ARCH 580-DESIGN METHODS AND TECHNICS

Architecture
In Use Summary
JM van der Voordt, T. & BR van Wegen, H.

Instructor: Dr. Faisal Agabani

Architecture In Use Book Outline:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Architecture in Use, Book General Idea.
• Chapter one: Architectonic and functional quality
of buildings.
• Chapter Two: Function and form.
• Chapter Three: Programme of requirements.
• Chapter Four: From brief to design.
- Introduction.
- What is design.
- Design methodology.
- Design processes.
- Design conjectures and primary generators.
- Design methods.
• Chapter Five: Evaluating buildings.
• Chapter Six: Quality assessment: methods of
measurement.
• Summary.
• References.
 Architecture is often thought of as a synthesis of form, function and
technology, subject to specified conditions such as time, money and
regulations.
The aim of this book is to show how the concept of functional quality

General Idea!
can be made measurable and expressed in concrete terms, with
particular reference to the design of buildings. The book discusses:

- The functions performed by a building and the relationship between

functional quality and architectonic quality

- The history of architecture and the main question: how the different
architectural schools of thought deal with the relationship between
function and form.

-How the desired functional quality can be expressed in a program of

requirements or brief.

-The evaluation of a design or completed building.

- The nine different aspects of the concept of functional quality.

Lastly, the book also discuss the criteria that are available to examine
designs and completed buildings for functionality.
 Chapter One
Architectonic and Functional
Quality of Buildings.
 Chapter One:
Architectonic and functional quality of buildings.

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
•Functional and Architectonic qualities are important parts of every phase
of the building process. They can be understood in two ways, narrow and
wide senses:
The functional quality of a building: In the narrowest sense, it refers
merely to the building’s utility value. In a wider sense, it involves the ability
of the building to perform all kinds of different functions.
Architectonic quality: In the narrowest sense, it primarily refers to
perceptual qualities, cultural values and symbolic meanings. In a wider
sense, it is the extent to which an original, stimulating, efficient and cost-
effective synthesis is achieved of form, function and technique. It also
includes sub qualities:
-Functional quality or utility value
-Aesthetic quality
-Technical quality
-Economic quality
Chapter One:
Architectonic and functional quality of buildings.

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Chapter Two
Function and Form.
Chapter Two:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Function and Form.

The relationship between function and form arosed many major differences
of opinions. In general, it can be distinguished through three main parts.
Form is effected by:

Form is determined by functional and

constructional efficiency: as it is known
"form follows function – with the
variants: form follows behavior – and
form follows construction".
Form follows context: in this approach
form is mainly determined by context,
which means that it is influenced by
the site’s architectonic and urban design
characteristics, geographical situation,
socio-cultural context, historical context,
legal context, and economic context.
 Chapter Two:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Function and Form.

Form is autonomous: In this approach, form is not primarily derived

from users or construction but from: 'form follows aesthetics', 'form
follows meaning' or 'form follows fun'.

The Guggenheim Museum,

Bilbao. Design by Frank Gehry:
This building was a result of an
intuitive work; the final form
was an appealing form which
was done by an architect,
engineers and computer (CATIA)
designers.
 Chapter Three
Programme of Requirements
Chapter Three:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Program of Requirements

'A programme of requirements is an ordered collection of data about an

organisation’s housing needs and the performance required in respect of the
site, building, rooms, parts of the building and facilities in the building and on
the site.'
Van der Voordt et al. (1999)

'Programming is generally viewed as an information processing system

setting out design directions that will accommodate the needs of the user, the
client, the designer, or the developer.'
Sanoff (1992)

'A programme of requirements is an ordered collection of data expressing

housing needs, on the basis of which one or more buildings will be evaluated
or a design for a rebuilding or new building will be prepared and checked
and the project will be carried on until the relevant specifications come into
use.'
Dutch Standards Institution [NEN] (1993a)
Chapter Three:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Program of Requirements

programming or briefing can

not be done without a full
understanding of the cultural,
aesthetic, economic or legal
requirements and expectations.
Every requirement that the
building has to satisfy must be
carefully documented, to avoid
later dissatisfaction, allow
alternatives to be compared
and make it possible to see
whether what is wanted is
compatible with what is
possible, as programming and
design will effect each other.
Chapter Three:
Program of Requirements

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Authors of the brief:
It is always up to the client to decide what he wants, this makes him
responsible for the brief. However, most clients have little experience of the
building process and therefore they ask for the services of a programme
consultant. Another option is for the architect to prepare the programme. It
also sometimes happens that the company tendering the building determines
the construction programme.

