1: GMC 0.500
PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750
PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500
PC4: CPA 0.245
PC5: ITAPS 0.375
PC6: EDQ 0.500
Combined Contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

Similarly, terminating PC5 will result in the rules being applied to

PC2 in terms of its contribution to Objective 4 (improve the revenue
generation capability).
The impacts of terminating PC1, PC3, or PC5 are illustrated in
Table 4.13, which shows the comparative contribution before and after
the components have been terminated.

Observations

Terminating PC1 results in no advancement toward achieving Objective 1

as PC1 was the only component identified to achieve ­Objective 1. The
degree of change as a result of terminating PC1 is equal to (0.500 −
0.000 = 0.500), that is, the original contribution minus the resultant
­contribution after the component has been terminated is equal to the
degree of change.
The degree of change in the combined contribution of PC2 and
PC3, as a result of terminating PC3, to Objective 2 is equal to (0.940 −
0.750 = 0.190), while the degree of change in the combined contribution
 66

Table 4.13 Comparative contributions before and after components have been terminated
Reduce Adhere to Improve the Regain Market
the Cost of Compliance Revenue Leadership in the
Business Operations in and Regulatory Generation Corporate Investment
Growth Retail Banking Requirements Capability Banking Segment
Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
PC1: GMC 0.500
PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750 0.750 0.750
PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500

PC4: CPA 0.245 0.245
PC5: ITAPS 0.375
PC6: EQD 0.500 0.500
Combined Contribution 0.500 0.000 0.940 0.750 0.600 0.245 0.800 0.750 0.500 0.500
 Using the Model 67

of PC3 and PC4 to Objective 3 is equal to (0.600 − 0.245 = 0.355).

By terminating PC3, the combined degree of change in the contribution
of PC3 to this set of objectives is equal to (0.190 + 0.355 = 0.545).
With regard to PC5, terminating this component results in a change
in total contribution to Objective 4 (improve the revenue generation
capability) of 0.050 (i.e., 0.800 − 0.750 = 0.050). Terminating this
component has a significantly lower impact to the achievement of the
objectives than terminating PC1 or PC3.
The portfolio investment committee would want to terminate the
component that would result in the smallest impact to the achievement of
the objectives. Based on the observations noted earlier, and the expecta-
tion that only one of the three components needs to be terminated, PC5
would be the naturally selected component for termination as ­terminating
this component results in the smallest impact (0.05) to the achievement
of the organizational objectives.

Representing the Data Using Dashboards

Executive management in organizations make performance management

decisions based on critical data and information presented in the form of
dashboards, also referred to as scorecards or report cards. M ­ anagement
decisions often consider multiple criteria and large amounts of data. PfM
decision making is especially challenging due to its complex and dynamic
nature. Due to cognitive limitations of human decision m ­ akers, visual
techniques can be used to compensate and improve the ­decision ­making
capability.3 Dashboards present information regarding key p ­ erformance
indicators that management analyzes and makes decisions based on
their analysis. The dashboard used here is an aid to show the results
from ­running multiple scenarios providing information to the portfolio
­investment committee that enables better informed decision making
regarding the management of the portfolio. By illustrating the scenarios
and the results graphically, it adds to the understanding of what is going
on in the portfolio. A graphic illustration makes comparisons clearer
as it considers a number of dimensions simultaneously. The graphical
­representation of data is also easier and faster to process than textually
based representation of data.
68 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

For the purpose of this illustration, the gauge chart was chosen as a
way of representing the degree of achievement of organizational objec-
tives. Gauge charts are well suited to showing the degree to which an
objective is achieved as the point at which the needle rests illustrates how
much of the objective is achieved. On a gauge chart, the value for each
needle is read against the shaded data range or chart axis. (Note: In a
color diagram, the shaded regions will likely be red, amber, and green).
Gauge charts are useful for comparing values between a small number of
variables either by using multiple needles on the same gauge or by using
multiple gauges. The shaded data range resembles the fuzzy logic concept
of looking at the data in terms of ranges rather than purely static val-
ues. Figure 4.2 illustrates how the degree of achievement of Objective 2
(which has a value of 0.940) is represented with the needle pointing close
to the end of the white region.
The black, gray, and white regions that appear in the gauge partition
the range of values into three segments. These regions provide further
information to decision makers. If the needle points anywhere in the
white segment, it means that the achievement of the objective is in a pos-
itive range. In other words, even though the objective is not being fully
achieved, the degree of achievement is more than satisfactory.
If the needle points anywhere in the gray segment, it means that the
achievement of the objective is in a warning range. The objective is only
moderately achieved and the portfolio investment committee would
want to consider enhancing the scope of the component(s) or identifying
­additional components that would contribute to the objective.

Gray segment indicating a warning

range or moderate achievement of
the objective

Dark segment indicating a White segment indicating a

negative range or unsatisfactory positive range or satisfactory
achievement of the objective achievement of the objective

OBJ-2 Abbreviation for Objective 2

Gauge needle indicating the 0.940
degree to which the objective is The quantitative value
being achieved representing the degree to which
the objective is being achieved

Figure 4.2 Sample gauge diagram

 Using the Model 69

If the needle points anywhere in the black segment, it means that the
achievement of the objective is in a negative range. The achievement of
the objective is unsatisfactory and much more focus needs to be given to
identify additional components that would contribute to the ­objective.
A sample dashboard is illustrated in Figure 4.3, which shows the gauge
charts for each of the objectives as well as supporting information.
Each section is described as follows:

Section A: In this section, the organizational objectives including the

measures and targets are described.
Section B: Here the portfolio components contributing to the organi-
zational objectives are described.
Section C: The mapping of portfolio components to objectives is
­illustrated in this section. The individual component contributions,
as well as the combined component contributions per objective, are
listed.
Section D: The gauge charts represent the degree to which each objec-
tive is achieved. Each gauge represents a different objective and
the needle (arrow) indicates the degree to which the objective is
achieved.

With reference to the What-If scenarios in the previous section, we

can use gauge charts to illustrate the scenarios. Figures 4.4 through 4.6
show the original position of the degree of achievement of each of the
objectives before terminating any component. This is represented by
the black arrows (needles) in each of the gauge charts in these figures.
The same gauge charts also show what the position would be if any of the
selected components were terminated. This is shown such that the needle
(arrow) in the gauge chart of the impacted objective appears as a dotted
arrow and in a different color. By illustrating both positions on the same
gauge chart, it is possible to show what the difference would be after an
associated component is terminated.
Figures 4.4 through 4.6 show that:

The black arrows represent the original position before any of the
three components are considered for termination.
 PORTFOLIO COMPONENT CONTRIBUTION TO OBJECTIVES
70

OBJ-1 OBJ-2 OBJ-3 OBJ-4 OBJ-5

0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

C A
Mapping of components to objectives
# Objective Description Measure Target
550 branches,
2.6 million Customers
The bank’s vision includes the and 3.1 million active
1 Business expansion of its operations Growth accounts across the rest
growth
(presence) into new global markets

banking
of Africa in the next

revenue
corporate

capability
investment

generation

Adhere to
financial year.

