FISHERIES EXTENSION

1. INTRODUCTION
The Fisheries Extension Division was created by Presidential Decree No. 704 on May 16, 1975.
Under Letter of Instructions No. 459 dated September 8, 1976, the primary task of the Bureau of
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) is the preparation and implementation of a fisheries
extension program which is a sub-set of the Expanded Fish Production Program in turn a sub-set of
the Integrated Fisheries Development Plan.

BFAR has lined up six projects to attain the objectives of the Expanded Fish Production Program.
One of the projects is the Inland and Aquaculture Fisheries Development. In the government's
accelerated development efforts on the foregoing project, external assistance has been sought. As one
of the results, the Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Development Programme
(FAO/UNDP) and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), the Brackish water
Aquaculture Development and Training Project came into being.

Obviously, the Fisheries Extension Division assumes a significant role in the implementation of the
foregoing FAO/UNDP-assisted project. Extension efforts should harness and improve productivity of
the tremendous human resources engaged in brackish water aquaculture. It is presented not as
techniques to be practiced, but as ideas to be used as the basis of good practice. The intent is to
identify mental anchors that may help trainers shape their own techniques in the light of personal
experiences and the situations in the regions in which they must formulate and carry on extension
work.

2. EXTENSION PRINCIPLES
The term “Extension Education” was first introduced in 1873 by Cambridge University to describe a
particular educational innovation. This was to take the educational advantages of the universities to
the ordinary people, where they lived and worked. The term “extension” was first coined in England,
not in America as is often thought.
1
 Maunder, A.H., Agricultural Extension, a reference manual, FAO, Rome, 3rd printing 1978, p.1.

2.1 The Background and Meaning of Extension

Within a decade or so the movement had spread to other institutions in Britain, the United States, and
elsewhere. The term “extension” has come up to us from the United States of America. In that
country, the Congress passed a law in 1914, known as the Smith-Lever Act, “in order to aid in
diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on subjects relating
to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the same…” To that end, the
same law provides that “… in connection with the college or colleges in each State …agricultural
extension work…shall be carried on in cooperation with the United States Department of
Agriculture…”.

In the United States, extension work is essentially an educational institution, in effect, it is the college
that is being popularized through extension.
Extension education is different from the conventional educational institution; it is informal without
regular classes, grades, degrees, or diplomas. The success of extension in teaching depends on the
learner's willingness to learn.

Most countries nowadays have an extension program of one kind or another, however, many of these
organizations/agencies cannot be called “extension”. Nevertheless, the name “extension education”,
“extension work”, or “extension” has come to be accepted generally to mean informal education of
the rural population no matter what agency or institution administers it.

In the Philippines, among the most important accomplishments of the Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources in early 1977 was to intensify, so to speak, the nationwide extension machinery
which the Bureau has been putting together since 1974. Nevertheless, there were earlier extension
beginnings.

The term “Fisheries Extension” was formally adopted when the Fisheries Extension Division was
created by Presidential Decree No. 704 on May 16, 1975. Fisheries Extension may be defined as: the
dissemination of the educational advances of institution to persons unable to take advantage of such
in a normal manner. All forms of extension bring education to the people. By definition, extension
and extension education are synonymous. Fisheries extension brings to the fishermen, fish farmers,
and fish processors that form of educational assistance best suited to their needs.

A more detailed definition of fisheries extension is: a system which assists people in the fish and
fishing industry, through educational procedures, in improving fishing, fish farming and fish
processing methods, increasing production efficiency and income, and improving their socio-
economic conditions.

Kelsey, L.D. & C.C. Hearne, Cooperative extension work, Constock, Itchaca, New York, 1949, p. 29

2.2 Objectives of Extension

It is generally accepted that the role of extension is to HELP PEOPLE HELP THEMSELVES
through educational means to improve their socio-economic conditions. However, this concept is
only a very general guide to extension advisers, administrators and policy makers. Extension workers
are interested in more concrete expression of purpose. The masses want help in solving their
immediate problems and policy makers are concerned with the contribution that extension can make
to national economic and social progress.

Maunder, A.H., op. cit., pp. 3–4

In certain situations, national needs may surmount in importance the needs of the individual villager.
Where extensive production of fishponds is low, increasing the production of existing ones may be a
more important strategy than developing new ones. But similar national objectives can only be
achieved through the action of the masses. People may be motivated by patriotism for a time but
soon lose their enthusiasm unless programs appeal to their own best interest as they see them. For
example, certain governments reduced the established prices of basic food items so that consumers
could afford a higher level of nutrition. This results in lower domestic production and shortage of
supplies because of the reduced incentive to the masses. To achieve its purpose, both nationally and
locally, the objectives of extension must be known and accepted by the masses as valuable
contribution to their own welfare.
2.3 Philosophy of Extension

Extension work is based on a number of principles discussed below, and which are generally
accepted in many countries throughout the world.

