II.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The aim of the theoretical chapter is to give basic information about task based
language learning and teaching for secondary school students. Designing task based
activities requires necessary information about task based learning framework in order to
ensure fluent and successful lesson. It is also essential to define the term task, its features
and types. Designing task based activities in relation to language skills is presented as well.

Task based language learning (TBLL)

Task based learning (TBL) is learning primarily based on tasks. Through TBL
approach, also known as task based instruction (TBI), students learn more effectively when
focusing on completing a task. This type of learning helps students to improve their
performance in class when dealing with a task or solving a problem (Harmer, 2007, p. 71).
According to Edwards and Willis (2005), task based language learning and teaching
inform language teachers about new techniques of designing tasks, enrich their existing
experience and encourage them to use more task based activities in their lessons.
According to Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (1999), "the role of task-based
language learning is to stimulate a natural desire in learners to improve their language
competence by challenging them to complete meaningful tasks" (p. 41).

Task based language teaching (TBLT)

According to Nunan (2004), TBLT has become a key element of many educational
institutions worldwide. In TBLT a teacher effectively uses tasks in a classroom in order to
activate students’ acquisition processes in second language learning (Edwards & Willis,
2005, p. 15). The main assumptions of TBLT mentioned by Edwards & Willis (2005) are
summarized in a few points which are as follows: the focus of instruction is based on
process; tasks and activities are sequenced according to their difficulty; they are based on
communication and meaning, whereas learners learn language to a great extent by
interaction; activities and are achieved either in a real world or with respect to a
pedagogical aim in the classroom (as cited in Feez, 1998, p. 17).
As mentioned above, communication and meaning-focused language use is an
essential concept in creating tasks in TBLT. On the other hand, focus on form and

2
grammar is also important with respect to effective communication and learning (Edwards
& Willis, 2005, p. 16). In addition, Nunan (1998) points out that "there is a value in
classroom tasks which require learners to focus on form [and that] grammar is an essential
resource in using language communicatively" (p.13).

Experiential learning

Experiential learning is an essential basis for TBLT which gives the learner
immediate learning and personal experience through an active involvement in tasks
(Nunan, 2004, p. 12). Kolb (1984) defines experiential learning as "the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience" (p.38) which consists of
four stages: "concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and
active experimentation" (p.30). Kolb (1984) considers these stages as abilities needed for
learners’ effectiveness. In addition, Nunan (2004) introduced the term "learning by doing"
(p.12) and emphasizes the importance of learners’ engagement and reflection on tasks in
intellectual growth. Nunan (2004) argued that the basic aim of experimental learning
consists in learners’ initiative, personal experiences and need of responsibility and self-
direction for their own learning processes (as cited in Kohonen, 1992, p. 37). To sum up,
learners involve themselves in experiences; observe these experiences; create concepts
involving their observations which results into meaningful theories and at the end reflect
on their new experiences (Kolb, 1984, p. 30).

Communicative language teaching (CLT)

According to Ellis (2003), TBLT establishes a strong version of CLT. While tasks
help to create language curriculum, CLT is not realized only by tasks (Ellis, 2003, p. 30).
CLT, also known as communicative approach, emphasizes involving of learners in
meaning-focused communicative tasks (Harmer, 2007, p. 69). Concerning the essential
factor of CLT, Nunan (1998) states that "we need to distinguish between knowing various
grammatical rules and being able to use the rules effectively and appropriately when
communicating" (p. 12). Harmer (2007) also mentions that popular activities in CLT are
realized through sharing information, as for example simulation of a scene at the airport,
writing a story together or role-play. Activities are designed for learners who have
ambition to communicate, are focused on the content and use variety of language (Harmer,
3
2007, p. 69). As Harmer (2007) further explains, communicative activities simulate real
communication, whereas the teacher does not affect to finish the activity and does not
control the materials and language used. On the other hand, non-communicative activities
use only one language item; they do not require communicative ambition, content,
purpose, control over materials and teacher intervention (Harmer, 2007, p. 70).