compliance
Improve the
Regain market

requirements
and regulatory
banking segment

leadership in the

Business growth
Reduce the cost of
Reduce the Owing to declining profits and a

operations in retail
cost of global financial crisis, it is Reduce costs by 20%
PC1: GMC 0.500 2 operations necessary to focus on reducing Cost
over 3 years
PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

in retail costs over the short to medium

banking term to maintain shareholder value.
PC2: CBT 0.750 0.750
B
PC3: ECM 0.815 0.500 Portfolio Portfolio component description
component Abbreviation
PC4: CPA 0.245 Global The aim of this programme is to...
markets e- PC1:GMC The rationale of the programme is for the bank to improve
commerce global distribution of strategic products, …
PC5: ITAPS 0.375
The Core Banking Transformation Programme (CBT) is a vital
enabler of the company’s vision. Supported by a “burning
PC6: EQD 0.500 Core banking platform”, the CBT programme will assist in the transformation
PC2:CBT of the company by building the next generation bank. This will
transformation
COMBINED be achieved through defining and implementing a new business
0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500 and operating model while rolling out a new core banking
CONTRIBUTION
application, and retiring numerous legacy systems

Figure 4.3 Sample dashboard

Note: The sample dashboard is for illustrative purposes only.
 Using the Model 71

Block –A

OBJ-1 OBJ-2 OBJ-3 OBJ-4 OBJ-5

0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500
Original contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500
After terminating PC1 0.000 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

Figure 4.4 Gauge chart showing the original and new objective
achievement positions after terminating PC1

Block –B

OBJ-1 OBJ-2 OBJ-3 OBJ-4 OBJ-5

0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

Original contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

After terminating PC3 0.500 0.750 0.250 0.800 0.500

Figure 4.5 Gauge chart showing the original and new objective
achievement positions after terminating PC3

Block –C

OBJ-1 OBJ-2 OBJ-3 OBJ-4 OBJ-5

0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

Original contribution 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.800 0.500

After terminating PC5 0.500 0.940 0.600 0.750 0.500

Figure 4.6 Gauge chart showing the original and new objective
achievement positions after terminating PC5

The dotted arrow indicates the position if PC1 is terminated

(Figure  4.4). The difference between the solid and dotted arrow
visually illustrates the impact on the achievement of Objective 1.
The dotted arrow in Figure 4.5 indicates the impact of terminating
PC3 on Objectives 2 and 3.
The dotted arrow in Figure 4.6 indicates the impact of terminating
PC5 on Objective 4.

Furthermore, the new projected contribution values are presented

against each scenario below the gauge charts to show quantitatively the
expected impact on each objective of terminating the different portfolio
components.
72 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

It can be seen in the preceding Figures 4.4 through 4.6 that ­Objectives
1, 2, 3, or 4 would be impacted if the selected components were termi-
nated. The secondary arrow in each of the respective gauge charts as well
as the new contribution values in italic font in the rows below the gauge
charts illustrate this. For Objective 1, the dotted arrow (needle) points
to the zero position to indicate that terminating the component (PC1)
contributing to this objective will result in zero contribution to Objective
1 (Figure 4.4). Terminating PC3 would impact Objectives 2 and 3. It can
be seen from Figure 4.5 that the degree of change in achieving Objective
3 is bigger than the degree of change in achieving Objective 2. Impor-
tantly, however, the termination of PC3 impacts two objectives and the
cumulative impact would be greater than terminating PC1. The termina-
tion of PC5 will result in a small impact to Objective 4. The dotted arrow
in the gauge chart illustrates this for Objective 4 in Figure 4.6.
The portfolio investment committee can now monitor the achieve-
ment of the objectives and establish the impact a change in circumstances
has on the achievement of the objectives. The model enables the portfolio
investment committee to make better decisions about the termination
of components such that their impact is minimized on organizational
objectives.

Scenario—What If a Portfolio
Component Is Fast-Tracked?
The previous section focused attention to the impact of terminating
portfolio components on the achievement of organizational objectives.
Portfolio decision making, however, must also consider the possibility
of fast-tracking (expediting or speeding up delivery of ) a portfolio com-
ponent. In this scenario, the extent to which an objective is achieved
does not change, as we are not removing or adding portfolio compo-
nents. The decision to fast-track portfolio components is driven by the
ranked importance of the organizational objectives. If the organization
wants to place emphasis on achieving a specific objective due to changes
in the ­market or competition, knowing which components contribute
to the objective and the extent to which they contribute will enable
­decision makers to fast-track the relevant portfolio components and,
 Using the Model 73

where necessary, initiate new components to close any gaps in achieving

the strategy. By means of an illustration, if we refer to Figure 4.3 and
nominate Objective 4 as an objective that must be achieved early, then
the components that must be fast-tracked are PC2 and PC5. The gauge
chart also indicates that there is still a gap in achieving the objective fully,
implying that one or more components can be initiated to close this gap.

Benefit of Using This Model

The scenarios illustrate that without a way of determining portfolio com-
ponent contributions to organizational objectives, it would be quite easy
for the portfolio investment committee to terminate a component that
makes a significant contribution to organizational objectives while other
components, which make a smaller contribution, survive. ­Similarly, with-
out a clear understanding of the rank order or weighting of ­objectives,
the wrong components can be fast-tracked, drawing resources and
attention away from those that do need to be fast-tracked. The model
provides decision makers quantitative information, based on their quali-
tative ­evaluation of portfolio component contribution to organizational
objectives that enable them to make decisions related to managing the
portfolio. The portfolio investment committee can now decide with
­confidence as to which components to terminate or fast-track. This action
would ensure that the organization makes the right decisions regarding
its investments in portfolio components as they relate to achieving the
organization’s objectives.
The model aids decision making by focusing on component contribu-
tion. This enables decision makers to choose components for termination
with the lowest contribution to organizational objectives, thereby mini-
mizing the impact on the achievement of those objectives. It is acknowl-
edged that this is one of the few considerations that decision makers
would take into account when optimizing the portfolio.

Conclusion
This chapter looked at the illustration of the model described earlier in
Chapter 2. A participant organization was used to provide information
74 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

regarding their organizational objectives and portfolio components, which

were used in this process. The organizational context was described to
provide background for the objectives and portfolio components chosen.
The objective of this chapter was to demonstrate consistency and
accuracy in the model by using the information from the participant
organization. The illustration of how the model would work included
(a) evaluating each component, (b) determining the individual contri-
bution of each component to the relevant objectives, (c) determining
the combined contribution of those components that jointly contribute
to specific objectives, and also (d) determining the total contribution of
individual components to multiple objectives.
In addition, what-if scenarios, including the use of gauge charts to
graphically represent the data, were presented. The scenarios illustrated
how the impact of decisions regarding portfolio components can be
quantified, thereby enabling decision makers to get an insight into their
decisions before committing them and thus ensuring better informed
decision making.
 CHAPTER 5