2.3.1 Extension is an economic necessity

Today, most enlightened governments have realized that without a stable, productive, and contented
rural population, all other factors towards economic development may fail. No country can afford to
neglect its rural population, the reasons are plain to see:

First, every country needs an ample and dependable supply of staple foods for the whole nation.
Generally, city-dwellers do not produce their own food. In a country where the farmers/fish farmers
are discontented or not very efficient, the supply of staple foods cannot meet the demands of the
whole nation.

Second, where there is a great difference between the standard of living of city-dwellers and that of
rural people, many of the best young men will tend to leave agriculture/aquaculture and drift to the
cities. But the city is not always able to absorb them. And frequently the result is overcrowding
slums, unemployment, vagrancy, and social unrest.

Third, it has been found that besides producing food, a modern farmer can also grow industrial crops.
These crops provide valuable raw materials for many and diverse industries which help provide
employment for swelling population and increase national wealth.

These are some of the important reasons why governments have begun to take interest in the masses,
and extension programs have been created all over the world. Extension serves the economic
objectives of the nation. It is no longer a good practice for a villager to carry on what he learned from
his father. Farming must be progressive and efficient, just like any other industry, or else the whole
nation is likely to suffer. But the first requirement for progress is new information. The purpose of
extension is to bring this information to those who need it.

2.3.2 Extension is based upon research

The main focus of extension is on people and the things that cause people to act as they do or how to
influence them to change. At least two things are necessary to bring about change, namely:

1. a source of new information; and

2. a spread of the information to the masses.

Information does not just come out: it must be searched for and thought out. That is why there is a
need for research institutions to get information. Researchers, on the other hand, will not know what
kind of information to get, unless they are told what to research. The people in general have little
opportunity to compare their practices with those of others, often they are not even aware there is
room for improvement.
Therefore, the first job that extension workers have to do is to help the people define their own
problems. Once the problems have been clarified, the extension worker can present them to the
researchers, who in turn try to look for possible solutions. Very often they know the answer from
previous experience, and there is no need for research. But again, the extension worker has to bring
the solution back to the villager. He has to translate abstract formula into clear, understandable
language, and show them how, when, and where the new knowledge may be profitably applied.

Research discovers and develops technology; it is the source of new information. Extension imparts
the technology to be used; it spreads the necessary information (now or at any future time) from its
source to the ultimate user - the villager and the members of his family and encourages them to use
the information.

2.3.3 Extension bases its programs on people's need as well as technical and national
economic needs.

All people desire higher goals in life. Once people are convinced of the value of new methods and
that the new methods will help them reach their goal, they will change to attain this desired goal.
Therefore, the major task of extension is to convince the people of the value of new and better
practices. Extension paves the way for further progress by making the community aware of the
benefits to be obtained from this program.

2.3.4 Extension is education process

The concept that the broader function of extension work is to help people solve their own problems
through the application of scientific knowledge is now generally accepted. If this is true, then
extension must be regarded as largely educational. But it is different from the type of education
taught in schools and colleges. The principal difference is that extension involves no coercion of any
sort. It is an accepted fact that no extension set-up has the necessary staff to direct every action and
see that it is carried out effectively.

Extension depends on the ability of a limited number of workers to inspire clientele and to create a
desire for more efficient production, and better living conditions in the rural areas. The clientele must
be encouraged to meet in groups to secure the information and assistance they have come to desire. If
the extension worker would devote more effort to create a desire for information, the clientele would
come and ask for it, rather than wait for it to be brought to them. The motivation of the clientele thus
becomes a phase of extension work worthy of careful study.
4
 Bradfield, D.J., Guide to Extension Training, (Rome: FAO 5th printing 1977) p. 11.
5
 Maunder, A.H., op. cit., p. 1.

Extension differs from formal education in another aspect. It is concerned not only with learning, but
also with the application of the knowledge gained from everyday living. It is an extremely practical
and concrete type of education that may be put to use at once. This matter of timeliness must always
be borne in mind in the planning of extension programs.

All definitions of extension involve changes in the behavior of the clientele, presumably resulting to
further improvement in production, better living conditions and strengthening of the national
economy. Fundamental to any permanent behavioral change is attitude. This is essentially relevant
when working with traditional societies.