Client Specialist Designer Tenderer

Chapter Three:
Program of Requirements

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Steps to be taken in preparation for a programme
of requirements are as follows:
• A careful analysis of the organisation of the activities to be
housed, mainly prepared with the help of information
and experience obtained from the client and the users.
• A spatial translation into functional requirements and
performance specifications, prepared with the help of the
knowledge and experience of the client and those
responsible for preparing the brief (architects or
specialists), the literature and standards.
• Visits to comparable projects and the study of
information relating to those projects.
• A comparative analysis and evaluation of precedents.
The first two steps are generally known as functional analysis, and the task of
translating a functional analysis into a functional design is known as
functional designing.
Chapter Three:
Program of Requirements

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
"Spatial relationship diagrams for a
children’s day care center with three
groups. (a) A semi matrix with (+):
needing to be close or connected; and
(-) not needing to be close or
connected. (b) Plan of individual
locations showing rooms to scale. The
closeness of a relationship is indicated
by the proximity of the relevant
rooms to one another in the plan.
Direct relationships are emphasized
by connecting lines indicating a
connecting door. Source: Van der
Voordt et al., 1984."
Chapter Four
From Brief to Design
Introduction:
The Designer and the Client have to work together
in order to have a appropriate program for the
project, which should ensure the most important
requirements and desires of the client as they relate
to intended user quality. "The designer may study
the user needs to understand exactly how to fulfill
them."

The program continues to develop even in the

design phase, partly under the influence of
questions and ideas that come up during the
design. therefore it can not be separated from other
phases as it might continue to evolve through to
the last stage of design.
What is design?
Many definitions can be found describing what
design is, all of which show that opinions differ
about the essential nature of designing. For
example:
• Webster’s Dictionary defines design as ‘the
arrangement of elements that make up a work
of art, a machine, or other man-made object’.
• The Dutch Van Dale Dictionary defines
design as: ‘devising and incorporating in a
sketch, drawing a sketch of something’, where
‘sketch’ is a synonym for ‘plan’ or ‘design’.
• Prof. Mick Eekhout, a Faculty of Architecture
in Delft, presents two definitions, one
conceptual and the other integrated.
 • Descriptive : attempting
to answer the question
of how design processes

Introduction: work.
• Empirical research and Starts from the facts and
describes what the reality is.
analysis of logical
structures: attempt to
Two types of research on understand the structure
design methods relating to the of the design process
and design methods
question of how design
used in practice.
processes work can be found in
the professional literature:
1-Descriptive and Empirical • Prescriptive, attempting
research. to answer the question
of how to go about the normative and deals with
2- Prescriptive Method. design process so that it what the reality should be.
will work effectively and
This also covers the different efficiently and achieve
phases that can be distinguished the best possible result.
within the process, and which
design methods can be used and
the effect they have on the • Both approaches give an insight into the
quality of buildings. way in which designers work and the
problems they face.
Design Methodology
Design Methods and process, were evolving through the years and have
been reformed many times. Many elements effected the design methods
and process as technology is one of the main influences.
The coming slides will show how they evolved through the 50s till Present.

40s-50s 70s 90s

60s 80s PRESENT

Design Methodology 40s - 50s Design Methodology during this period

The design methodology of problem-solving techniques, such as systems analysis and

operational research was first developed during this period, as the design method at that
time was a matter of trial and error, and the design process was more implicit.

A studio class in Germany (1950-1959)

where the designer will work alone to
show an end result only (implicit).
Design Methodology 60s Design Methodology during this period

At the beginning of this period the emphasis was on design as a goal-oriented, problem-
solving activity. Design methodologies attempted to find a systematic and efficient
approach to design tasks.

The period includes Jones (1963), Alexander (1963, 1964) and Luckman (1967). Design tasks
were broken down into the finest detail to produce small sub-problems. First these sub-
problems were solved separately, then an attempt was made to synthesize the individual
solutions into an integrated whole.

Alexander, C.: ''We are

searching for some kind
of harmony between two
intangibles: a form which
we have not yet designed
and a context which we
cannot properly describe''
Alexander, C. Luckman C. Johns, C.
Design Methodology 70s Design Methodology during this period

By the mid-60s to the 70s there was a boom in dissertations about design methodology
(the theory of methods used in the design process that considered both how the design
process works and the methods used in that process).

In contrast to the previous intuitive and implicit methodology, the characteristics of a new
methodical approach appeared controlled and verified, where various steps are
formulated explicitly and are capable of being communicated. This was also a result of the
increasing complexity of buildings, and hence the design process.

With the revelation of this

movement, the work of the
designer became more explicit
than implicit, more members
were added to the team ( it is no
longer only the architect doing
the whole design)
Design Methodology 70s Design Methodology during this period

However, this approach of systematic and technological approach was considered to be a

failure and was faced with a lot of criticism. Attention shifted towards the social needs and
the solution of social problems through community participation, the residents became
more involved in the management of the built environment.
Further development took place in the form of new disciplines, such as environmental
psychology and sociology of building and housing.