Conclusion
Introduction
While the concept of PfM (project portfolio management) is under-
standable due to its association with, and application of, concepts in the
financial portfolio management discipline, as well as its relatedness to
theories such as Modern Portfolio, Multi-Criteria Utility, Organizational,
Systems, and Complexity (refer to Appendix 1), the practical applica-
tion of PfM still had gaps and lacked consistency. This was evident from
an investigation into the practice of PfM, which lead to the develop-
ment of the model presented in Chapter 2, an extension of the model in
Chapter 3, and an illustration of how the model would work.
In managing a project portfolio, an understanding of both the indi-
vidual and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to orga-
nizational objectives and the likely impact of such decisions on the
achievement of these objectives is important in decision making. Without
this understanding the decisions regarding whether to stop, progress, or
terminate portfolio components will be poor.
Such decisions tend to be based on the subjective defense of a few
decision makers. This means that even if the right components are c­ hosen
upfront, there is a lack of confidence that these components remain
closely aligned to organizational objectives and continues to offer the best
return in benefits. Nevertheless, these components tend to be continued
and supported during the PfM process. This is a fundamental issue to
the success of PfM in an organization. Subjective decision making with
a lack of understanding the extent to which portfolio components con-
tribute to organizational objectives could result in the wrong components
being progressed and negates the fundamental philosophy of PfM, which
is to obtain the maximum return on investment. This inspired the idea
to develop a model that would minimize the subjectivity in decision
76 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

making so that (a) the components that have a higher contribution to

organizational objectives could be progressed, (b) the cumulative contri-
bution of components to organizational objectives is understood, (c) the
degree to which objectives are being achieved is understood, and that
(d) the maximum benefits of the portfolio can be achieved.
The model presented in Chapter 2 allows for the qualitative eval-
uation of components at any stage during the course of managing the
portfolio and converts the qualitative evaluations into quantitative v­ alues
for comparison. The model caters for the fact that there will always be
some element of subjectivity involved as long as the human element
is part of the evaluation. This cannot be removed completely. Further,
while other approaches look at the individual component, this model
considers the reality of multiple components contributing to one or more
organizational objectives.
Chapter 3 introduced an extension (an additional perspective) to
the model. While Chapter 2 focused on the contribution of multiple
components to individual objectives, Chapter 3 discussed the contribu-
tion of individual portfolio components to multiple organizational objec-
tives. This was to cater for the fact that decision makers may want to
consider the alternative perspective of the component-to-objective rela-
tionship—namely, the number of additional objectives to which a single
portfolio component contributes. The idea of assigning a weighting to
objectives was also introduced in this chapter. Weighting objectives affect
the relative importance of portfolio components. Components contrib-
uting to more highly weighted objectives imply that the impact of the
contribution of those components—and the decisions related to those
components—becomes more significant. This information influences the
decision making regarding which components to accelerate, suspend, or
terminate. This chapter also illustrated that the fundamental concepts
used in developing the conceptual model could be used in alternate ways.
Chapter 4 looked at the illustration of how the model would work
using actual portfolio components and organizational objectives from
a participating organization. The chapter began by providing an orga-
nizational context related to the participating organization, as well as
information regarding the organizational objectives and portfolio com-
ponents selected for illustrative purposes. The illustration of the model in
 Conclusion 77

this chapter showed the mechanics of the model and confirmed how the
impact of decisions regarding portfolio components can be quantified.
A what-if scenario regarding the termination of a portfolio component
was described, observations from the scenario were outlined, the use of
a dashboard and gauge charts as a visualization technique for decision
making was illustrated, and the benefit of using the model was discussed.
The scenario illustrated that without a way of determining portfolio
­component contributions to organizational objectives, the potential for
poor portfolio decision making exists.

Contribution to the Body of Knowledge

This book contributes to the body of knowledge of PfM and is beneficial
to organizations in the following ways.
Firstly, the model provides a benefit for good governance when it
comes to the decision making around portfolio components and their
alignment to objectives. It reduces the subjective, gut-feel decision mak-
ing that presently exists in organizations and offers an objective view on
organizationally aligned components. This is important for compliance
with a country’s corporate governance requirements.
Secondly, this book provides a better understanding of the complex
relationship between portfolio components and organizational objec-
tives. It clarifies that we need to move beyond the common phrase in the
project management discipline of “aligning projects to strategy,” which at
present is ambiguous. Rather, portfolio components (which comprise proj-
ects, programs, and operational activities) must be aligned to organiza-
tional objectives of the organization. Understanding this relationship will
improve the operation of PfM in organizations.
Thirdly, existing knowledge (in the form of Fuzzy Logic) is used in
a new way. A combined fuzzy model was developed and applied to PfM
decision making. A number of studies have previously focused on proj-
ect selection strategies when setting up the portfolio. Methods such as
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP),1 scoring models, matrices, and pair-
wise comparison are among the approaches used. These are quantitative in
nature and the drawback of using such approaches is that decision makers
tend to have vague perceptions, rather than clear knowledge expressed
78 PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

as exact numerical values when evaluating portfolio components. Fuzzy

logic, however, is able to deal with the vague and qualitative nature of
evaluating portfolio components using multiple criteria.
Fourthly, a mechanism for improving decision making in PfM is
presented. Decision makers are now able to determine the individual
and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to organizational
objectives and, through the use of dashboards, can run alternative scenar-
ios to test the impact of their decisions before committing them.
Fifthly, it is illustrated how established theories can be related to PfM
(Appendix 1). At the time of writing this book, evidence of scientific
research describing the relationship between established theories and
PfM, to the extent of what was described here, did not exist.
This book thus makes important contributions to the PfM body
of knowledge, Fuzzy Logic application in new domains, organizational
­governance, and management decision making.

Personal Reflection
The body of knowledge around PfM is growing rapidly. During the
course of developing this book (from conception to completion), the
Project Management Institute (PMI) alone delivered three editions of
The Standard for Portfolio Management—the third edition being a sub-
stantial improvement on the second (Project Management Institute
2013). Worldwide, research in this discipline is increasing. This can
be seen from the increase in papers presented at the PMI research and
education conferences, for example.
The implementation of PfM in an organization is a major change
­initiative in its own right and as such will require a concerted effort over
an extended period of time to embed in an organization. PfM must be
seen as a means to address compliance and governance requirements and
not just a nice-to-have idea. The level of understanding of PfM at an exec-
utive level needs to be improved by offering PfM as a module in post-
graduate studies such as MBAs and executive management development
programs.
The ability to make the right decisions in the PfM process remains a
challenge. The model provides important information to decision makers,
 Conclusion 79

but the responsibility for decisions still lies with management (portfolio
investment committee). This is still problematic because different people
have different approaches on to how they make decisions. In addition,
the vision, mission, and values of an organization further influence the
decision-making process.
The model presented in this book assumes that the strategy defini-
tion and translation processes have been conducted correctly. The strat-
egy definition process identifies the organizational objectives that must
be achieved over a period of time to move the organization forward.
The strategy translation process identifies the portfolio components that
must be executed to deliver the organizational objectives. The model pre-
sented here takes the outputs of these processes as inputs into the model.
The model will not address any flaws in the strategy definition or trans-
lation process.
For portfolio management to be effective, a proper decision-making
process aligned to organizational objectives needs to be in place. This model
empowers decision makers to make the right decisions, thereby ensuring
the organization achieves the maximum benefit from its investment in
their portfolio of projects.
 APPENDIX 1

Related Theories
Introduction
Part of this appendix was presented as a paper at the Project Management
Institute (PMI) Research Conference in Portland, USA.1
Portfolio management (PfM) is an allied discipline of project man-
agement and can be contextualized through an understanding of the
following established theories: (a) Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT),
(b) Organizational Theory, (c) Systems Theory, (d) Multicriteria Utility
Theory (MCUT), and (e) Complexity Theory. The relationship between
these theories and PfM are discussed in this appendix.
PfM is not a self-standing theory but is a relatively young discipline
compared to project management. The concepts and definition of PfM
need to be fully understood and considered in light of these various estab-
lished theories referred to earlier.
The goal of this appendix is to provide the context for PfM based on
research and is achieved by confirming the definition for PfM and by
discussing the theories identified, as part of the research, and illustrating
their relevance to PfM. The literature pertaining to PfM as well as the
related theories is reviewed and the theoretical background and analysis
of the theories are presented.
The remainder of this chapter explores a definition for PfM and
reviews the literature on the theories identified earlier. The appendix con-
cludes with a summary and illustration of the interrelationship of the
theories with PfM.