In order to change the behavior of many people, extension must first gear their attitude toward
change. It may question traditional practices, and motivate them to improve their own living
conditions.

To bring about a change in attitude is a basic educational function of extension. It has been suggested
that extension is not solely concerned with teaching and securing the acceptance of a particular
improved practice, but with changing the outlook of the clientele and encouraging them to take the
initiative in improving their lives. The effectiveness of extension is measured by its ability to
advance from the static situation which prevails in rural areas.

Change can be brought about by (1) choice, and (2) by force or coercion. Choice may be represented
by education. It is a means to supply the people with knowledge, experience and/or know-how. Force
may be represented by supplies and services in the form of physical/material inputs.

The idea of giving education (choice) instead of physical things is commonly expressed as “helping
people to help themselves”. Education is the primary object of the extension work. Others may stress
physical inputs (force) and make people dependent on them.

Actually, both Education and Supplies/Services, regardless of how they are organized, are necessary
for highly effective extension work -- to get a big change, but the emphasis may vary. An extension
worker should think about using both education to promote improved practices and then making it
viable. He should try to bring out both factors in his work by having a secondary object. This
secondary object is encouraging action through cooperation with others.

2.3.5 Extension cooperates with others which aims to develop individuals, community
and nation.

Extension is only one of the many factors which tend to produce change in society. Aquaculture
extension is concerned mainly with producing change to improve fish production.
 3. EXTENSION AS AN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
This chapter will further stress extension as an educational process because it is neglected in most
extension activities. Education is for the masses so they will want to do what extension recommends.
Also, extension is for those who deal in Supplies and Services so they can do what is necessary for
the masses to adopt the recommendations. Thus, people change because they want to and because it
is possible for them to do so.

3.1 Teaching and Learning

Teaching-learning is one of the most delicate, significant, and complex of all social processes
because it changes the way people think and act. Extension workers must skillfully provide learning
experiences effectively.

3.1.1 Extension teachers and teaching

Emphasis on the educational aspect of extension programs stems from the belief that education helps
people learn how to do things for themselves, whereas Service consists of doing things for the
people. Education makes people self-reliant; service makes them dependent on others. Education is
more than imparting information or supplying answers; it also helps develop the ability to understand
and reason, to think through problems, and arrive at wise solution.

Can teaching be learned? Yes. The ability of individuals engaged in teaching varies. There are no
born teachers as there are no born lawyers, doctors, engineers, fishermen, or carpenters. Everyone is
gifted by nature. Anyone with good intelligence and the will to study, practice, plan, and revise ways
of doing the job can gain the skill to do effective teaching. Hence, there is no mystery about learning
how to be a good extension teacher. It is simply a matter of hard work, practice, concentration and
the will to achieve proficiency. This is the price one must pay for acquiring real skill in any
profession.

3.1.2 Requirements of extension teaching

Good extension teaching requires carefully planned programs, procedure, and technique. Designing
good teaching plans is a highly professional job, and one that pays well as an achievement. A number
of conditions must be met and actions must be taken to make extension teaching procedures and
methods effective.
6
 Leagans, J.P., Guides to Extension Teaching in Developing Countries, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1963, pp. 7–18.
Extension teaching requires specific and clearly defined objectives. All purposeful teaching has
specific objectives derived from the broader program objectives. Before extension teaching can attain
maximum effectiveness, changes desired in the behavior of people must be identified.

Teaching objectives properly stated, contain four different aspects: people to be taught, behavioral
changes to be developed in people, content or subject matter to which the behavior is related, and life
situation in which the action is to take place. For example: the teaching objective in a training
program may be to develop the skill (behavior) of extension workers (persons) in conducting method
demonstrations (content) before groups of fish farmers (life situation). Another objective may be to
impart knowledge (behavior) among fish farmers (people) the benefits gained from applying the right
amount of fertilizer (content) through demonstrations (life situation). Still another objective may be
to develop interest (behavior) among fish farm families (people) in fishery cooperatives (content)
through community meetings (life situation).

It can be seen from these examples that well stated teaching objectives are specific in the behavior
changes desired, the people who are to make the change, the content to be dealt with, and the life
situation in which teaching and learning are to take place. The examples also show that the elements
are different in each objective. Teaching objectives stated in this manner give direction and guidance
to both teachers and learners as well.

It is true that one can accomplish some favourable results without a clear definition of what he is
trying to do, but if improvements will result from the total program, extension workers must have
well-defined teaching objectives. Achievements, therefore, can be adequate only in terms of some
standard, and that standard can only be derived from one's concept of the objectives he wishes to
attain through teaching effort.