Task based learning (TBL) framework

TBL framework is an educational framework which helps teachers to create a

successful lesson step by step. According to Edwards & Willis (2005), the most common
TBL framework was created by Jane Willis (1996) and has three basic stages: the pre-task,
the task cycle which includes task, planning, report and finally, the language focus (p. 26).
In the pre-task stage, a teacher gives students necessary information about the topic
and the task instructions and emphasizes important words and phrases (Harmer, 2007, p.
71). As Harmer (2007) adds, in the task stage students firstly do the task in pairs or groups
and the teacher monitors them at the same time. Then, in the planning stage, students
prepare their findings and presentation and can also give other student an outline, whereas
the teacher helps students as language adviser (Edwards & Willis, 2005, p. 26).
Concerning the report stage, students here present their results to the class and the teacher
acts as chairperson and can give a short feedback too (Edwards & Willis, 2005, p. 26).
According to Harmer (2007), the final language focus stage contains analysis where
students discuss specific features from the task and asks questions, whereas the teacher
conducts practice activities aimed at language features and the previous task. To sum up, in
order to have a fluent and motivating lesson without complications, it is always better to
create tasks according to the TBL framework.
Harmer (2007) gives an example of a task about a woman’s phobia about spiders
taking into account all stages of the TBL framework:
 Pre-task: The teacher explains the situation of the woman and asks students to
brainstorm in pairs three main steps in order to cure the woman’s phobia.
 Task: Students list appropriate ways to help the woman with her phobia.
 Planning: Pairs explain what they recommend to do step by step and their reasons.
 Report and reading: The pairs present in front of the class their suggestions,
whereas the class listen and write down their ideas. The teacher lets the students

4
 decide which three steps are similar to those written in a newspaper report and
write them on the board. She gives the text to everybody and lets them read it
properly. Then, she asks which pair has very similar steps.
 Language focus: In this phase, the teacher helps students with mistakes they made
during the task. Finally, students are asked to read the article again and analyze it in
relation to vocabulary, syntax, time expressions, etc. (as cited in Willis, 1996, pp.
161-164).

Defining a ‘task’

There are a number of definitions of the term task which differ from various
authors’ ideas. In this section, three definitions from Skehan (1998), Nunan (1989) and
Ellis (2003) are presented. At the end of this part, a brief summary of these interpretations
is given.
According to Skehan (1998), "A task is an activity in which: meaning is primary;
there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and
the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome" (p. 95). Skehan (1998)
adds examples of task based activities, for instance solving a riddle or completing
someone’s family tree. On the contrary, he also mentions activities which are not
considered as tasks such as question/answer activities with the teacher or completion of a
transformation exercise (Skehan, 1998, p.95).
On the other hand, Nunan (1989) firstly analyzes definitions of different authors
and then creates his own interpretation of a task which is as follows: "A communicative
task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused
on meaning rather than form" (p. 10). He mentions the importance of task completeness
and its ability of standing alone as a communicative act (Nunan, 1989, p. 10).
Finally, Ellis (2003) does not give a broader definition of a task as the other authors
do but he distinguishes briefly the terms task and exercise: "Tasks are activities that call for
primarily meaning-focused language use. In contrast, exercises are activities that call for
primarily form-focused language use" (p. 3). He stresses that the purpose of tasks has to be
the same as exercises. The main difference is in the means of achievement of this purpose.
The role of participants is also important. Participants act either as language users when
doing a task or as learners when doing an exercise (Ellis, 2003, p. 3).
5
 To sum up, according to Nunan (1989), Ellis (2003) and Skehan (1998), the term
task is an activity involving classroom work, comprehension, production, manipulation,
interaction, communicative outcome and language activities in the real world. In addition,
all of these above mentioned authors apparently argue that a task is primarily focused on
meaning rather than on form. Furthermore, while Skehan (1998) and Nunan (1989)
emphasize the importance of task completeness, Ellis (2003) compares tasks to exercises
and highlights the difference between meaning and form.

Features of a task

Ellis (2003) distinguishes between six criterial features of a task. First of all, a task
is considered as a workplan for learner activity, which is based either on teaching materials
or on impromptu activities. The intention of the plan can differ at the end of an activity.
Secondly, a task is primarily focused on meaning and develops language proficiency
through communicative tasks. In this case a task includes a gap which motivates learners to
complete it while communicating. The content is clear but the actual language in a task is
not mentioned. Thirdly, a task contains a real-world communication activity such as
completing a form or dealing with misunderstandings (Ellis, 2003, pp. 9-10).
Fourthly, as Ellis (2003) mentions, a task involves all the language skills. The
workplan includes reading, listening and understanding of a text as well as speaking and
writing. In this respect, there is no difference between tasks and exercises. Fifthly, a task
employs cognitive processes such as reasoning, selecting, ordering, classifying or
evaluating information. In this task the choice of the linguistic forms is possible. Finally, a
task also offers a clear communicative outcome for participants after completing a task
(Ellis, 2003, pp. 9-10).

Language teaching activity

According to Ellis (2003), a task is a true task when fulfilling all the criterial
features of a task mentioned above. An example of an appropriate activity is called A
dangerous moment, which could be used for a secondary school students as well. Firstly,
student A becomes clear instructions about the task A dangerous moment. He/she thinks
about a situation when his/her life was in danger and describes what happened to his/her
partner. The student A explains also his/her feelings when being in danger and afterwards.
6
Then, student B listens to student A when talking about a dangerous moment in his/her life
and draws a picture of all events his/her partner mentions. After finishing the speech,
student B shows the picture to student A and they can talk about it further (Ellis, 2003, p.
11). Ellis (2003) further explains that these two participants exactly know what to do
according to the specific workplan. On the other hand, this activity lacks an input so
student A has to prepare the content on his/her own. Furthermore, some sociolinguists
argue that "people are more likely to talk spontaneously when they are recounting a
traumatic experience" (Ellis, 2003, p. 10).