PfM Definition
In this section, a definition of PfM from various sources is presented. Key
phrases that provide commonality among the definitions have been itali-
cized. A diagram, which encapsulates the key ideas from the definition of
82 APPENDIX

PfM, is then presented at the end of this section, followed by an elabora-

tion of the key elements.
Jiang and Klein identified PfM as a discipline under the broader
categorization of IS (Information Systems) planning, which assists
organizations in executing business plans and realizing business goals.2
Cooper, Edgett, and Kleinschmidt defined PfM as

a dynamic decision making process whereby, a business’s list of

active new products and projects is constantly updated and revised;
new projects are evaluated, selected, and prioritized; existing ­projects
are accelerated, terminated, or de-prioritized; and resources are
allocated and re-allocated to the active projects.3

The META Group defined the management of the IT (information

technology) portfolio as the management of a

set of assets (hardware, software, human capital, processes, and

projects), mapped to investment strategies (based on risk tolerance
and business goals), according to an optimal mix (the percent-
age or range of investment made in each business area), based
on assumptions about future performance (strategic and tactical
growth expectations of the business), to maximize the value/risk
trade-offs (ensuring that the selected IT investments provide the
desired level of business value for the cost and risk involved) in
optimizing the organization’s return on IT investment. (emphasis
added)4

The META Group’s definition considered the broader aspects of

IT beyond just projects, but the essence of PfM was maintained in the
definition.
Leliveld and Jeffery defined PfM as “the combination of tools
and methods used to measure, control and increase the return on both
­individual IT investments and aggregate enterprise level.” They also defined
a ­portfolio as “including all direct and indirect IT projects and assets,
including components such as infrastructure, outsourcing contracts and
software licenses.”5
 APPENDIX 83

Maizlish and Handler defined PfM as a combination of people, pro-

cesses, and corresponding information and technology that sensed and
responded to change by: (a) reprioritizing and rebalancing investments
and assets, (b) cataloguing a value-based risk assessment of existing assets,
(c) eliminating redundancies while maximizing reuse, (d) scheduling
resources optimally, and (e) monitoring and measuring project plans from
development through post-implementation and disposal.6
Levine stated that PfM was “the bridge between traditional operations
management and project management.” He defined PfM as “the manage-
ment of the project portfolio so as to maximize the contribution of projects
to the overall welfare and success of the enterprise.”7
The PMI defined PfM as the centralized or coordinated management
of one or more portfolios, which included identifying, prioritizing, autho-
rizing, managing, and controlling projects, programs, and other related
work, to achieve specific strategic business objectives. They recognized that
“portfolio management produces valuable information to support or alter
organizational strategies and investment decisions”8 and allowed deci-
sion making that controlled the direction of portfolio components as
they achieved specific outcomes. They added that resources are allocated
according to organizational priorities and are managed to achieve the iden-
tified benefits. They further elaborated that: “the organizational strategy is
a result of the strategic planning cycle, where the vision and mission are
translated into a strategic plan”9 and that:

Portfolio Management, through the alignment of the strategic

planning establishes the portfolios required to achieve organiza-
tional strategy and objectives and performance goals. Manage-
ment of authorized programs and projects and management of
ongoing operations are required to execute portfolios consist-
ing of programs, projects and operations activities to realize the
organizational strategy and objectives.10

The management of the portfolio requires that the alignment between

objectives and portfolio components be maintained. A change in circum-
stances (external or internal) could result in a change in the portfolio mix.
The Standard (3rd edition) describes this process as optimize portfolio and
84 APPENDIX

describes this process as “evaluating the portfolio based on the organiza-

tion’s selection criteria, … creating the portfolio component mix with the
greatest potential to support the organizational strategy.”
The key phrases from the preceding definitions that describe PfM and
its impact are summarized as follows:

• The translation of strategy and objectives (organizational

objectives) into projects, programs, and operations (identification,
prioritization, authorization of portfolio components).
• The allocation of resources to portfolio components according to
organizational priorities.
• Maintaining the portfolio alignment requires each component
being aligned to one or more organizational objectives and the
extent to which the components support the achievement of
the objectives (i.e., the degree of contribution) must be understood.
• The portfolio components are managed and controlled in order to
achieve organizational objectives and benefits.

Figure A.1 is an adaptation of the organizational context for PfM from

the 3rd edition of The Standard for Portfolio Management. It illustrates the
key aspects from the PfM definitions described earlier.
From the diagram, the arrows numbered 1–4 illustrate key aspects
from the definition of PfM presented earlier. They refer to the following:

• Arrow () refers to the translation of organizational objectives

into portfolio components. This entails an evaluation of the orga-
nizational objectives with the intention of identifying, prioritiz-
ing, and authorizing portfolio components that will contribute to
the achievement of the organizational objectives.
• Arrow () refers to the allocation of resources to prioritized
components. Once a prioritized list of components has been deter-
mined, resources can be allocated to these components to ensure
they are not allocated to less or unimportant components.
• Arrow () refers to the evaluation of portfolio components
in terms of their individual and cumulative contribution to
organizational objectives. An understanding of the individual


Vision

Mission
Translation (identification, selection & prioritization) of
organizational objectives into portfolio components
Organizational
objectives
Evaluating individual and cumulative contribution of
portfolio components to organizational objectives

Tracking achievement of benefits

Project portfolio management
Management of on-going operations
(Recurring activities) and authorized programs,
and projects (Projectized activities)
Allocation of resources
Organizational Resources

Figure A.1 PfM Depiction

Source: Adapted from Enoch and Labuschagne.11
APPENDIX 85
86 APPENDIX

and cumulative contribution of portfolio components to organi-

zational objectives will ensure that the right decisions are made
about which components to accelerate, suspend, or terminate.
The process to determine the individual and cumulative contri-
bution of portfolio components was addressed in Chapter 2.
• Arrow () refers to tracking the achievement of benefits. This is
a key aspect of PfM as it confirms the return on the investment
made in executing the selected portfolio components.

Now that the definition has been expounded, the following sections
examine the relevance of various theories that relate to PfM and the
­representation of the PfM definition in Figure A.1 will be extended to
incorporate these theories.

Modern Portfolio Theory

Background

In the early 1950s, Harry Markowitz began developing his theories on

modern portfolio theory (MPT).12 In “applying the concepts of v­ ariance
and co-variance, Markowitz showed that a diversified portfolio of finan-
cial assets could be optimized to deliver the maximum return for a given
level of risk.”13 In 1990, Markowitz was awarded the Nobel Prize in
­economics for his work in portfolio theory and he is now referred to as
the father of modern portfolio theory.
Markowitz gives credit to A.D. Roy for his contribution to MPT.