Extension teaching must accomplish certain kinds of educational changes in relation to the subject
matter taught. Among these are:

- Changes in knowledge, or things known, amount of knowledge, and kinds of knowledge.

Examples: stocking rate (by farm size), kinds and amounts of fertilizer to use, kinds and
amounts of pesticide to use.

- Changes in skills, or ability to do things. How easily and effectively one can do a specified
task, and the number of things one can do, are all reflections of skill.

- Changes in attitude or feelings, for or against things and issues, points of view, beliefs,
reactions and the like. Attitudes are important in determining what a person does and how he
does it. They must become strongly positive (favorable) before desired changes in behavior
will give him satisfaction if the interest is met.

-
 - Changes in interest: Interest is a specific form of attitude, but educational interest may be
defined as a desire to learn, or to gain information, or to understand, or to gain skill,
pertaining to some object in one's environment that he believes will give him satisfaction if
the interest is met.

- Changes in understanding: Understanding has to do with gaining insight into the relationship
of facts and issues, usually involving cause and effect. It has to do with the development of a
deeper and broader vision of how various elements, important facts and principles operate in
a situation. To gain understanding requires knowledge and thinking skill.

Extension teaching usually requires a combination of teaching methods. Because not all extension
methods will reach the people or influence them, a combination of various teaching methods must be
considered. By and large, the changes people make on their farms, in their homes, and in their
communities are in proportion to the number of times they are exposed to information through
personal visits, meetings, demonstrations, and the like. Obviously, if wide response is desired, rural
people must be exposed to changes.

Extension teaching requires careful evaluation of results. Evaluation is useful in guiding teaching
effort and educational programs. Extension teaching is complex because observation alone cannot be
a basis for evaluation. Pretesting is more precise than casual observation in determining the outcome
of an educational activity.

3.1.3 Learning experience and learning situations

Learning experience is the core of the educational process. It is the mental and/or physical reaction of
a learner to seeing, hearing, or doing the things to be learned.

An effective learning situation consists of five essential elements:

1. An effective instructor or leader

2. Learners who want and need to learn

3. Content or subject matter that is useful to learners

4. Appropriate instructional equipment and materials

5. An appropriate physical environment

There is a constant reaction by the learners with each of the other four major elements in the learning
situation. For example, a learner may at one time be reacting to the dress of the instructor, to his
mannerisms, or to his voice; at another time to his teaching equipment, or to the manner in which he
handles the subject matter; later to some aspect of the physical facilities such as the hard chair, or
poor light, or excessive heat. In addition to the mental focus on these elements, and many others not
mentioned here, learners react to such items as outside obstructions, individual interpretation,
members of the group, and personal problems. The great task of the extension worker is to minimize
the almost infinite number of possible distractions to the mental process. The effectiveness of a
learning experience is therefore, related directly to the manner and extent of mental concentration on
the subject matter.

There are a number of things an instructor can do that would help assure a good learning situation.
Some of the important ones are given below:

1. Have in mind that teaching objectives are clearly significant to the learners, and are attainable
through the educational process within the mental and physical limitations of the learners.

2. Have a thorough knowledge of significant subject matter related to the learner's needs.

3. Be personable, enthusiastic, and interested in the subject matter.

4. Use democratic instructional procedures and approaches.

5. Be prepared, prompt, and courteous in every teaching-learning session.

6. Arrange and manage the learning situation to prevent or minimize distractions within and
outside the learning situation.

7. Be skillful in the use of teaching material and equipment such as blackboard, visual
equipment and other reading materials.

8. Always prepare and use a carefully developed teaching plan.

To become a proficient extension teacher one must constantly work at analyzing his teaching
procedures, motivating his audience, research of new technology to extend, gaining further
understanding of the teaching-learning process, and developing greater skill in selecting, combining,
and using the methods of extension education.

3.2 Communication

Communication is the process of imparting or exchanging information. As we have seen people learn
in many ways. The transfer of modern technology to effect change from traditional to scientific
aquaculture is the aim. To be able to teach these better skills they must know how to communicate
effectively. The extension worker becomes the bridge between researchers and fish farmers. This
section is concerned with the skills of communicating knowledge to the fish farmer. Unless extension
workers communicate effectively, they fail as teachers. The communication process (SMCR) consists
of four essential elements (Figure 1):

1. Sender/Communicator of ideas/information

2. Message to be sent/transmitted

3. Channels/means of communication
 4. Receiver of information/audience

When an extension worker goes to the fish farmer, the extension worker must start the conversation.
Therefore, he is the sender; what he says is the message; the spoken word is the channel; and the fish
farmer is the receiver. When the fish farmer replies, the roles are temporarily reversed. The fish
farmer is the sender and extension worker becomes the receiver. Fish farmer’s response is the
feedback.