Task types

Task types vary in a number of ways. This section gives several opinions of
distinguishing different task types considering various authors’ definitions. In this part, six
ideas from Nunan (1989), Ellis (2003), Brown (1991), Duff (1986), Long (1989) and Pica,
Kanagy & Falodun (1993) are presented.
According to Nunan (1989), classroom tasks are divided into two broad categories:
real-world tasks and pedagogic tasks. Real-world tasks require similar behaviour of
learners as life requires outside the classroom, as for example listening to a weather
forecast and estimating the temperature (Nunan, 1989, p.40). In contrast, Nunan (1989)
explains that pedagogic tasks require totally different behaviour of learners in comparison
with their natural behaviour outside the classroom. An example of such a pedagogic task
could be listening to a text with answering questions and deciding on true or false
statements. While real-world tasks need to be analyzed, pedagogic tasks are selected in
relation to second language acquisition theory (Nunan, 1989, p.40). Nunan (1989) adds
that pedagogic tasks are in a way connected with real-world tasks because involvement in
pedagogic tasks provides learners with skills needed for real-world tasks in order to
conclude difficult tasks in advance. To sum up, pedagogic activities could practice
interaction skills, discourse, fluency as well as comprehension of grammar and phonology
(Nunan, 1989, p.44).
On the other hand, Ellis (2003) compared two general types of tasks: unfocused and
focused tasks. By unfocused tasks learners select from various forms but they are not
created with a concrete form in mind (Ellis, 2003, p. 16). On the other hand, Ellis (2003)
explains that by focused tasks leaners are activated through a receptive and productive
process such as a grammatical structure, whereas this process must fulfill all the criteria of
7
a task. Furthermore, focused tasks involve two aims: "one is to stimulate communicative
language use (as with unfocused tasks), the other is to target the use of a particular,
predetermined target feature" (Ellis, 2003, p. 16). Ellis (2003) finishes his theory of task
types by defining two ways of designing a focused task. The first method involves creating
a task only with a certain linguistic feature, also known as a grammatical task (Ellis, 2003,
p. 17). Concerning the second method, the content of a task is created by language itself,
whereas the topics are acquired from real life (Ellis, 2003, p. 17).
As stated in Skehan (1998), tasks are divided into three different dimensions
according to Brown (1991): tight-loose, closed-open and procedural-interpretative tasks,
whereas the second pole of the dimension characterizes the opposite. Firstly, tight tasks
involve an exact set of questions or sub-tasks where the group participants cannot get lost.
Secondly, closed tasks are characterized by answers which are drawn from a restricted set.
An example of tight and closed tasks is responding to poetry. Thirdly, procedural tasks
include getting things done and making decisions without any interpretation, as for
instance preparation for a teaching practice assignment (as cited in Brown, 1991). Skehan
(1998) finally commented on task performance which is measured in regard to fluency
(repetition, prompts), repairs (asking for clarification), instructional input (explanation to
another partner) and hypothesizing (as cited in Brown, 1991).
Skehan (1998) compared another two types of tasks according to Duff (1986):
convergent and divergent tasks. An example of a convergent task is the desert island task,
where students have to decide which items they would like to take to a desert island. By
this type of task students are required to reach an agreement on a solution collectively. On
the contrary, as an example of divergent task a discussion of advantages and disadvantages
of television is mentioned. Students are asked here to express as many opinions as
possible, negotiate with others and defend their position (as cited in Duff, 1986). As stated
in Ellis (2003), Duff (1986) concluded that above mentioned convergent tasks produced
more and shorter turns, questions, confirmation checks and overall comprehensible output.
On the other hand, divergent tasks involved more words, better utterance complexity and
more output (as cited in Duff, 1986). Ellis (2003) finally pointed out that convergent and
divergent tasks should be considered as a sub-category of open tasks because they both
include multiple solutions (as cited in Duff, 1986).
Furthermore, Edwards & Willis (2005) argued that tasks could be classified either
by topic, by language skills or by open or closed outcome (as cited in Long, 1989). Ellis
(2003) explained that open tasks do not involve predetermined solution and students are
8
free to choose this solution, as for example in opinion gap tasks including discussions,
making choices or surveys (p. 89). On the other hand, by closed tasks students have to
reach a single solution, for example information gap tasks which are considered as closed
(Ellis, 2003, p. 89). Ellis (2003) argued that "closed tasks are more likely to promote
negotiation work than open tasks because they make it less likely that learners will give up
when faced with a challenge" (as cited in Long, 1989). As stated in Ellis (2003), by open
tasks and free conversation students are dealing briefly with easy topics, can change these
topics and do not have to provide feedback. In other words, open tasks do not require an
effort to communicate (as cited in Long, 1989). In contrast, Ellis (2003) clarified that
closed tasks require students to be more precise and persevering in order to reach better
understanding which is good for second language learning (as cited in Long, 1989).
Finally, a study by Edwards & Willis (2005) found that interaction during tasks is
important and therefore tasks are divided further into one-way or two-way information
flow which leads to five specific types of tasks: information gaps, jigsaw tasks, problem-
solving, decision-making and opinion exchange tasks (as cited in Pica, Kanagy & Falodun,
1993). Ellis (2003) defines one-way task as "an information-gap task where one person
holds all the information to be communicated and the other participant(s) hold none" (p.
347), while two-way task is described "an information-gap task where the information to
be exchanged is split between two or more participants" (p. 352). To resume,
distinguishing task types is essential because it helps researchers to create the most
effective learning plan (Edwards & Willis, 2005, p. 19). In order to understand all the task
types mentioned above, a brief summary of these tasks is given in the table below:

Table 1: Overview of task types

Author/s Task type 1 Task type 2 Task type 3
Nunan (1989) real-world pedagogic
Ellis (2003) unfocused focused
Brown (1991) tight-loose closed-open procedural-
interpretative
Duff (1986) convergent divergent
Long (1989) open closed
Pica, Kanagy & Falodun (1993) one-way two-way

9
Designing focused tasks

According to Ellis (2003), focused tasks require concentration on a specific

linguistic feature and are divided into three major types: structure-based production tasks,
comprehension tasks and consciousness-raising tasks (p.15).
As stated in Skehan (1998), structure-based production tasks are characterized by
three structure-to-task relationships, namely naturalness, utility and essentialness (as cited
in Loschky & Bley-Vroman, 1993). Ellis (2003) found that while task-naturalness involves
natural rise of the target structure when performing the task, task-utility does not
necessarily require the targeted structure although it is very useful (as cited in Loschky &
Bley-Vroman, 1993). Skehan (1998) added that task-essentialness is the most difficult and
demanding criterion when completing a task because a particular structure is needed here.
Nevertheless, tasks should be designed in particular in order to meet this last criterion (as
cited in Loschky & Bley-Vroman, 1993).
In comparison to structure-based production tasks, comprehension tasks draw more
attention to a targeted feature because learners have to deal with them (Ellis, 2003, p. 157).
Ellis (2003) stated that "comprehension tasks are based on the assumption that acquisition
occurs as a result of input-processing" (p. 158). As stated in Ellis (2003), input-processing
change the processing strategies and help learners to reach better form-meaning connection
instead of relying on their own devices. In addition, it includes three basic components:
form-meaning relationship, processing strategies and structure-input activities (as cited in
VanPatten, 1996, p. 60). However, input-processing tasks sometimes require presentation
stage as well as practice stage and therefore could be similar to production-based tasks
(Ellis, 2003, p. 159). Apart from input-processing, comprehension tasks involve input
enrichment too which includes designing tasks with the frequent and highlighted targeted
feature (Ellis, 2003, p. 158). Ellis (2003) further explained that enriched input has many
forms and consists of oral but mostly written texts, where the targeted structure is
somehow highlighted, for example through underlying, capitalizing or boldfacing (p. 158).
Concerning consciousness-raising (C-R) tasks, Ellis (2003) found that they are
designed to provide mainly explicit learning and establish knowledge of understanding
rather than knowledge of noticing (p. 162). In other words, C-R tasks are very effective
because learners use their own linguistic features in order to reach an outcome to the task
while communicating (Ellis, 2003, p. 166). As stated in Ellis (2003), C-R tasks are
characterized by four main aspects which are as follows: an isolation of a concrete
10
linguistic feature for focused attention; learners providing data or explicit rule and
illustrating or describing the targeted feature; learners using intellectual effort in order to
understand the targeted feature; learners verbalizing a rule which describes the
grammatical structure (as cited in Ellis, 1991, p. 234). Nevertheless, Ellis (2003) finally
emphasized that "consciousness-raising is not an alternative to communication activities,
but a supplement" (as cited in Ellis, 1991, p. 241).

