ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 11 Blood
BLOOD 6. Protection against foreign substances. PLASMA
Certain cells and chemicals in the blood
- Is a body fluid in humans and other constitute an important part of the - 55% of the total blood volume blood
animals that delivers necessary immune system, protecting against volume
substances such as nutrients and foreign substances, such as - Pale yellow liquid
oxygen to the cells. microorganisms and toxins. - 91% water, 7% protein, 2% other
- The heart pumps blood through the 7. Clot formation. When blood vessels are components
blood vessels that extend throughout damaged, blood clotting protects
the body. against excessive blood loss. Plasma proteins (3) include:

Blood helps maintain homeostasis in several COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Albumin

ways: - Helps maintain water balance
- Blood is a type of connective tissue
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and that consists of a liquid matrix - 58% of the plasma proteins
waste products. Blood acts as a major containing cells and cell fragments. Globulins
transport medium in the body due to - The liquid matrix is plasma, and the
the many substances that move into cells and cell fragments are the formed - Helps immune system
and out of the blood. elements. - 38% of plasma proteins]
2. Transport of processed molecules.
- The total blood volume:
Many substances must be processed at Fibrinogen
multiple sites in the body, the blood Male: 5-6 L Female: 4-5 L
moves it to a new location where it is - Aids in clot formation of the blood
modified. - 4% of plasma proteins.
3. Transport of regulatory molecules. The Fibrinogen is a clotting factor that
blood carries many of the hormones constiturtes 4% of plasma proteins.
and enzymes that regulate body
processes from one part of the body Fibrin; a threadlike protein that forms blood
to another. clots.
4. Regulation of Ph and osmosis. Buffers,
Serum; is plasma without the clotting factors
which helps keep the blood’s pH within
its normal limits 7.35-7.45. blood FORMED ELEMENTS
maintains normal fluid and ion balance.
5. Maintenance of body temperature. As - 45% of total blood volume
blood flows through areas of the body - Cell and cell fragments
that are metabolically active, the heat - Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
generated by metabolism warms the - White Blood Cells (WBCs) or Leukocytes
blood. - Platelets or Thrombocytes
 HEMATOPOIESIS - Each hemoglobin molecule consists of four Erythropoietin
protein chains and four heme groups.
- The process that produces formed - stimulates red bone marrow to produce
- Each protein chain called a globin is bound
elements. more red blood cells.
to one heme, a red pigmented molecule.
Stem cells (hemocytoblasts) Bilirubin
- converted heme molecules
- A single population of cells derived from all
- a yellow pigment molecule
formed cells.
Jaundice
RED BLOOD CELLS
- Condition due to the liver not functioning
- The most abundant formed elements normally or the flow of bile from the liver
- Constitute almost 95% of all the formed to the small intestine is hindered.
elements. - A yellowish color of the skin.
- Normal red blood cells are disk shaped,
with edges that are thicker than the WHITE BLOOD CELLS
center of the cell
- Are spherical cells that lack hemoglobin.
- White blood cells as well as platelets make
up the buffy coat, a thin white layer of
- The enzyme carbonic hydrase, found in cells between plasma and red blood cells.
primarily inside red blood cells, catalyzes a - White blood cells can leave the blood and
reaction that converts carbon dioxide travel by ameboid movement through the
(CO2) and water (H2O) into a hydrogen ion tissues.
(H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
Two functions of the white blood cells:
LIFE HISTORY OF RED BLOOD CELLS 1. To protect the body against invading
microorganisms and other pathogens
- Stem cells form proerythroblasts which
2. To remove the dead cells and debris from
- Red blood cells live for about 120 days in give rise to the red blood cell line.
the tissues by phagocytosis.
males and 110 days in females. - Red blood cell production depends on the
- One-third of a red blood cell’s volume is presence of several vitamins as well as Two kinds:
the pigmented protein hemoglobin. sufficient iron.
1. Granulocytes
- Oxyhemoglobin- hemoglobin with oxygen - Red blood cell production is regulated to
2. Agranulocytes
attached. ensure that homeostatic levels of these
cells are present in the blood.
FUNCTION - Low blood oxygen levels stimulate red blood
cell production by increasing the formation
- Transport oxygen from the lungs to the and release of the glycoprotein
various tissues of the body and to help erythropoietin (EPO)
transport carbon dioxide from the tissues
to the lungs.
GRANULOCYTES Eosinophils Macrophage