Roy also proposed making choices on the basis of mean and

variance of the portfolio as a whole. He proposed choosing the
portfolio that maximized a portfolio (E − d)/σ, where d is a fixed
disastrous return and σ is standard deviation of return. Roy’s
formula for the variance of the portfolio included the co-variances
of returns among securities.14

The main differences between Roy’s analysis and Markowitz’ analy-

sis are that Markowitz required nonnegative investments whereas Roy’s
allowed the amount invested in any security to be positive or negative.
 APPENDIX 87

Markowitz also proposed allowing the investor to choose a desired

portfolio from the efficient mean-variance combinations whereas Roy
recommended choice of a specific portfolio.
In essence, the work by Markowitz provided the concepts and foun-
dation for subsequent studies—even in non-financial fields. For example,
in 1981, the Harvard Business Review published an article by McFarlan,
which argued that the fundamentals of MPT could be applied to corpo-
rate technology assets. He identified deficiencies with IS projects from
personal experience in the 10 years prior to his article. These he summa-
rized as having to do with “a failure to assess individual project risk and
the failure to consider the aggregate risk of the portfolio of projects.”15
He pointed out that the systematic analysis of risks at the portfolio level
reduces the number of failures and helps in communication between IS
managers and senior executives toward reaching agreement on risks to be
taken in line with corporate goals.
Further, McFarlan suggested that the selection of projects based on
the risk profile of the portfolio could reduce the risk exposure to the orga-
nization. However, McFarlan does not go into any detail regarding the
PfM methodology, approach, or definition but merely introduces the
concept of PfM from a perspective of risk management. Nevertheless, the
application of portfolio theory in a new field, specifically IT, has resulted
in further study toward developing methods and standards for applying
portfolio theory to PfM.
Verhoef, however, felt that MPT does not work for IT. According to
Verhoef, IT investments are illiquid, that is, they cannot be readily con-
verted into cash.16 Liquidity is a necessary assumption for applying MPT.
Nevertheless, trade articles such as that by Berinato17 and Ross18 recog-
nized that the process of managing IT projects using a financial investment
portfolio metaphor has attracted much interest from CIOs (Chief Infor-
mation Officers) in Fortune 1000 companies. Goff and Teach referred to
a Meta Group survey done that year which found that more than half of
the 219 IT professionals surveyed had either implemented or planned to
implement some aspect of portfolio theory by the end of 2004.19
Subsequently, Kersten and Ozdemir presented results of the appli-
cation of Markowitz’s MPT on a product portfolio of an IT company.
They concluded that “with the mean variance theory constructed by
88 APPENDIX

Markowitz, the management of a product portfolio can be improved.”20

Their results showed “a considerable decrease in risk, while maintaining
the same return. Even with constraints applied on the portfolio and its
products, the optimal portfolios performed far better.” They added that
“the mean variance theory has proved its worthiness for an IT-product
portfolio” and that “by evaluating returns achieved in the past, portfolio
selection is possible.” While they acknowledged that their model was not
predictive as it only diversified the portfolio by looking at the results of
the past, the results gave insight to the executive board of their case study
about which direction to adjust the portfolio. They concluded that the
application of MPT to domains other than for which it was originally
developed yielded interesting results and confirmed that their study intro-
duced a quantitative approach to product portfolios and IT portfolios.
MPT is relevant as it provides a financial investment metaphor that
can be applied to PfM. Projects, programs, and operational initiatives can
be viewed as investments that must be aligned to organizational goals.
The project portfolio mix should be balanced in terms of risk exposure
and investment returns. To understand the full impact of decisions regard-
ing individual portfolio components, the aggregate must be considered,
as opposed to the singular projects, programs, and operational initiatives.
The next section discusses the Multi-Criteria Utility Theory (MCUT)
and how it is used to evaluate projects for the purpose of selection.

Multi-Criteria Utility Theory

Background

According to Stewart and Mohamed, many organizations approach the

management of technology in an unstructured manner throughout the
system’s life cycle, thus making it difficult to compare IT/IS projects of
different size or organizational impact. In addition, they stated that orga-
nizations adopting limited selection criteria lack confidence that their
IT/IS projects will meet the organizational goals and objectives.21
MCUT considers the decision maker’s preferences in the form of util-
ity function, which is defined over a set of criteria.22 Utility is a measure
of desirability or satisfaction and provides a uniform scale to compare
 APPENDIX 89

tangible and intangible criteria.23 A utility function quantifies the prefer-

ences of a decision maker by assigning a numerical index to varying levels
of satisfaction of a criterion.24
Stewart and Mohamed state that decisions typically involve choos-
ing one or a few alternatives from a list of several with each alternative
assessed for desirability on a number of scored criteria. The utility func-
tion connects the criteria scores with desirability. According to Stewart
and Mohamed, the most common formulation of a multi-criteria util-
ity function was the additive model.25 To determine the overall utility
function for any alternative, a decision maker needs to determine the
total number of criteria one-dimensional utility functions for that alter-
native. MCUT generally combines the main advantages of simple scoring
techniques and optimization models.
According to Stewart and Mohamed, business unit managers typically
proposed projects they wished to implement in the upcoming financial
year. These projects were supported by business cases in which costs were
detailed. As cost is only one criterion related to project selection, other
criteria would be based on business value, risk, organization needs that
the project proposes to meet, and also other benefits to the organization
like product longevity and the likelihood of delivering the product. Each
criterion is made up of a number of factors that contribute to the mea-
surement of that criterion. For example, to determine the value that a
PfM investment delivers, organizations need to go beyond the traditional
NPV (net present value) and ROI (return on investment) analysis meth-
ods. Value can be defined as the contribution of technology to enable the
success of the business unit.
Parker, Benson, and Trainor suggest the assessment of two domains—
business and technology—as they state that these determine value and
should include:26

Business Domain Factors

• ROI—the cost benefit analysis plus the benefit created by the

investment on other parts of the organization.
• Strategic match—the degree to which a proposed IT project
supports the strategic aims of the organization.
90 APPENDIX

• Competitive advantage—the degree to which IT projects

create new business opportunity or facilitate business transfor-
mation.
• Organizational risk—the degree to which a proposed IT
project depends on new untested corporate skill, management
capabilities, and experience.

Technology Domain Factors

• Strategic architecture alignment—the degree to which the

proposed IT project fits into the overall organization struc-
ture.
• Definition uncertainty risk—the degree to which the users’
requirements are known.
• Technical uncertainty risk—the readiness of the technical
domain to embrace the IT project.
• Technology infrastructure risk—the degree to which extra
investment (outside the project) may be necessary to under-
take the project.