FIGURE 1
SMCR Modal of Communication

The Communicator (sender) is the originator of the communication. As an extension worker, he must

take the initiative to establish communication with the fish farmer and keep it functioning. As a
communicator the extension worker must be credible. He should gain the confidence of his clientele.
Credibility can be improved by learning to communicate effectively.

A good communicator must:

 know his clientele, their wants and needs

 know his message, its content and how to present it

  know effective channels of communication for his message to get across and know his own
abilities and limitations

 be interested in his clientele and their welfare and how his message can help

 be interested in improving his skills in communication

 prepare his message carefully, using appropriate materials to elicit interest from the clientele

 speak clearly

 use simple words to be easily understood

 realize the mutual understanding between extension workers and the fishfarmer is mostly the
worker's responsibility

 be time conscious.

The Message: Extension workers have important information and ideas which he hopes will be
received and interpreted by the clientele as he intended. Oftentimes, this is not the case due to
incomplete information, poor presentation, and other reasons. To avoid these difficulties, extension
workers should be prepared to reiterate the information.

The purpose or objective should be clear in mind. What change in behavior do you want to bring
about? It can be a change in knowledge, attitude, skills, or in what you expect the clientele to do.

The content of the message should be of interest to him. It must be related to something he
understands, feels or thinks, something he can accept.

The treatment of the message is important to make it acceptable and understandable to the receiver
(fishfarmer). It should be organized in terms he understands. It should conform to accepted social
standards. Treatment can make a message interesting or boring.

The Channels of Communication: Extension methods are channels of communication. These

methods may be classified as visual, spoken, or written or a combination of both.

Spoken methods include field and home visits, office calls, meeting of all kinds, radio, television and
telephone calls. Except for radio and television, the rest are a two-way communication. Differences
of opinion can be cleared up on the spot.

There are also disadvantages and obstacles to be overcome. Since an oral message is not always
recorded, the receiver may remember it differently than the sender wants. Where premise statements
are only spoken, the receiver has no way to refer back to what was said. In spite of its problems,
spoken communication when supplemented with visual aids is the best method of extension work.
Written communication is indispensable in day-to-day activities of extension. Records and reports
must be prepared, kept available for use, and submitted to superiors. The clientele must be kept
informed of activities and accomplishments.

Written communications have greater status and carry more authority than oral communication.
Letters, bulletins, circulars, announcements of events and magazines contribute to extension in
literate societies. They provide a low-cost method to disseminate information to a large number of
people, but this is only a one-way communication. Few people will change their methods of
fishfarming only because they read about it. An effective extension worker will adapt his extension
methods to the subject, to the communication skills of the clientele and to the facilities available.

The Receiver (audience): The receivers are the acceptors. If the receiver did not accept, there was no
communication at all.

The significant thing to remember is this: while some may agree on some aspect, they may also differ
in thousands of ways. Often, some of these differences block communication.

Differences in education mean different abilities to understand a difficult concept and other
technicalities. For this reason, communication often fails because of a gap or language barrier.

In communication there are what we call filters. Filter in this sense is anything that prevents a
message from getting through to the intended audience. Filters may be fear, prejudice, inability to
grasp the idea, or any possible barriers.

The point is that a good communicator anticipates and tries to prevent filters if he can; he is ready
with every means to overcome barriers in any case.

Communication failure may also occur when the idea being communicated is contrary to the
accepted local customs and beliefs. This too is filter. Recognizing this danger, alternative approaches
to the problem should be used.

The process by which a sender can convey his message to the audience often affects the transfer of
an idea. If he is sincere and respectable, he is more likely to succeed in transmitting his idea to his
audience.

3.3 Diffusion

Two interrelated processes help bring new ideas from their source of initial development to
acceptance by fish farmers. These processes are called diffusion and adoption.

The diffusion process refers to the spread of new ideas from the original source to the ultimate users.
In the case of aquaculture, it is the process by which new farm practices or innovations are
communicated from sources of origin, usually researchers and practices adopted from advanced
countries. The adoption process is a mental process through which an individual passes from first
hearing about a new idea to its final adoption. The five stages in the adoption process commonly
accepted today are:
Awareness Stage. At the awareness stage the individual is exposed to the innovation but lacks
complete information about it. The individual is aware of the innovation, but is not yet motivated to
seek further information. The primary function of the awareness stage is to initiate the sequence of
later stages that lead to eventual adoption of the innovation.