Information gap activity

Information gap activities are realized through communicative tasks where students
explain and share their opinions, ideas, facts or instructions with other students (Scrivener,
2005, p. 152). According to Nunan (1989), "Information gap activity, which involves a
transfer of given information from one person to another – generally calling for the
decoding or encoding of information from or into language" (as cited in Prabhu, 1987, pp.
46-47). As mentioned above, the goal of this communicative activity is to implement
learners in language use and help them to interact realistically which involves exchange of
opinions as well (Scrivener, 2005, p. 152). Examples of such activities are pair work or
completing a tabular representation which requires use of relevant information, correctness
and completeness (Nunan, 1989, p. 66). In addition, Nunan’s study (1989) provides that
information gap task should include five following steps:
 Introduction: Learners get basic instructions about the problem they will solve.
 Vocabulary and idioms: The teacher introduces difficult words and phrases.
 Small group listening, discussion and note taking: The teacher divides student into
three groups, gives them recording and set of questions. They listen to the
recording and answer the questions.
 Small group problem solving: The teacher recombines the students in groups and
give them blank information table with an outline plan of a house. The students fill
in the information table together and create a plan of the house.
 Feedback: Students come back to their previous groups and compare their plans
with the original plan of the house (p. 122).
To sum up, information gap activities are very useful because of the involvement of all
students, their motivation and possible use of these activities in the real world, such as
using the telephone (Scrivener, 2005, p. 152).

11
 As stated in Nunan (1989), there are another two types of gap activities which are
reasoning-gap activity and opinion-gap activity (as cited in Prabhu, 1987, pp. 46-47).
Nunan (1989) explains that by reasoning-gap activity the new information is derived from
given information through conveying information, reasoning, comprehending and
deduction, such as creating a teacher’s schedule by means of given class schedule (as cited
in Prabhu, 1987, pp. 46-47). On the other hand, Nunan (1989) argued that opinion-gap
activity is realized through recognizing and expressing an individual attitude, preferences
or feelings in answer to a given situation using real information formulating ideas and
opinions (as cited in Prabhu, 1987, pp. 46-47). An example of such opinion-gap activity is
a completion of a story or participating in a discussion dealing with social matters where
outcomes are not considered as right or wrong (as cited in Prabhu, 1987, pp. 46-47).

Jigsaw task

Ellis (2003) defines jigsaw task as "a task where the input material is divided
between two or more participants such that they are required to exchange information to
complete the task" (p. 344). In other words, jigsaw task is considered as a two-way
information-gap task requiring sharing information which includes giving and receiving
information of both students (Ellis, 2003, p. 215). Ellis (2003) further explains that
interaction which is needed by jigsaw tasks involves all the participants who have to
cooperate and finish the task with a closed outcome (p. 215).
To sum up, there is a slight difference between jigsaw task and information-gap
task. As already mentioned, information-gap tasks require one-way interaction because
only one participant is able to exchange the information he or she holds (Ellis, 2003, p.
216). Nevertheless, as stated in Ellis (2003), the participants can change roles from one
task to another which results in the same situation as in a jigsaw task (as cited in Pica,
Kanagy & Falodun, 1993). On the other hand, Ellis’s (2003) study provides that tasks
differing from information-gap and jigsaw tasks are problem-solving tasks, decision-
making tasks and opinion-exchange tasks because it is up to the participants whether they
want to take part in the interaction or not (as cited in Pica, Kanagy & Falodun, 1993).

12
Implementing tasks in TBLT

According to Willis (2008), while learners are doing tasks, they are focusing on
meaning and expressing what they really wish to say or write in order to reach the goal of
the task. In addition, Willis (2008) explained that task as an efficient activity should
include the following criteria in the form of questions. "The more confidently you can
answer yes to each of these questions, the more task-like the activity.
 Will the activity engage learners' interest?
 Is there a primary focus on meaning?
 Is there a goal or an outcome?
 Is success judged in terms of outcome?
 Is completion a priority?
 Does the activity relate to real world activities?" (as cited in Willis & Willis, 2007,
pp. 12-14)
Besides, when designing effective task-based activities, the teacher should take into
consideration all the language skills listed below and implement them into the lesson.

Task-based listening

During task-based listening activities students have to activate knowledge of a topic

and context in order to create one’s own interpretation of what they have heard. In
addition, these activities require information about roles, number and relationship of
listeners and speakers who construct meaning of the utterance and respond to each other
(Curriculum Development Council (CDC), 1999, p. 59). On the other hand, teachers
should include realistic listening tasks in order to make the lesson effective and meaningful
for learners. Moreover, teachers also use various texts including formal and informal
language, enhance learners’ confidence and help them avoid bad habits such as omitting
important words, not paying attention or dreaming while listening (CDC, 1999, pp. 59-60).
According to CDC (1999), there are three stages occurring in a listening task:
 Pre-listening stage: This stage establishes a framework for listening including
asking for learner’s knowledge about the topic, guessing content from the title,
commenting on a picture, reviewing vocabulary, etc. (p. 64).