The business and technology domain factors, as suggested earlier, are

factors that could be considered by an organization as those that con-
tribute toward the Value criterion being measured. An organization may
choose different factors to represent Value. Other criteria, such as longev-
ity or the likelihood of delivering a product, can also be used to evaluate
portfolio components.
Stewart and Mohamed discussed IT investment management process,
project selection process and framework, IT investment evaluation, and
multiple criteria decision making. This is relevant to PfM and the model
presented in Chapter 2, as the evaluation of multiple criteria when assess-
ing the contribution of portfolio components to organizational objectives
is necessary, and MCUT contributes to the understanding of evaluating
multiple criteria when determining the contribution of portfolio compo-
nents to organizational objectives.
The next section discusses organization theory and its applicability to
PfM.
 APPENDIX 91

Organization Theory
Background

Organization theory has been defined as the “study of organizational

designs and organizational structures, relationship of organizations with
their external environment, and the behavior of managers and techno-
crats within organizations. It suggests ways in which an organization can
cope with rapid change.”27
Organization theory has been developed over many decades with
many authors contributing toward the body of knowledge on organi-
zation theory. Many researchers28,29,30 attribute the foundation of orga-
nization theory to key individuals such as: Frederick W. Taylor, 1911
(Scientific Management); Henri Fayol, 1919 (Theory of Administration);
Max Weber, 1922 (Bureaucracy); Mary Parker Follett, 1925 (Organi-
zations and Management); Chester I. Barnard, 1938 (Functions of the
Executive); The Hawthorne Studies, 1939; Douglas McGregor, 1960
(Theory X and Theory Y); and Peter F. Drucker, 1995 (Management).
Current ideas in organization theory focused on organizational challenges
such as competitive global market or globalization, demographic changes,
social responsibility, diversity, and technological developments. Organiza-
tions are complex and varied and apply processes, structure, and decision
making differently from each other.
Crowther and Greene stated that:

the earliest approach to organization theory was based on the

assumption that there was a single best way of organizing the
factors of production, and was brought about by the increasing
size and complexity of organizations. Initially it was based upon
the organization of jobs within the organization but later changed
to organizing functions either within the organization or within
the wider environment in which the organization operates.31

In their research they described various approaches that have been

applied in organization theory over time. These include critical approach,
postmodern approach, social constructionism, and environmentalism. They
observed that organizations are an integral part of society and concluded
92 APPENDIX

that the problems of organizing have not been solved despite the extensive
development of theory as each theory only contains a partial solution.
Other authors added that numerous challenges, such as

globalization, diversity, ethical concerns, rapid advances in tech-

nology, the rise of e-business, a shift to knowledge and information
as organizations’ most important form of capital and the growing
expectations of workers for meaningful work and opportunities
for personal and professional growth32

require new responses or approaches to the problems faced by

organizations.
Given this explanation, it can be established that organization theory
(understanding organization design, structures, relationships, and behav-
ior of managers and technocrats within the organization) is necessary
when designing solutions for problems that affect the organization. It
is relevant to PfM as PfM assists organizations in executing business
plans and realizing business goals. PfM is a dynamic decision-making
process whereby (a) an organization’s list of active components are con-
stantly updated and revised; (b) new components are evaluated, selected,
and prioritized; (c) existing components are accelerated, terminated, or
de-prioritized; and (d) resources are allocated and re-allocated to the
active components. PfM combines people, processes, information, and
technology to respond to organization change and maximize the con-
tribution of portfolio components to the overall welfare and success of
the organization. It can be concluded from this discussion that there is a
cohesive relationship between organization theory and PfM.
The next section discusses systems theory and its applicability to PfM.

Systems Theory
Background

A system is defined as “a set of interacting units or elements that form

an integrated whole intended to perform some function … exhib-
its order, pattern and purpose … is distinguished from its parts by its
 APPENDIX 93

organization.”33 A system can also be seen as “an object, which, in a given

environment, aims at reaching some objectives by doing an activity while
its internal structure evolves through time without losing its own iden-
tity.”34 They concluded that projects should be considered as systems as
they exist within a specific environment and aim to achieve objectives.
Systems theory (or general systems theory—GST) has developed over
a number of decades. In 1951, Ludwig von Bertalanffy described open
systems using an analogy of anatomy (muscles, skeleton, circulatory sys-
tem, and so on). From this was laid the foundation for systems thinking
in project and PfM.
Skyttner sums up the contributions of various authors to systems
theory by describing the properties that make up GST as follows:35

• Interrelationship and interdependence of objects and their

attributes: Unrelated and independent elements can never
constitute a system.
• Holism—Holistic properties impossible to detect by analysis
should be possible to define in the system.
• Goal seeking—Systemic interaction must result in some goal
or final state to be reached or some equilibrium point being
approached.
• Transformation process—All systems, if they are to attain
their goal, must transform inputs into outputs. In living
systems this transformation is mainly of a cyclical nature.
• Inputs and outputs—In a closed system the inputs are deter-
mined once and for all; in an open system additional inputs
are admitted from its environment.
• Entropy—This is the amount of disorder or randomness
present in any system. All non-living systems tend toward
disorder; left alone they will eventually lose all motion and
degenerate into an inert mass. When this permanent stage is
reached and no events occur, maximum entropy is attained.
A living system can, for a finite time, avert this unalterable
process by importing energy from its environment. It is then
said to create negentropy, something which is characteristic of
all kinds of life.
94 APPENDIX

• Regulation—The interrelated objects constituting the system

must be regulated in some fashion so that its goals can be
realized. Regulation implies that necessary deviations will be
detected and corrected. Feedback is therefore a requisite of
effective control.
• Hierarchy—Systems are generally complex wholes made up
of smaller subsystems. This nesting of systems within other
systems is what hierarchy implies.
• Differentiation—In complex systems, specialized units
perform specialized functions. This is a characteristic of all
complex systems and may also be called specialization or
division of labor.
• Equifinality and multifinality—Open systems have equally
valid alternative ways of attaining the same objectives
(divergence) or, from a given initial state, obtain different, and
mutually exclusive, objectives (convergence).

Systems theory helps to make sense of complex situations and facili-

tates better management and decision making resulting in more effective
organizations.
Earlier, Hendrickson36 presented a dynamic system model to describe
the fact that organizations are constantly changing due to internal and
external factors, they act as open systems adapting to the broader environ-
ment, and the managers within organizations can anticipate and prepare
for issues faced by their organizations. This is opposed to the traditional
theory, which viewed organizations as closed systems that did not take
into account environmental influences impacting the efficiency of orga-
nizations. Katz and Khan37 expressed the view that organization theories
tended to overemphasize internal functioning while failing to understand
the adaptation process. In open systems theory, the system receives inputs
from the environment, transforms these inputs into outputs, and then
exchanges the outputs for new inputs. This input-throughput-output
cycle is the process by which the firm counteracts entropy and therefore
assures its survival.
As described earlier, Ludwig von Bertalanffy and others have con-
tributed to the development of general systems theory over the past few
 APPENDIX 95

decades. The development of the theory has guided research in several

disciplines over this period. This has led to understanding systems that
have evolved to the point where we incorporate the concepts in everyday
language.
In systems theory, a system is a way of understanding any dynamic
process, whether it is riding a bicycle, a biological process, an organiza-
tion, machine, or any other entity involving a dynamic process.38 Systems
theory was therefore applied broadly across numerous disciplines.
Systems theory is classified as

a management approach that attempts to integrate and unify

scientific information across many fields of knowledge … looks
at the total picture when solving problems and … implies the
creation of a management technique that is able to cut across
many organizational disciplines ….39

System thinking is vital for the success of a project, and by extension,

the success of a program and portfolio.
PfM draws from systems theory, as it is a dynamic management
approach that considers the total organization and cuts across many orga-
nizational disciplines. The PfM process itself follows a systems approach
as it (a) considers inputs (e.g., strategy definition), (b) translates those
inputs into outputs (e.g., products consumed by the organization or its
customers) using various techniques or mechanisms (e.g., projects and
programs), and (c) provides a feedback in terms of achievement of the
strategy through performance measurement (benefit tracking).
The next section discusses complexity theory and its applicability to
PfM.