- Three kinds of granulocytes - Contain cytoplasmic granules that stain

1. Neutrophils bright red with eosin, an acidic stain.
2. Basophils
3. Eosinophils
Neutrophils PLATELETS

- The most common type of white blood cell. - are produced in the red bone marrow from
- Involved in inflammatory responses large cells ccalled megakaryocytes.
associated with allergies and asthma. - Platelets play an important role in
- Chemicals from eosinophils are involved in preventing blood loss.
destroying parasites. (Parasitic)
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
AGRANULOCYTES
- Two types of agranulocytes
1. Lymphocyte
- Neutrophils usually remain in the blood for 2. Monocyte PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS
a short time (10-12 hrs), move into other Lymphocytes - When a blood vessel is damaged, loss of
tissues and phagocytize microorganisms
blood is minimized by three processes:
and other substances. (Macrophage) - Fight against bacteria, virus 1. Vascular spasm
- Creates pus. - Create antibodies for immune response. 2. Patelet plug formation
Basophils 3. Blood clotting

-the least common of all white blood cells.

Release histamine and other chemicals that promote
inflammation. (Allergy)
Monocytes

Vascular Spasm
- An immediate but temporary constriction
of a blood vessel that results when
smootyh muscles within the wall of the
- Largest of white blood cell vessel contracts.
- Remove dead/ damage cells - Platelets release Thromboxanes, which are
- They become macrophages. derived from certain prostaglandins, and
endothelial cells release endothelin.
 PLATELET PLUG FORMATION Clotting factors Fibrinolysis