Interest Stage. At the interest stage the individual becomes interested in the new idea and seeks
additional information about it. The individual favours the innovation in a general way, but he has
not yet judged its utility in terms of his own situation. The function of the interest stage is mainly to
increase the individual's information about the innovation. The cognitive of “knowing” component of
behavior is involved at the interest stage. The individual is more psychologically involved with the
innovation at the interest stage than at the awareness stage. Previously, the individual listened or read
about the innovation; at the interest stage he actively seeks information about the idea. His
personality and value, as well as the norms of his social system or groups may affect where he seeks
information, as well as how he interprets this information about the innovation.

Evaluation Stage. At the evaluation stage the individual mentally applies the innovation to his present
and anticipated future situation and then decides whether or not to try it. A sort of “mental trial”
occurs at the evaluation stage. If the individual feels the advantages of the innovation outweight the
disadvantages, he will decide to try the innovation. The trial itself, however, is conceptually distinct
from the decision to try the new idea. The evaluation is probably least distinct of the five adoption
stages, and one of the most difficult from which to question respondents. The innovation carries a
subjective risk to the individual. He is unsure of the results, and for this reason, a reinforcement
effect is needed at the evaluation stage to convince the individual that his thinking is on the right
path. Information and advice from peers is likely to be sought at this point.

Trial Stage. At the trial stage the individual uses the information on a small scale in order to
determine its utility in his own situation. The main function of the trial stage is to demonstrate the
new idea in the individual's own situation and determine its usefulness for possible complete
adoption. It is thus a validity test or “dry run”; the decision to use the ideas on a trial basis was made
at the evaluation stage. The individual may seek specific information about the method of using the
innovation at the trial stage.

Adoption Stage. At the adoption stage the individual decides to continue the full use of the
innovation. The main function of the adoption stage are considerations of the trial results and the
decision to ratify sustained use of the innovation. Adoption implies continued use of the innovation
in the future.

These then are the stages in the mental process of accepting new ideas and practices. Individuals may
go through these stages at the different rates depending upon the practice itself. The complexity of
the practice seems to be a major factor in determining the rate and manner with which people go
through these mental stages.

An innovation may be rejected at any stage in the adoption process. The individual may decide at the
evaluation stage that the innovation will not apply to his situation and mentally reject it. Or, the
innovation may be rejected at the trial stage, where the individual decides that the rewards expected
from adoption will not outweigh the cost and effort of doing so. Rejection may occur for less rational
reasons.
Factors affecting adoption

The relative speed with which a new idea is adopted depends partially upon the characteristics of the
new idea. Some factors affecting the rate of adoption are:

1. Cost and economic return. New practices that are high in cost generally tend to be adopted
more slowly than do the less costly ones. However, regardless of cost, practices which
produce high returns for money invested tend to be adopted more rapidly than those which
yield lower returns. Also, practices producing quick returns on investment tend to be more
rapidly adopted than those which produce deferred returns or returns over a long period of
time

2. Complexity. New ideas that are relatively simple to understand and use will generally be
accepted more quickly than more complex ideas. For example, increased fertilizer application
is likely to be more readily accepted than an innovation in fertilizer application methods.

3. Visibility. Practices also vary in the extent to which their operation and results are easily seen
or demonstrated. The more visible the practice and its results, the more rapid is its adoption.

4. Divisibility. Practices such as fertilizer application, different fertilizer analysis, feed

additives, weed sprays, or seed varieties may be tried by sample basis and the results
compared with those from previous practice. A practice that can be tried on a limited basis
will generally be adopted more rapidly than one that cannot.

5. Compatibility. A new idea or practice that is consistent with existing beliefs will be accepted
more rapidly than one that is not.

Other factors such as prestige may affect the speed of adoption. In some areas, it may be considered a
mark of social prestige to have a farm plan. The demand for farm planning may be considerable
although the degree to which the farmers put their plans into effect may vary considerably.

In any community, the readiness to accept new ideas and to put them into practice vary from farmer
to farmer. We can classify them according to their readiness to accept new ideas.

Innovators. These are farmers who are eager to accept new ideas. Usually there are only a few people
in this class in the normal farming community. In village societies, innovators are often looked on
with suspicion and jealousy. Yet, they are important to the success of an extension program for they
can be persuaded to try new methods and thereby create awareness in the communities where they
live. However, the extension worker should exercise tact and caution and avoid individual
preferences publicly which could result in rejection of the idea as a whole.