13
  While-listening stage: In this stage learners take part in a listening activity while
responding to the task. It includes ordering pictures, completing a timetable,
constructing comprehensible notes, analyzing true/false statements, etc. (p. 64).
 Post-listening stage: This phase facilitates development of skills including writing a
summary, reading a text related to the topic, practicing role play activities, etc. (65).
As stated in Nunan (1989), listening tasks are further classified in relation to
learner’s’ engagement in bottom-up or top-down processing (as cited in Richards, 1987a).
According to Ellis (2003), bottom-up processing involves "understanding a text by
analyzing the words and sentences in the text itself" (p.339). Nunan’s (1989) study
provides that bottom-up processes involve decoding words, sounds and lexical items,
dividing the stream of speech into units and using phonological and grammatical signals to
organize the input into these units (as cited in Richards, 1987a). On the other hand, Ellis
(2003) defines top-down processing as "understanding a text by making use of one’s
existing knowledge and contextual information" (p. 352). Finally, Nunan (1989) explained
that top-down processes involve attaching an interaction to a part of a certain event
(complaining, storytelling or joking), attaching persons or places to sections, expecting
outcomes and deducing the topic of a speech, the consecution between events and missing
items (as cited in Richards, 1987a). To sum up, Nunan’s (1989) study provides that
successful listening includes using of meaningful words and phrases, relating the incoming
information to a previous knowledge, identifying the aim of an utterance, interpreting
intonation and rhythm and extracting important information from longer texts (p. 26).

Task-based speaking

Speaking is considered as the most important language skill because speech is used
more often than writing in everyday life and it has a great importance in language
development of learners’ proficiency (CDC, 1999, p. 65). As stated in CDC (1999),
learners have to obtain four speaking skills in order to use the spoken language effectively:
 Accuracy: Accuracy involves skill of using grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation
(intonation, stress, rhythm) correctly to express various ideas.
 Fluency: Fluency refers to the skill of producing a normal speed of speech which
prevents from difficulties in communication such as hesitations or false starts.

14
  Appropriateness: Appropriateness includes the skill of using formal or informal
language in order to use it in an appropriate situation.
 Coherence: Coherent speech contains the skill of producing spoken utterances
which are connected to each other, such as use of ellipsis, substitutions, pronouns
or conjunctions (p. 66).
When participating in oral discussion, teachers should help learners to build their
trust and confidence while speaking because they are often afraid of making mistakes
(CDC, 1999, p. 66). Teachers also ensure that learners are able to communicate effectively
with a proper pronunciation skill, while reminding them to speak English and monitoring
their performance during a speaking task, such as walking around, listening to them but
avoiding interruptions (CDC, 1999, p. 67). Moreover, teachers choose appropriate and
purposeful tasks and provide feedback to learners in order to enhance their next speaking
performance and help them to develop self-assessment skills (CDC, 1999, p. 68).
According to CDC (1999), during task-based activities learners are required to
communicate orally and use the spoken language in order to reach a clear outcome, such as
oral report, drawing, and list of priorities or written summary (p. 70). These activities are
process- and also goal-oriented which includes expressing ideas and information in
conversation, using accurate pronunciation and appropriate expressions for different
intention and leading or taking part in discussion (CDC, 1999, pp. 70-71). These activities
are for example information-gap, jigsaw, role playing, ranking, guessing, matching and
problem-solving or discussions and debates (CDC, 1999, pp. 68-69). By role playing
learners get specific information about a role (for example a person) on role cards and play
short scenes with other learners using their own ideas. Role cards are created in order to
lead in different points of view and disagreements which often results in a great discussion
and different arguments (Scrivener, 2005, pp. 155-156).
As stated in CDC (1999), there are four steps when planning speaking activities:
 Awareness-raising: Learners are encouraged to raise their awareness of certain
language expressions in oral interaction in order to speak more.
 Pre-communicative: This stage allows learners to practise repeatedly a particular
skill in order to speak effectively, such as language structure or intonation pattern.
 Communicative: Learners practise their speaking skills without control of the
vocabulary or structures while communicating.
 Feedback: In this final stage the teacher gives learners convenient feedback (p. 72).

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To sum up, a study by Nunan (1989) found that successful oral communication helps to
improve in particular the ability to articulate intelligibly and fluently, conversational
listening skills, proficiency of intonation and stress, skills in taking turns and negotiation
meaning and using relevant conversational pattern (p. 32).

