ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 10
Endocrine System
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM NEUROTRANSMITTER Ion regulation
- A chemical messenger system - chemical messengers produced by - It regulates the solute concentration
comprising feedback loops of the neurons that activate an adjacent cell; of the blood.
hormones released by internal glands of secreted into a synaptic cleft by
presynaptic nerve terminals; travels Water balance
an organism directly into the
circulatory system. short distance; influences postsynaptic - It regulates water balance by
- Endocrine glands release hormones into cells. controlling solutes in the blood.
the bloodstream, which let the hormone - (E.g. acetylcholine, epinephrine)
travel in other parts of the body. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
ENDOCRINE
- Helps regulate the heart rate and blood
CHEMICAL MESSENGERS - Secreted into the bloodstream by pressure and helps the body prepare
- Allows cells to communicate with each certain glands and cells; travels some for physical activity.
other to regulate body activities. distance to target tissues; results in
coordinated regulation of cell function. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
- Most chemical messengers are
produced by a specific collection of - (e.g. thyroid hormones, growth - Regulates the levels of blood glucose
cells or by a gland. hormone, insulin, epinephrine, estrogen, and other nutrients in the blood.
progesterone, testosterone,
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS: prostaglandins) Control of reproductive functions
AUTOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: - Controls the development and functions
of the reproductive systems in males
- Stimulates the cell that originally Metabolism and females.
secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells
of the same type. - The endocrine system regulates the Uterine contractions and milk release
- (e.g Eicosanoids (prostaglandins, rate of metabolism, the sum of the
chemical changes that occur in tissues. - Regulates uterine contractions during
thromboxanes, prostacyclins, delivery and stimulates milk release
leukotrienes)) Control of food intake and digestion from the breasts in lactating females.
Paracrine - It regulates the level of satiety Immune system regulation
- Paracrine chemical messengers are (fullness) and the breakdown of food
into individual nutrients. - Helps control the production and
local messengers. Produced by a widely functions of immune cells.
variety of tissues and secreted into Tissue development
extracellular fluid; has a localized
effect on other tissues. - It influences the development of
- (e.g. somatostatin, histamine, tissues, such as those of the nervous
eicosanoids.) system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE Exocrine - Binding protein transport and protect
SYSTEM: hormones, without these, the lipid-
- Secretes its products into a duct. soluble hormones would quickly diffuse
- Endocrine system is composed of - (e.g. tear glands, sweat glands, out of the capillaries and be degraded
endocrine glands and specialized mammary glands) by the enzymes of the liver or be
endocrine cells located throughout the HORMONES removed from the body by the kidneys.
body. - The life span of lipid-soluble hormones
- Endocrine glands and cells secrete (A hormone can trigger a reaction in specific ranges from a few days to as long as
minute amounts of chemical messengers cells—target cell ) several weeks.
called Hormones into the bloodstream
- Hormones regulate almost every Water-soluble hormones
rather than into a duct.
physiological process in our body.
- A gland is any structure that makes - Water-soluble hormones are polar
- A hormone can stimulate only the cells
and secretes a hormone. molecules; they include protein
that have the receptor from that
- Hormones then travel through the hormones, and most amino acid
hormone.
general blood circulation to target derivative hormones.
tissues or effectors. CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
- The term “Endocrine” dericved from Transport of Water-soluble hormones
the Greek word “endo” meaning within, - Hormones fit into one of two chemical
categories: Lipid-soluble hormones and - Water-soluble hormones can dissolve in
and “krino” means to secrete. blood, many circulate as free
Water-soluble Hormones.
hormones, meaning that most of them
Lipid-Soluble Hormones dissolve directly into the blood and
delivered to their target tissue without
- Lipid-soluble hormones are nonpolar and attaching to a binding protein.
include steroid hormones, thyroid - They do not have the same size, many
hormones, and fatty acid derivative of these hormones are large and some
hormones, such as certain eicosanoids. are quite small. The large ones tend to
Transport of Lipid-Soluble Hormones diffuse from the blood into tissue
spaces more slowly, the smaller ones
- Lipid-soluble hormones are small need attachment to a binding protein.
molecules and are insoluble in water- - Water-soluble hormones have relatively
based fluids, such as the plasma of the short half-lives because they are
blood. rapidly degraded by enzymes called
- Lipid-soluble hormones travel in the proteases within the bloodstream.