Complexity Theory
Background

Complexity theory has become a broad area of investigation. Although

developed in the natural sciences, it has much to offer the social sciences.
Complexity theory can be defined as “the study of how order, structure,
96 APPENDIX

pattern and novelty arise from extremely complicated, apparently cha-

otic systems, and conversely, how complex behavior and structure emerge
from simple underlying rules.”40
Earlier, Baccarini proposed that “project complexity be defined as
consisting of many varied interrelated parts and can be operationalized
in terms of differentiation and interdependency.”41 He considers types
of complexity as being organizational (vertical and horizontal differenti-
ation as well as the degree of operational interdependencies) and techno-
logical (the transformation processes that convert inputs into outputs).
He regards these as the core components of complexity. He suggests that
“this definition can be applied to any project dimension relevant to the
project management process, such as organization, technology, environ-
ment, information, decision making, and systems.”42
Complexity theory research can be divided into three categories:
(1) algorithmic complexity, (2) deterministic complexity, and (3) aggre-
gate complexity.43 Aggregate complexity is relevant for this research
and relates to how individual components of a system work together
to create complex behavior. The set of interrelated concepts that define
a complex system include: (a) relationships between entities, (b) inter-
nal structure and surrounding environment, (c) learning and emergent
behavior, and (d) the different means by which complex systems change
and grow.44
The behavior of complex systems is affected greatly by the central
organization, which exerts control over the agents of the system.45 The
amount of this control toward achieving optimal performance must be
determined as this has implications for the system. Leadership in an orga-
nization must be aware of how the actions and decisions in one functional
area affect the performance of other functional areas. This includes deci-
sions regarding projects, programs, and operations that have a cross-func-
tional dependency. In other words, the performance of a project portfolio
as a complex system was impacted by the leadership or management
decisions regarding the components of the project portfolio.
Project complexity can be characterized by factors classified into four
families, which are all necessary but are not sufficient conditions for proj-
ect complexity.46 The first family encompasses project size factors. The
second gathers factors of project variety. The third gathers those that are
 APPENDIX 97

relative to the interdependencies and interrelations within the project sys-

tem. The fourth deals with project complexity and are context-dependent.
In many organizations today, a multitude of projects, programs, and
operational activities (portfolio components) are initiated, some having
a direct interdependency while others have an indirect interdependency.
This implies that one way or another, changes in projects within an orga-
nization have an impact on other projects within the same organization
as a result of various types on interdependencies between projects. It is
crucial then that the right decisions are made when managing the portfo-
lio. Decision making here, therefore, depends on an understanding of the
component contribution to objectives.
The next section summarizes the aforementioned theories as they
apply to PfM.

PfM theoretical foundations

The diagram in Figure A.2 is used to illustrate the theories that support
PfM.
In summary, Figure A.2 illustrates the key elements from each theory
relevant to PfM. These are as follows:

• MPT—provides the investment management metaphor

applied in PfM. From Figure A.2 the identification of
portfolio components (); the allocation of organizational
resources (); and the realization of benefits () in the
diagram are aligned to the MPT philosophy.
• MCUT—offers a way to evaluate portfolio components using
multiple criteria. MCUT contributes to the understanding
of using multiple criteria when determining the contribution
of portfolio components to organizational objectives and is
aligned with the arrow labeled ( ) in the diagram.
• Organization Theory—refers to the organization designs,
structures, relationship of organizations with their external
environment, and the behavior of managers and techno-
crats within organizations. Organization theory applies
to the whole organization. PfM is a capability within the
 98 APPENDIX

Vision
Organizational theory
Mission
Complexity theory
Organizational Multi-criteria utility theory
objectives
Systems theory

Project portfolio management

Management of on-going operations
(Recurring activities) and authorized programs,
and projects (Projectized activities)

Organizational Resources

Modern portfolio theory

Figure A.2 Existing theories that relate to PfM

Source: Adapted from Enoch and Labuschagne.47
 APPENDIX 99

organization that enables the execution of business plans and

the realization of organizational objectives. For PfM to be
effective it must operate within the framework of organization
design, structure, relationships, and behavior or culture of its
people.
• Complexity Theory—the interdependent relationships
among portfolio components and the relationships between
portfolio components and organizational objectives result in a
complex PfM system. The performance of a project portfolio
as a complex system is impacted by the leadership or man-
agement decisions regarding the components of the project
portfolio. Understanding the characteristics of complexity
theory contributes to the understanding of PfM as a complex
system.
• Systems Theory—a systems approach is used in the PfM
process as it considers inputs (e.g., strategy and organizational
objectives), converts those inputs into outputs (e.g., products
consumed by the organization or its customers) using project,
program, and operational techniques, and provides feedback
in terms of achievement of the strategy through performance
measurement.

Conclusion
The purpose of this appendix is to provide a context for PfM. To achieve
this, a definition for PfM was firstly provided, followed by a presentation
of five theories that relate to PfM, namely, MPT, MCUT, organization
theory, systems theory, and complexity theory.
A definition for PfM was confirmed after reviewing the literature and
drawing from key contributors to the PfM literature in the past 15 years.
Figure A.1 representing the definition of PfM was presented and con-
tained the key elements making up PfM. These included: (a) the transla-
tion of organizational objectives into portfolio components, (b) allocation
of resources, (c) the evaluation of portfolio components to determine
their contribution to organizational objectives using multiple criteria, and
(d) the tracking of benefits and achievement of objectives.
100 APPENDIX

The reason for exploring the five theories was due to the fact that there
was no single unified theory for PfM at the time of the investigation.
The five theories discussed in this chapter contribute to the theoretical
background of PfM and describe characteristics that help to understand
PfM better. Each of the theories mentioned were described in terms of a
background to the theory and a discussion on how the theory relates to
PfM. The review of the literature, definition of PfM, and exploration of
the five theories provided a context for PfM.
The thrust of this book is to present a model that enables b­ etter
informed decision making with regard to the portfolio and its
­components. Characteristics of the five theories—such as the use of
­multiple ­criteria to evaluate components, systems approach, dealing with
­complexity, ­understanding organizational relationships, and the invest-
ment ­management metaphor—were considered in the development of
the decision-making model presented in Chapter 2.
 Notes
Chapter 1
1.  PMI (2013).
2.  Office of Government Commerce (2010).
3.  Ward and Peppard (2004).

Chapter 2
1.  Cameron (2005).
2.  D’Amico (2005).
3.  Maizlish and Handler (2005).
4.  Martinsuo and Lehtonen (2007).
5.  Thiry and Deguire (2007).
6.  Aubry, Hobbs, and Thuillier (2008).
7.  Müller, Martinsuo, and Blomquist (2008).
8.  Meskendahl (2010).
9.  PMI (2013).
10.  PMI (2013).
11.  Kaplan and Norton (2008).
12.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2012).
13.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2012).
14.  Cox (1995).
15.  Cox (1995).
16.  MathWorks (2011).

Chapter 3
1.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2012).

Chapter 4
1.  PMI (2013).
2.  Kaplan and Norton (2008).
3. Killen (2013).
102 Notes

Chapter 5
1.  Saaty (1980).