According to this new movement a lot of theories appeared, but mainly there were three
theories used to explain how architecture, natural and built physical environment
influence a person's life. These theories are (1) place-identity theory, (2) social identity
theory, and (3) identity process theory. All were an outcome of the participation by
residents.
Design Methodology 80s Design Methodology during this period

In this period, the 'design methods movement

started fading and facing its end. There was much
criticism of a one-sided emphasis on rational
thought. Various authors pointed out that the design
process does indeed correspond to some extent
with the cycle analysis–synthesis–evaluation, but
they also pointed that every design process is
unique and so cannot be described in a standard
way. This became a debate that did not stop
entirely; it was even referred by Broadbent that a
third generation would appear concerned with a
search for solutions which would leave scope for the
user to arrange the details of the interior to suit
himself, and so necessitated further development of
methods used by the first and second generations.
Design Methodology 90s Design Methodology during this period

In this period the theory of Broadbent started to become more real, since there has
been a noticeable increase in attention paid to information processing systems and
design decision support systems. It was believed that the traditional conflict between
methodologies termed ‘artistic’ and ‘scientific’ could be resolved by the use of design
and design-directed methods which combined both ways of working. The design
process can certainly involve hypotheses and the testing of hypotheses, but expressed
in terms not of cause and effect (causal connections) but rather of change and chaos.

This means that designers can take back their

main role of being creative and inventive.
Lawson B. described this concept as ‘the
designer as Self-Organized System’ – ‘the
logical design model’.
Design Methodology PRESENT Design Methodology during this period

Nowadays, designers are working in parallel with the aid of computer (CAD) and
many other software that helped creating a dialogue between the designer (Architect)
and an intelligent computer. This can be seen clearly in how it influenced the
buildings design and involved the search for abnormal, non-rectangular building
geometries, such as Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum.
Design Processes.
The most known design methodology in the early years is Jones's methodology.
According to Jones, the design process is divided into three phases: 1- it starts with
divergence (the production of a program of requirements), 2- moves on to
transformation (structuring the problem, conceiving partial solutions, transformation)
and then to 3- convergence (combination of partial solutions, evaluation of different
designs).

In 1963, Jones published the

article “A method of systematic
design”. He was also the author
of a manual on design methods
(1970), frequently reprinted
(Jones, 1982).
This methodology was adapted by a lot of
methodologist and designers: some used it as
is and some tried to develop it.
 Jones recognized the three main phases in this process:
Design Processes

Analysis: A complete understanding of the problem and its

sub-problems, and identifying the requirements needed for
the design to be fulfilled, arrange the results to form a
consistent set of performance requirements.

Synthesis: find and develop solutions for the sub-problems

to get the best combination of partial solutions to be
combined into a complete design.

Evaluation: Determine to which extent the problems or sub-

problems solutions satisfy the agreed requirements.
 Manipulating the three main phases in
this process:
Design Processes

Analysis–synthesis–evaluation, has been the basic

process for all the work. But some researchers did not
stop there, for example (Archer, 1965; Lawson, 1997.
Roozenburg and Eekels 1991). Roozenburg and Eekels
(1991) decided to add two extra stages to the main
three stages process. ‘Simulation’, as an extra step
between synthesis and evaluation: applying reasoning
or tests on models to reach a judgement about the
behavior and properties of the product under design
before actual production commences, and ‘Decision’
as a stage following evaluation.
 Design conjectures and primary generators
Design Processes

In early 1970 Bryan Lawson decided to make an experimental setting to

study the problem solving process of two different groups:

Used a solution-focused process:

Students of Architecture the designer starts immediately
with the solution that he/she
thinks is suitable according to
their own experience.

Used a problem-focused process,

Students of Science which takes a lot of time to read
and understand the structure of
the problem before looking for a
solution.
 Design conjectures and primary generators
Design Processes

“Conjectures: are a form of stating hypotheses with a more tentative and

action-oriented nature than most scientific hypotheses.”

Hilier et al: worked on ‘Conjecture - Analysis model’

that shows the designer tendency to use:

1- subjective knowledge
2- objective accountability for research
3- program information
4- evaluation

In the conjecture–analysis model, design becomes a

series of ‘if so – then’ speculations.
 Design conjectures and primary generators
Design Processes

“Conjectures: are a form of stating hypotheses with a more tentative and

action-oriented nature than most scientific hypotheses.”