Major Endocrine glands and their locations
bloodstream attached to a binding
ENDOCRINE VS. EXOCRINE protein.

Endocrine
- Secretes chemical substances directly
to the bloodstream
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION Inhibition: Positive Feedback
Three types of hormone release - Neurons inhibit targets just as often as - Some hormones, when stimulated by a
they stimulate targets. If the tropic hormone, promote the synthesis
• Humoral Stimuli neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the and secretion in addition to stimulating
• Neural stimuli target endocrine gland does not their target cell.
• Hormonal Stimuli secrete its hormone.
HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF
(These three can also be inhibit hormone Control by Hormonal stimuli ACTION
release) - It occurs when a hormone is secreted Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind
Control by Humoral Stimuli that, in turn, stimulates the secretion to their own classes of receptors
of other hormones.
- Chemicals are referred to as humoral - The most common example are Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
stimuli because they circulate in the hormones from anterior pituitary gland - Lipid-soluble hormones tend to be
blood. called tropic hormones. relatively small and are all nonpolar.
- These hormones are sensitive to the - They diffuse through the cell
blood levels of a particular substance Inhibition:
membrane and bind into nuclear
(glucose, calcium or sodium) - Some hormones prevent the secretion receptors.
Inhibition: of other hormones which is a common - Nuclear receptors are also located in
mode of hormone regulation. the cytoplasm, but move to the muscles
- Often when a hormone’s release is - For example, hormones from the when activated.
sensitive to the presence of a humoral hypothalamus that prevent the - In addition, it is now recognized that
stimulus, there exist a companion secretion of tropic hormones from the lipid soluble hormones have rapid
hormone whose release is inhibited by anterior pituitary glans are called effects (less than 1 minute) on target
the same humoral stimulus. inhibiting hormones. cells.
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVEL IN Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound
CONTROL BY NEURAL STIMULI BLOOD receptors

- In neural stimuli, neurons release a Two major mechanisms that maintain - Water-soluble hormones interact with
neurotransmitter into the synapse with hormone levels in the blood: membrane-bound receptors, which are
the cells that produce the hormone. proteins that extend across the cell
Negative Feedback membrane, with their hormone binding
- In some cases, the neurotransmitters
stimulate the cells to increase hormone - Most hormones are regulated by a sites exposed on the cell membrane’s
secretion. negative feedback mechanism, whereby outer surface.
- Specialized neuropeptides stimulate the hormone’s secretion is inhibited by
hormone secretion from other the hormone itself once blood levels
endocrine cells and are called releasing have reached a certain point and there
hormones. is adequate hormone to activate the
target cell.
ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS - This coordinated set of events is - It rests in a depression of the
referred to as a second-messenger sphenoid bone inferior to the
- Primarily, lipid-soluble hormones system. hypothalamus of the brain.
stimulate protein synthesis. - The hypothalamus is the control center
- After lipid-soluble hormones diffuse Adenylate Cyclase of the brain.
across the cell membrane and bind to - The pituitary gland lies posterior to the
- An enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP.
their receptors, the hormone-receptor optic chiasm and is connected to the
complex binds to DNA to produce new Protein Kinases hypothalamus by a stalk called the
proteins. infundibulum.
- The receptors that bind to DNA - Are enzymes that, in turn, regulate the
activity of other enzymes. - Divided into two parts:
fingerlike projections that recognize i) Anterior pituitary
and bind to specific nucleotide Phosphodiesterase • Made up of epithelial cells
sequences in the DNA called hormone
- An enzyme in the cytoplasm that derived from the embryonic
response elements.
breaks down cAMP to AMP. oral cavity
- The combination of hormone and its
receptor forms a transcription factor ii) Posterior pituitary
SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION • Is an extension of the brain
because, when the hormone receptor
complex binds to the hormone-response - Hormones that stimulate the synthesis and is composed of nerve cells.
element, it regulates the transcription of second messengers act quickly and - The pituitary glands also secrete
to specific messenger ribonucleic acid have an amplification effect. hormones that influence growth, kidney
(mRNA) molecules. - Each receptor produces thousands of function, birth, and milk production by
second messengers leading to a the mammary glands.
MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS AND SIGNAL cascade effect and ultimately - It is also known as the master gland
AMPLIFICATION amplification of the hormonal signal. because it controls the function of so
many other glands.