Early adopters. These are farmers who are more cautious, and want to see the idea tried and proven
first under local conditions. They express early interest but must be convinced by result of
demonstrations of the direct benefit to them. Usually this group of people includes local leaders and
others who are respected in the community. Their support is vital to the process of acceptance by the
community.
The majority. The rest of the farming community adopts a new idea slowly and often less
completely. They differ in the speed of adoption. Some may never adopt the idea at all and may
continue to oppose it. The majority are more likely to be influenced by the opinions of local leaders
and neighbors than by the extension workers.

The main purpose of studying this classification is to understand how people can accept the new
ideas that are being taught to them and be able to select leaders who can help program their objective
and follow-up actions. If farmers in an area are not aware of the new idea, the innovators and early
adopters must help demonstrate the accepted results for the benefit of the community.

4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN EXTENSION

What people do by tradition is mainly determined by the
organization of the society and its culture. Society is the term
used to describe a group of people who have lived and
worked together long enough to get themselves organized
and to think collectively as a social unit. Society has
structure, that is to say, a patterned arrangement of
relationships between the people of that society.

Structure or organization is the way in which the society

organized into families, clans, tribes, communities, clubs,
etc. Culture is the way of life of the society, the way people
behave. Culture is the product of people in a society or
group; the ideas, attitudes, rules, and habits which people
develop to help them in their conduct of life.

Progressive fish farming extension involves the fish farmer in making the decision for himself on
what species to grow, how to grow them and how best to use the land, labor, and capital. By
persuading the fish farmers to adopt progressive fish farming methods, extension workers should
encourage fish farmers to make decisions on fish farming activities which have in the past been
strongly influenced by the traditions and habits of the society.
7
 Bradfield, D.J., op. cit., p. 98

4.1 Social Structure

Social structure means the established patterns of internal organization of any social group. It
involves the character of the sum total of the relationships which exist between members of the group
with each other and with the group itself. Thus, extension workers should understand the structure of
the society with which one is working, to know who does what in the community and, in particular to
know who makes the decisions.

The factors causing the division of people into groups and societies are as follows:

 Sex division

 Religious and ceremonial groups

  Division based on age

 Kinship/Kinship groups

 Grouping on the basis of common residence

4.1.1 Sex division

Each society has its own more or less unique systems of relationship between opposite sexes,
between females and females, between males and males. Traditionally, in the Philippines, beliefs,
values and sentiments abound in the matter of sex. Sometimes one sex is superior to the other,
oftentimes excluding one or other sex from certain spheres of activity such as religious ceremonial or
political leadership. If an extension worker is planning to introduce a new technique in a fishpond,
then he must fully understand the customs and traditions in the locality before he can inject change.

4.1.2 Religious and ceremonial groups

Every known culture includes an elaborate set of beliefs in religion. Members of some religious
groups have common loyalties and attitudes. In the Philippines, especially in the Mindanao area,
different religious groups exist which affect the performance of an individual.

4.1.3 Division based on age

Age gives one bodily and mental characteristics generally common to others of the same age, but
different from the individuals who are appreciably older or younger. Similarity of experience, like
having lived during World War II, gives an age group identity. In this case, a pattern of mutual
interrelationships has always to be worked out among persons of the different age levels.

Keesing, F.M., Cultural Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winstons 1966), p. 25.
Ibid, p. 248.
4.1.4 Kinship/Kinship groups

Kinship has been called the “core” of social organization. In many smaller communities and
societies, kinship is the paramount factor in organizing group activities. The ideas, sentiments and
loyalties associated with such kin linkages are frequently carried over beyond the sphere of actual
ties, as with the fraternity brother to a co-member, or a whole nation calling its ruler “Father”.

Kinship groups are groups of closely related people. The basic family unit is father, mother and
children, but this unit is made a part of a larger group by bonds of blood and marriage, while a larger
unit is known as the kinship group, the bonds which tend to make members conform to group
behavior of the kinship group; attributes and responsibilities are called kinship ties.

Kinship ties fall into three categories:

 Ties of biological ancestry or that which is caused or effected by consanguinity

 Ties of marriage or that which is effected by affinity

  Factional ties that is, the socially defined equivalents of ties caused by adoption being
godparents or due to beliefs, etc.

4.1.5 Grouping on the basis of common residence

This group usually consists of one small unit, the family. The Philippine social structure, on the basis
of common residence, comprises the rural and urban communities. Rural communities are usually
small and the occupation of the people is usually farming, fishing and food gathering, supplemented
by the cottage industries, while the urban communities are usually large, with the people engaged in
varied occupations.