Jane Darke, 1979, found that the conjecture which an

architect or designer uses before making the initial
design decisions depends on a ‘set of values’ held by
The Client set of
the designer or client that creates the initial
Values
conjectures concerning what a future place might be
The
like. She called this the ‘Primary Generator’. In her Primary Generator

research problem on housing in London, the main

generator was the high value placed on the site. This The Architect set
was the conclusion of Dark’s research on the of Values

architect’s values system, which led to her

development of the conjecture–analysis model into
‘generator–conjecture– analysis’ model.
 Design Method

What is Design Methods: "A method is a fixed, properly thought out way
of acting to achieve a particular goal."
Methodology

What is Design Methodology: is a group

of methods and techniques used by the
designer.
Method = Technique

Method
Method
Technique

Method

Technique

What is Design Strategy: "a broad outline of the way in which people aim to
achieve a particular goal, without laying down the method of working in
any detail. Goals and strategy combine to form part of policy."
 Design Method

Design methods contribute to increasing the capacity of the designer to

Design Methods

structure, think creatively and process information.

Intuitive work has been debatable between

authors, as some of them considered the intuitive
work as not methodical, since it is uncontrollable
and inexplicable, and therefore dependent on ‘trial
and error’ which made it not suitable for
methodical approach. They argue that all various
steps must be formulated explicitly. On the hand,
some other authors embraced Intuitive design and
see the intuitive approach as a fully acceptable
method, and part of the total package of methods
available to the designer. In conclusion it seems
that design methods may be divided roughly into
‘analytical’ and ‘creative’.
 Chapter Five
Evaluating Buildings
Chapter Five:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Evaluating Buildings

What does Building Evaluation means?

Evaluation is mainly concerned with establishing
the value of all or part of the built environment,
(product evaluation) or (process evaluation), and it
also be done after construction and occupation.

Why evaluating?
The Evaluation process shows the designers their
mistakes and allows them to learn from them,
which leads to an improvement in future projects
under investigation, and more generally
improvement in the quality of programming,
designing, building and management of the built
environment.
Chapter Five:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Evaluating Buildings

Reasons and goals for evaluating?

The reasons: ideological, economic, and also scientific goals.
Subsidiary goals derived from the main goals include:
• Determining whether expectations were fulfilled.
• Determining whether goals were reached.
• Drawing attention to unintended and unforeseen effects.
• Increasing understanding of the decision-making processes.
• Letting off steam.
• Providing material on which to base improvements.

How to Evaluate?
In general the factors to be assessed are divided into four
categories:
a. Functional (utility value, future value).
b. Aesthetic (experiential value).
c. Technical.
d. Economic and legal.
 Chapter Six
Quality assessment: methods
of measurement.
Chapter Six:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Quality assessment: methods of measurement.

•A functional building is a building that is appropriate for the activities for

which it was proposed. The people occupying the building must be able to
function efficiently, comfortably, healthily and safely. This means that people
must be able to reach and move around the building comfortably. The
building must be sufficiently in harmony with human perceptions, people
must also feel physically comfortable, people must be able to see how the
parts of the building fit together and be able to find their way round. Also, all
psychological needs must be taken care of such as privacy, social contact,
freedom of choice and autonomy. The building must also be capable of being
adjusted to suit changing circumstances, new activities and different users.

All of these requirements leads to the basic list of assessment:

a. Reachability and parking facilities. e. Safety.
b. Accessibility. f. Spatial orientation.
c. Efficiency. h. Health and physical well-being.
d. Flexibility i. Sustainability.
g. Privacy, territoriality and social contact.
Chapter Six:

A R CH ITECTUR E I N USE
Quality assessment: methods of measurement.

User value of the Psychological Physical well- Environmental

building well-being being quality

a. Reachability f. Spatial h. Health and i. Sustainability.

and parking orientation physical well-
facilities. g. Privacy, being.

b. Accessibility territoriality and

social contact
c. Efficiency
d. Flexibility

e. Safety embraces several aspects: utilitarian, psychological and physical.

 Summary
This book in general focuses on program preparation
and the different process, methods and models of
design, and also focuses on the main steps to evaluating
the program and how it can be assisted throughout the
design phase and after construction. All this was
discussed in these main topics:
￭ Architectonic and functional quality of buildings.
￭ Program of requirements.
￭ From brief to design.
￭ Evaluating buildings.
￭ Function and form.
￭ Quality assessment and methods of measurement.
..Reference..
Some are:
- Hauge, Åshild. (2007). Identity and Place: A Critical Comparison of
Three Identity Theories. Architectural Science Review. 50. 44-51.
10.3763/asre.2007.5007.

- Lawson,B.(2005). How Designers Think (4th ed.). Oxford, England:

linacre House.

- JM van der Voordt, T. & BR van Wegen, H. (2005). Architecture In Use

(1st ed.). THOTH Publishers, Bussum, the Netherlands.

- You could add a few more, important, researches