Appendix 1
1.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2014).
2.  Jiang and Klein (1999).
3.  Cooper, Edgett, and Kleinschmidt (2000, 14).
4.  META Group (2002).
5.  Leliveld and Jeffery (2003).
6.  Maizlish and Handler (2005).
7.  Levine (2005, 17).
8.  PMI (2013).
9.  PMI (2008).
10.  PMI (2008).
11.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2014).
12.  Markowitz (1952).
13.  Goff and Teach (2003).
14.  Markowitz (1999).
15.  McFarlan (1981).
16.  Verhoef (2002).
17.  Berinato (2001).
18.  Ross (2005).
19.  Goff and Teach (2003).
20.  Kersten and Ozdemir (2004).
21.  Stewart and Mohamed (2002).
22.  Goicoechea, Hansen, and Duckstein, 1982 as cited in Stewart and Mohamed
(2002).
23.  Ang and Tang, 1984 as cited in Stewart and Mohamed (2002, 258).
24.  Mustafa and Ryan, 1990 as cited in Stewart and Mohamed (2002, 258).
25.  Keeney and Raiffa (1993).
26.  Parker, Benson, and Trainor (1988).
27.  BusinessDictionary.com (2013).
28.  Dessler (1980).
29.  Champoux (2006).
30.  Daft, Murphy, and Willmott (2010)
31.  Crowther and Green (2004, 16).
32.  Daft, Murphy, and Willmott (2010, 29).
33.  Skyttner (1996, 16–17).
34.  Vidal and Marle (2008, 1095).
 Notes 103

35.  Skyttner (1996, 20).

36.  Hendrickson (1992).
37.  Katz and Kahn (1978) as cited in Hendrickson (1992).
38.  Cusins (1994).
39.  Kerzner (2013, 48).
40.  Cooke-Davies et al. (2007, 52).
41.  Baccarini (1996, 202).
42.  Baccarini (1996, 202).
43.  Manson (2001).
44.  Manson (2001).
45.  Solow and Szmerekovsky (2006).
46.  Vidal, Marle, and Bocquet (2011).
47.  Enoch and Labuschagne (2014).
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 Index
Additive aggregation output, 22–25
combining portfolio components, portfolio components vs.
29 organizational objectives,
description, 25 9–13
first portfolio component, 27 responsibilities, executive and PfM
second portfolio component, teams, 14–16
25–26, 28 utility of, 31
Aggregate complexity, 96 value of, 31–32
Aggregated output, 26, 30 visionary strategy, 10
Defuzzification, 30
Combined Fuzzy Logic model, 14–18 Degree of contribution of PC1 to
Combined portfolio components, objective (n)
26, 29 input variables, 42
Complexity theory, 95–97 output fuzzy region, 43
rule view, input variables, 42–43
Dashboards, 67–72 satisfied rules, 42
Decision-making application model Degree of contribution of PC1 to
combined contribution of portfolio objective 1
component, 59–60 input variables, 38–39
component evaluation phase, output fuzzy region, 39
57–59 rule view, input variables, 39
evaluation criteria phase, 56–57 satisfied rules, 39
individual contribution of portfolio Degree of contribution of PC1 to
component, 59 objective 3
set up phase, 55 input variables, 39, 41
total contribution of individual output fuzzy region, 41
components, 60–62 rule view, input variables, 41
Decision-making model satisfied rules, 41
additive aggregation, 25–29 Differentiation, 94
aggregated output, 26, 30
benefits of, 73 Entropy, 93
defuzzification, 30 Equifinality, 94
factors for development, 9
final output, 30–31 Fast-tracked portfolio component
fuzzification, 19–20 scenario, 72–73
Fuzzy Logic, 13–18 First portfolio component, 27
inference engine, 20–22 Fuzzification, 19–20
input variables, 18–19 Fuzzy Logic
interpretation, 31 combined model, 14–18
motivation, 8–9 decision-making model, 13–14
objective of, 9 definition, 13
110 Index

fuzzy rules, 21 PC1. See Single portfolio components

knowledge base with rules, 22 PCVar1. See Portfolio Component
rule base, 21–22 Variable 1
rule evaluation, 20–21 PCVar2. See Portfolio Component
satisfied rules, 23 Variable 2
Fuzzy set, 19 PfM. See Portfolio management
PMI. See Project Management
Gauge charts, 68–69, 71–72 Institute
General systems theory (GST). See Portfolio Component Variable 1
Systems theory (PCVar1), 18–19
Goal seeking, 93 Portfolio Component Variable 2
GST. See General systems theory (PCVar2), 19
Portfolio components
Hierarchy systems, 94 categories of, 50
Holism, 93 combined, 26, 29
descriptions, 53
fast-tracked scenario, 72–73
Inference engine, 20–22
first, 27
IT organizational strategic objectives,
second, 25–26, 28
51–52
terminated scenario, 62–72
vs. organizational objectives, 9–13,
MCUT. See Multi-criteria utility 36–37
theory Portfolio management (PfM)
Modern portfolio theory (MPT), body of knowledge, 77–78
86–88 decision-making challenge, 2–3
Motivation, decision-making model, definitions, 81–86
8–9 depiction, 85
MPT. See Modern portfolio theory description, 1
Multi-criteria utility theory (MCUT) goal of, 2
background description, 88–89 OGC definition, 2
business domain factors, 89–90 PMI definition, 2
technology domain factors, 90 theoretical foundations, 97–99
Multifinality, 94 Portfolio management (PfM) theories
complexity theory, 95–97
Office of Government Commerce modern portfolio theory, 86–88
(OGC), 2 multi-criteria utility theory, 88–90
OGC. See Office of Government organization theory, 91–92
Commerce systems theory, 92–95
Organization theory, 91–92 Project complexity, 96
Organizational context Project Management Institute (PMI),
macro environment, 48–49 2, 10, 78
micro environment, 49
organizational capacity and
capability, 49 Rank order, 45
Organizational objectives Regulation systems, 94
IT strategies, 51–52
mapping of components, 51, 54 Second portfolio component, 25–26,
vs. portfolio components, 9–13, 28
36–37 Single portfolio components (PC1)
 Index 111

contribution relationship process, relative contribution, 44–45

38 Solution fuzzy region. See aggregated
cumulative contribution, 43–45 output
degree of contribution to objective Systems theory, 92–95
(n), 42–43
degree of contribution to objective Terminated portfolio component
1, 38–39 scenario, 62–72
degree of contribution to objective Transformation process, 93
3, 39–41
rank order, 45 Work requests, 50
 OTHER TITLES IN OUR PORTFOLIO AND
PROJECT MANAGEMENT COLLECTION
Timothy Kloppenborg, Editor

• Strategic Leadership of Portfolio and Project Management by Timothy J. Kloppenborg

• Project Strategy and Strategic Portfolio Management: A Primer by William H.A. Johnson
and Diane Parente
• The Power of Design-Build: A Guide to Effective Design-Build Project Delivery Using the
SAFEDB-Methodology by Sherif Hashem
• Information Systems Project Management by David Olson
• Leveraging Business Analysis for Project Success by Vicki James

FORTHCOMING TITLES OF THIS COLLECTION

• The Agile Edge Managing Projects Effectively Using Agile Scrum by Brian Vanderjack
• KNOWledge SUCCESSion: Sustained Capability Growth Through Strategic Projects
by Arthur Shelley

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