Task-based reading

Reading is an active process of interpreting a message related to previous

knowledge, predicting, choosing and evaluating information and applying this knowledge
to new experience. In other words, reading activities enhance learners to become effective
readers and to improve their knowledge of language by means of achieving new
vocabulary and linguistic structures used in certain text (CDC, 1999, p. 73). As stated in
CDC (1999), there are three important stages when planning task-based reading activities:
pre-reading stage, while-reading stage and post-reading stage (pp. 74-81).
According to CDC (1999), in the pre-reading stage learners provide a purpose for
reading, whereas teachers can help them to set this purpose. Then, learners get general
information through the introduction of a text which involves the text type and its
structure, topic and background. The aim of this introduction is to get learners interested in
reading the text. Next, learners are asked to express the message of the text in relation to
their previous experience by means of schemas which involves previewing, predicting, use
of semantic maps and signpost questions (pp. 74-76).
As mentioned in CDC (1999), the while-reading stage involves breaking up the text
in order to make the comprehension easier to readers and discuss shorter parts of the text.
In addition, learners should analyze unknown lexical items and words before reading
begins which is required for overall understanding of the text. Then, learners are practicing
skimming and scanning skills which are related to the reading speed (pp. 77-78). Scrivener
(2005) describes skimming as a "Fast reading for: key topics, main ideas, overall theme,
basic structure, etc." (p. 185). Skimming task involves reading fast in order to get the gist
of a text, whereas the teacher asks questions concerning the overall message of the text
(Scrivener, 2005, p. 185). On the other hand, Scrivener (2005) defines scanning as a "Fast
reading for: specific individual pieces of information (e.g. names, addresses, facts, prices,
numbers, dates, etc.)" (p. 185). Scanning task also requires reading fast but searching for
concrete information in a text, as for example seeking in a leaflet in order to find details

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(Scrivener, 2005, p. 185). Finally, during the while-reading stage, learners should also
identify general ideas as well as supporting ideas from the text (CDC, 1999, p. 80).
In the post-reading stage, teachers can use various tasks including evoking an
individual response from the reader, creating the relation with other works in the same
area, advising useful principles, commenting on chronological sequences and evolution of
thoughts, identifying tendencies, arguments, ideas and characters, relating text content to
the readers’ experience, analyzing thoughts and arguments or establishing a title in order to
assure readers’ comprehension of a text (CDC, 1999, p. 81). Besides, teachers enhance to
improve learners’ reading skills through creating a positive reading atmosphere, not taking
into consideration a time intended for reading or designing of challenging tasks (CDC,
1999, p. 82-83). To sum up, Nunan (1989) mentions that successful reading includes using
linguistic knowledge in order to gain the meaning and also using various methods for
various purposes such as skimming or scanning (p. 35). In addition, effective reading also
involves associating text content to the background knowledge and identifying the
functional aim of concrete sentences or sections of a text (Nunan, 1989, p. 35).

Task-based writing

To write fluently is regarded as one of the most difficult skills for all language users
(Nunan, 1989, p. 37). As stated in Nunan (1989), "writing is an extremely complex
cognitive activity in which the writer is required to demonstrate control of a number of
variables simultaneously" (as cited in Bell & Burnaby, 1984). Nunan (1989) adds that this
involves control of the sentence content, structure, format, vocabulary, spelling and
punctuation, whereas the writer must be able to organize information into cohesive and
coherent text (as cited in Bell & Burnaby, 1984). Nevertheless, writing is an important skill
because people communicate everyday also in writing, as for example through electronic
communication. Furthermore, writing enhances learners in language learning by means of
generating thoughts, organizing ideas, discovering meaning and using their own creativity
and independent thinking (CDC, 1999, p. 84). The role of the teacher in developing
learner’s writing skills is to design and interpret appropriate tasks, encourage learners to be
innovative in writing, give them enough time and motivate them to better results.
Furthermore, teachers should be flexible and sensitive, create comfortable atmosphere and
take into consideration different levels and needs of their learners (CDC, 1999, pp. 84-85).