- Membrane bound receptors are ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
examples of membrane proteins. HORMONAL CONTROL OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
- Receptors activate in 2 ways: - The Endocrine system consists of - The anterior pituitary gland
(1) Some receptors alter the activity ductless glands that secrete hormones
synthesizes hormones, whose secretion
of G proteins at the inner surface into the interstitial fluid.
is under the control of the
of the cell membrane; - Some glands of the endocrine system hypothalamus.
(2) Other receptors directly alter the perform functions in addition to
activity of intracellular enzymes. hormone secretion. Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
- Activation of G proteins, or
intracellular enzymes, elicits specific PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS - The capillary beds and veins that
responses in cells, including the transport the releasing and inhibiting
- The pituitary gland is also called
production of molecules called SECOND hormones.
hypophysis.
MESSENGERS. - It is a small gland about the size of a
- A second messenger molecule is pea
produced inside a cell once a ligand
binds to its membrane-bound receptor.
Direct innervation of the Posterior Pituitary Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- The posterior pituitary is a storage - Group of protein hormones that - Stimulates the development of follicles
for two hormones synthesized by influences part of the effect growth in the ovaries and sperm cells in the
special neurons in the hypothalamus. hormone. testes.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Prolactin
HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY - Binds to membrane-bound receptors on - Binds to membrane-bound receptors in
Growth hormone cells of the thyroid gland and cells of the breast, where it helps
stimulates the secretion of thyroid promote development of the breast
- Stimulates the growth of bones, hormone. during pregnancy and stimulates the
muscles, and other organs by increasing - Also stimulates the growth of production of milk following pregnancy.
gene expression. thyroids.
- Too little growth hormone secretion Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
can result from abnormal development Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Binds to membrane-bound receptors in
of the pituitary gland. - Increases the secretion of a hormone melanocytes and causes then to
Pituitary Dwarf (Dwarfism) from the adrenal cortex called cortisol. synthesize melanin.
- One symptom of too much ACTH
- When a young person suffering from secretion is darkening of skin.
deficiency of growth hormone, remains
small, although normally proportioned. Gonadotropins HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- This condition may be treated by - They regulate the growth, development, Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
administering growth hormone. and functions of the gonads. - Binds to membrane bound receptors
Giantism Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and increases water absorption by
- A condition where a person becomes kidney tubules.
- Stimulates ovulation in females
abnormally tall. - Also promotes hormones the secretion Oxytocin
- Excess growth hormone is present of the reproductive hormones,
before bones finish growing in length, - Binds to membrane-bound receptors
estrogen and progesterone from the and causes contraction of the smooth
exaggerated bone growth occurs. ovaries. muscle cell of the uterus as well as milk
Acromegaly Interstitial Cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) letdown from the breasts in lactating
- A condition where in the facial women.
- LH Stimulated cells of the testes (in - Assist in childbirth and to constrict
features and hands become abnormally males) to secrete the reproductive
large. uterine blood vessels following
hormone testosterone. childbirth.
- If excess hormone is secreted after
growth in bone length is complete, bone
growth occurs.
THYROID GLAND Cretinism PARATHYROID GLANDS
- Is characterized by mental retardation,
short stature, and abnormally formed
skeletal structures.
Myxedema
- Caused by hypothyroidism, which is the
accumulation of fluid and other
molecules in the subcutaneous tissue of
the skin.
- Four tiny parathyroid glands are
Hyperthyroidism embedded in the posterior wall of the
Thyroid gland - Causes an increased metabolic rate, thyroid glands.
extreme nervousness, and chronic - The parathyroid glands secrete
- Is made up of two lobes connected by fatigue. hormones called parathyroid hormone
a narrow band called the isthmus. (PTH), which is essential for the
- The loves are located on each side of Graves’ disease regulation of blood calcium levels
the trachea just inferior to the larynx
- One of the largest endocrine glands. - An autoimmune disease that causes Hyperparathyroidism
- The main function of the thyroid gland hyperthyroidism.
- Occurs when the immune system - Abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
is to secrete thyroid hormones. - One cause a tumor in the parathyroid
- Thyroid hormones are synthesized and produces abnormal proteins that are
similar in structure and function to gland.
stored within a numerous thyroid
follicle, which are small spheres with TSH. Hypoparathyroidism
walls composed of simple cuboidal - Often accompanied by bulging of the
epithelium. eyes, a condition called exophthalmia. - An abnormally low rate of PTH
secretion
Goiter Thyroxine - Can result from an injury to or the
-one thyroid hormone surgical removal of the thyroid and
- A condition where in a loss of negative parathyroid glands.
feedback will result excess TSH, causes Triiodothyronine
the thyroid gland to enlarge.