- Accumulation of platelets that can seal up - Proteins in plasma - Dissolved by repaired damaged tissues.
a small break in a bloodf vessel. - Only activated following injury
Plasminogen
- Very important in maintaining the integrity - Made in liver
of the blood vessels of the cardiovascular - Require vitamin K for their synthesis - Inactive plasma protein
system.
Plasmin
Formation of platelet plug can be described in a
series of steps. - Active form of plasma protein
1. Platelets stick to the collagen exposed Thrombin, other clotting factors activated
by blood vessel damage; this is called during clot formation and tissue plasminogen
Platelet adhesion. activator (t-PA) released from surrounding
2. Platelet adhesion is mediated through tissues can stimulate the conversion of
von Willebrand factor, a protein plasminogen to plasmin.
produced and secreted by blood vessel
endothelial cells. Streptokinase
3. In platelet release action, platelets - A bacteria enzyme, and t-PA, produced
release chemicals, such as ADP and CONTROL OF CLOT FORMATION through genetic engineering, have been
thromboxane which bind to their used successfully to dissolve clots.
respective receptors on the surfaces Anticoagulants
of other platelets, activating the BLOOD GROUPING
platelets. - Which prevent from clotting factors
4. As platelets become activated, they forming clots under normal conditions. Transfusion
express surface receptors called Antrithrombin and Heparin - The transfer of blood or blood components
fibrinogen receptors, which bind to
from one individual to another
fibrinogen plasma, a protein. - Inactivate thrombin
5. In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen Infusion
forms bridges between the fibrinogen Thrombus
receptors of numerous platelets, - The introduction of a fluid other than
- Damaged platelets or diseased areas of
resulting in a platelet plug. blood, such as saline or glucose solution
blood vessels or heart walls attached to a
into the blood.
BLOOD CLOTTING clot
Early attempts to transfuse blood were often
- Coagulation formation of clot. Embolus unsuccessful because they resulted in
- A thrombus that breaks loose and begins transfusion reaction, characterized by clumping
Clot or rupture of blood cells and clotting within
to float through the circulation.
blood vessels.
- A network of threadlike protein fibers,
called fibrin, that traps blood cells, CLOT RETRACTION AND FIBRINOLYSIS
Antigens
platelets and fluid. Clot retraction
- The formation of blood clot depends on a - Molecules in the surfaces of the red blood
number of proteins found within plasma, - Condensed and a more compact structure cells
called clotting factors. through a process after a clot has formed.
 Antibodies
- Proteins in the plasma Donor Erythrocytosis
Agglutination - The person who gives blood - An overabundance of red blood cells
l;eading to increased blood viscosity,
- Results when the antibodies in the plasma Recipient reduced flow rates and, if severe, plugged
bind to the antigens on the surface of the capillaries.
red blood cells together. - The person who recieves blood.
Hemoglobin Measurement
Hemolysis
RH BLOOD GROUP - The amout of hemoglobin in a given volume
- Caused by the combination of the of blood is usually expressed in terms of
antibodies with the antigens that can also - Rh-positive blood has Rh antigens and Rh- grams of hemoglobin pet 100 mL of blood.
initiate reactions. negative does not
- For male: 14-18 grams per 100mL of blood
- Antibodies against the Rh antigen are
Blood groups - For females: 12-16 grams per 100 mL of
produced when an Rh nrgative person is
blood.
- Categories of the antigens on the surface exposed to Rh positive blood.
of the red blood cells. Rh incompatibility can poser a major problem in Anemia
a pregnancy when the mother is Rh-negative - An abnormally low hemoglobin
and the fetus is Rh-positive. measurement.
ABO BLOOD GROUP
The mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that HEMATOCRIT MEASUREMENT
- System used to categorize human blood. cross the placenta and cause agglutination and
- In this group system there are two types hemolysis of fetal red blood cells. - Percentage of the total blood volume that
of antigens that may appear on the is composed of red blood cells is the
surface of the red blood cells. This disorder is called Hemolytic disease of the
hematocrit.
o Type A antigen newborn (HDN) or eruthroblastosis fetalis.
- One way to determine the hematocrit is to
o Type B antigen place blood in a capillary tube and spin it in
DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS
a centrifuge.
Type A Has type A antigen Type and crossmatch
WHITE BLOOD COUNT (WBC)
- Blood typing determines the ABO and Rh
Type B Has type B antigen blood groups of a blood sample. - Measures the total number of white blood
- In a crossmatch, the donor’s blood cells cells in the blood.
Type AB Has both types of are mixed with the recipients’s serum, and - There are normaly 5000-9000 white blood
antigen the donor’s serum is mixed with the cells pero microliter of blood.
recipient’s cells.
Type O Has neither both types Leukopenia
of antigens Complete blood count (CBC)
- Is a lower than normal WBC resulting from
- A normal red lood count for male is 4.6-6.2. decreased production or destruction of
million RBC per microliter. the red marrow.
- For females 4.2-5.4 million per microliter.
 Leukocytosis
- Is an abnormally high WBC Blood type Donate Receive

Leukemia All
O- (universal blood O-
- Cancer of the red marrow characterized donor)
by abnormal production of one or more of
the white blood cell types, can cause O+ AB+, A+, B+ O+ O+, O-
leukocytosis. (Positive)
DIFFERENTIAL WHITE BLOOD COUNT
A- A+, A-, AB+, AB- A-, A+ O-, O+
- Determines the percentage of each of the
five kinds of white blood cells. A+ A+, AB+ A-, A+, O-, O+
- Normally:
Neutrophils: 60-70%
Lymphocytes: 20-25% B- B-, B+ AB-, AB+ B-, O-
Monocytes: 3-8%
Eosinophils: 2-4% B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O-
Basophils: 0.5-1%

CLOTTING AB- AB-, AB+ All

(universal
- There are two common ways to measure recipient)
the body’s ability to clot:
1.) Platelet count AB+ AB+ AB=, A+, O-, O+
2.) Prothrombin time measurement
Platelet count
- Normal platelet count is 250,000-400,000
platelets per microliter of blood.
Thrombocytopenia
- A condition where in the platelet count is
greatly reduced, resulting in chronic
bleeding through small vessels and
capillaries.
Prothrombin time measurement
- Calculates how long it takes for the blood
to start clotting, which normally 9-12
seconds.