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 There are many different ways of practicing writing skills; either focusing on the
process of writing or on the product of writing (Harmer, 2007, p. 325). As stated in Harmer
(2007), "When concentrating on the product, we are only interested in the aim of a task and
in the end product" (pp. 325). Therefore, many educators prefer to focus on the process of
writing going through a number of stages in order to practice various language skills
(Harmer, 2007, p. 326). Furthermore, learners can discuss every single stage with teachers
and concentrate on the producing of final version of their work (Harmer, 2007, p. 326).
Nevertheless, activities connected with the process of writing may involve discussion,
brainstorming and collecting ideas, research, language study, drafting, editing and also
frequent interaction between teachers and learners and between the learners themselves
(Harmer, 2007, p. 326). As Harmer (2007) further explains, set of these activities
connected with the process of writing is considered to be one of the disadvantages of
process writing because it is time consuming (p. 326).
According to CDC (1999), there are four main learning strategies used in writing:
pre-writing, drafting, revising and editing stage (pp. 85-94). In the pre-writing stage
learners begin with generating ideas which involves strategies such as brainstorming,
freewriting, questioning, role-play, interview and reading with listening (CDC, 1999, pp.
85-86). Scrivener (2005) explains brainstorming as "a way to get the ‘ideas creation
engine’ running" which means "opening your mind and letting ideas pour out" (p. 197).
Brainstorming is realized in class by means of three steps: writing the topic on the board,
asking students for their ideas connected with the topic and finally writing up these ideas
on the board (Scrivener, 2005, p. 197). During the pre-writing stage learners also plan their
ideas including recognizing purposes and audience in the writing context and creating
outlines of their writing (CDC, 1999, pp. 86-88)
As mentioned in CDC (1999), in the drafting stage learners concentrate primarily
on the content than on grammar, punctuation or spelling. Teachers prepare learners for the
drafting stage and help them to develop their skills in creating beginning, ending and the
content of the text. Learners consider the relation of the opening to the ending and examine
examples of interesting openings, such as rhetorical question or an assertive statement.
Moreover, teachers enhance learners in structuring a text which is realized by practicing
suitable reading activities, writing full texts, paragraphing, creating summaries or using
cohesive devices. Learners should also try to write as many types of texts as possible
including personal, social, public, study or creative writing (pp. 88-90). As stated in
Harmer (2007), creative writing is "a journey of self-discovery, and self-discovery
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promotes effective learning" (as cited in Gaffield-Vile, 1998, p. 31). Creative writing
involves imaginative tasks where learners use their own experiences and which encourages
them to produce a greater piece of writing (Harmer, 2007, p. 328).
In the revising stage, learners are motivated to make necessary changes in their
drafts per peer feedback which allows them to work interactively in pairs and comment on
each other’s drafts. Then, the teacher leads a discussion in small groups and comments on
the drafts by providing positive support, asking questions and suggesting possible
improvements (CDC, 1999, pp. 91-94).
The last editing stage deals with the final revision of grammar, punctuation,
spelling and handwriting in order to enable learners to present their texts to the readers.
Teachers can also explain to the learners certain grammatical points they have problems
with (CDC, 1999, p. 94). To sum up, Nunan (1989) provides that a successful writing
includes comprehending the mechanics of letter formation together with correct spelling
and punctuation, using grammatical rules in order to transform the meaning, forming
content through paragraph and the whole text to analyze given and new information,
correcting and improving writer’s initial achievement and choosing a suitable style for the
audience (p. 37).

Role of the learner in task-based learning

According to CDC (1999), learners play the central and active role in learning
while negotiating with other learners in the class and deciding on learning objectives.
Learners are also involved in designing the content of the lesson and creating appropriate
tasks because learning is considered as a cooperative effort between learners and teachers.
They are fully involved in the learning process, whereas taking responsibility for their own
learning, developing learning skills and independence and preparing for their successful
lifelong language learning (p. 58). Nunan (1989) adds that the process of personal growth
of learners, their social activity and creative thinking is also included in TBL (p. 80).

Role of the teacher in task-based learning

CDC (1999) provides some roles of teachers such as analyzing learners’ needs,
creating comfortable atmosphere for learning, coordinating activities and encouraging
learners’ self-confidence in order to use risk-taking language learning strategies. In
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addition, teachers motivate and support learners, control learning activities, provide new
materials in class, evaluate learners’ work and give them advice. On the other hand,
teachers should not dominate classroom interaction but only act as a facilitator and mentor.
Finally, the role of the teacher is also to give learners useful feedback and enable them to
upgrade their language level through new vocabulary or more complex syntax (pp. 58-59).

Advantages of TBL

As stated in Frost (2004), TBL establishes learners’ freedom over language control
and allows them to use a natural context evolved from their experiences with an
appropriate language. Furthermore, the learners "will have a much more varied exposure to
language with TBL" and "they will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases,
collocations and patterns as well as language forms" (Frost, 2004). The language in TBL
comes from the learners’ needs which determine to a great extent the content of the lesson.
Finally, TBL is a creative, enjoyable and motivating type of learning focused in particular
on communication between learners (Frost, 2004). To sum up, designing and using task
based activities in the classroom introduces a modern and effective approach in language
learning and should be definitely included in English lessons.

This chapter provides basic information about task based language learning and
teaching for secondary school students. Task based learning is learning primarily based on
tasks whereas learners learn more effectively when focusing on completing a task. By task
based teaching, teachers effectively use these tasks in order to activate learners’ acquisition
in second language learning. The term task is defined mainly as a classroom work focused
on the meaning. In addition, several opinions of distinguishing task types are presented,
such as open, closed, real-world, pedagogic, focused and unfocused tasks, etc. Concerning
the task based framework, it helps teachers to create a successful lesson by means of
various stages such as pre-task, task, planning, report and language focus. According to the
theoretical background, the aim of the research part is to find out which tasks are used in
the classroom and whether these tasks are designed in order to practice all four language
skills. The research methodology is introduced in the following chapter and the findings of
the research are described in results and commentaries.

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