- Three iodine atoms
Hypothyroidism
Calcitonin
- A lack of thyroid hormones
- In infants, hypothyroidism can result -hormones secreted by the parafollicular
to cretinism. cells of the thyroid gland.
ADRENAL GLANDS Renin PANCREAS, INSULIN AND DIABETES.
- Protein released due to low blood
pressure.
- Acts as an enzyme, causes blood
protein called Angiotensinogen to be
converted to Angiotensin I.
- Then a protein called Angiotensin-
converting enzyme causes angiotensin I
to be converted to angiotensin II.
- Angiotensin II causes smooth muscle in
blood vessels to constrict and acts on
- Are two small glands located superior the adrenal cortex to increase
to each kidney. aldosterone secretion. - The endocrine part of the pancreas
Adrenal Medulla Glucocorticoids consists of pancreatic islets, which are
- Inner part of the adrenal gland. dispersed throughout the exocrine
- Second class of hormones, secreted by portion of the pancreas.
- The principal hormone released from the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
the adrenal medulla is epinephrine. - The islets consist of three types of
- Helps regulate blood nutrient levels cells: (these three hormones regulate
Adrenal Cortex - Cortisol is the major glucocorticoid the blood levels of nutrients especially
hormone. glucose.)
- Outer part of the adrenal gland - Increases the breakdown of proteins
- Has three classes of hormones and lipids and increase their conversion Alpha cell
• Mineralocorticoids to forms of energy the body can use.
• Secrete glucagon
• Glucocorticoids
Androgens
• Androgens Beta cells
- Third class of hormones, secreted by
Mineralocorticoids the inner layer of the adrenal cortex. • secrete insulin
- First class of hormones secreted by - Composed of androgens, which
Delta cells
the outer layer of the adrenal cortex. stimulate the development of male
- Helps regulate blood volume and blood secondary sex characteristics. • Secrete somatostatin
levels of K+ and Na+ Acidosis
- Aldosterone is the major hormone of
this class - When blood glucose levels are very low,
• Aldosterone primarily binds to the breakdown of lipids can cause the
receptor molecules in the release of enough fatty acids and
kidney. ketones to reduce the pH of the body
fluids below normal.
Insulin TESTES AND OVARIES Estrogen and progesterone
- Secreted by elevated blood glucose - The testes of the male and ovaries of - two main classes of reproductive
levels stimulated by beta cells. the female secrete reproductive hormone secreted by the ovaries in
hormones. females.
Satiety center - Together, these hormones contribute
- The hormones produced by these
- The area of the hypothalamus that organs play important roles in the to the development and function of
controls the appetite. development of sexual characteristics. female reproductive structures and
other female sexual characteristics.
Diabetes mellitus
THYMUS
- The body’s inability to regulate blood
glucose levels within normal range.
- There are two types: Type 1 and Type
2.
- Type 1. Occurs when too little insulin is
secreted to the pancreas
- Type 2. Caused by either too few
insulin receptors on target cells or
defective receptors on target cells.
Hyperglycemia
- A condition in type 1 diabetes mellitus
wherein tissues cannot take up glucose - Lies in the upper part of the thoracic
effectively, causing glucose levels to cavity.
become very high. - Secretes a hormone called thymosin,
Glucagon which aids the development of white
blood cells called T cells.
- Is released from the alpha cells when
blood glucose levels are low.
- Binds to membrane bound receptors
primarily in the liver, causing the
glycogen stored in the liver to be Testosterone
converted to glucose.
- Main reproductive hormone in males.
Somatostatin - Responsible for the growth and
development of the male reproductive
- Is released by the delta cells in structures, muscle enlargement, the
response to food intake. growth of body hair, voice changes, and
- Inhibits the secretion of insulin and the male sexual drive.
inhibits gastric tract activity.
PINEAL GLAND

- A small pinecone-shaped structure

OTHER HORMONES
- Hormones secreted by calls in the
stomach and intestine help regulate
stomach, pancreatic and liver
secretions
- The prostaglandins are hormones that
have a local effect, produce numerous
effects on the body and plays a role in
inflammation
- Erythropoietin from the kidneys
stimulates red blood cell production.