The urban areas comprise all municipal jurisdictions whether or not designated as chartered cities or
provincial capitals while the rural areas comprise the barangays of the municipalities.

Ibid, p. 271

4.2 Culture of a Society

A “society” refers correspondingly to specific and usually localized population with distinctive
customary ways of aggregation. It

teaches them the customs and traditions of the group and the society. Later still, they are initiated
more fully into the society by their elders. As the individual grows older, experiences help him to
understand more fully the behavior pattern of his society and may also teach him how he can
improve from their traditional norms.

Culture is basically concerned with actions, ideas and artifacts which individuals have learned,
shared and valued. It is not an accidental consists of a definable number of individuals - large or
small, with given aids and sex patterns, birth and death rates, community distribution or settlement
patterns, degree of mobility and other characteristics. “Culture” puts the focus on the customs of
people, society puts it upon the people who are practicing the customs. Culture could not exist
without people conditioned to it and could not transmit it to the descendants, without society.

We have seen that the culture of a society is the way in which people live, their customs, traditions,
methods of cultivation, etc. The culture of the society is learned by each individual member of the
society. Children are not born with knowledge of the culture of the society; they learn by seeing how
older children and adults behave. Later, kinship collection of customs and habits. It has been evolved
by the people to help them in their conduct of life. Each aspect of the culture of a society has a
definite purpose and function, and is therefore related to all other aspects of its culture. For instance,
changing food habits of consumers require a corresponding change by the producers.

4.2.1 Changes in culture

Culture changes as different patterns of behavior are adopted. New types of clothing, transportation,
housing, and personal relationships are accepted by members of the culture. Cultural changes may be
started by society or may be a result of changes in the general economic status of a country.
Shortages in raw materials, such as petroleum products, will change cultures throughout the world as
each country adapts to the shortage. It is the extension worker's responsibility to assist fish-farmers to
adapt to new conditions and adopt better production methods.

A culture may change by copying the ideas of another culture. “Women's lib” is an example of a
borrowed cultural change. Women's liberation began in Europe after World War II when the ratio of
men to women was drastically changed. Women had to come out of the home and become active
politically and economically. A woman who is able to earn as much or more than a man is not likely
to recognize the cultural idea of male superiority. Once a woman has economic and political
freedom, sexual equality follows. Urban areas are usually the first to adopt cultural change. A
comparison between a woman's role in Manila and the provinces shows that rural areas are more
fixed in their cultural behavior.

4.3 Factors Promoting Change

The dynamic force of change affects the whole system. All elements of the system become involved:
its people, its organization, the environment, the attitudes, patterns of communications, etc. There are
many factors promoting change and this should be well understood before planning extension work.

Keesing, F.M., Op. cit., pp. 30–31

1. 4.3.1 Innovators The continuous contact with different culture and adapting to their norms, under the transition
process is called

- In every society there are some individuals who are more ready than others to accept new ways of
life. They have certain influence in society but it is minor.

4.3.2 Contact with other culture

- Two groups with different culture coming into contact are in a situation where one may take over
cultural elements “Diffused” from the other. Where contact has some continuity, the transition
process is called acculturation. Extension workers are introducing new, scientific ways of fish
farming evolved technologically from advanced societies. Anyone who has travelled or who has
worked with people in a foreign country brings back ideas which may have changed his own way of
life. The more people in a society are exposed to new ideas, the more it is likely that change may be
accepted by the society as a whole.

4.3.3 Communications

- Roads bring changes to a rural society. With good roads people can travel to other places and learn
more progressive ways in the cities. Newspapers and radios also bring people in remote parts into
contact with the outside world.

4.3.4 Other factors

- There are many other factors which promote change. Learning institutions may also be means of
exposing the youth of one society to the ideas, values and way of life of another. Political and
economic factors may promote change. Money again, is another factor which promotes change.
There will be more improvement in a community if funds could be appropriated by the government
for the purpose. In addition to this, the environment influences the physical and cultural changes in a
society. Better education can improve educational facilities, and good working conditions can cause
considerable differences in the achievement of change.

4.3.5 Extension of the rural development work

- Extension workers and personnel of other rural development organizations are agents of change,
bringing new ideas to the community. Fishery extension, as one of the many factors promoting
change, seeks to accelerate the pace of change and to guide it in ways that are agriculturally, socially
and economically sound and culturally acceptable to the people.

4.4 Barriers to Change
4.4.1 Culture based barriers

Tradition - Igorot society can be identified by its cultural practices. Igorot people can also be
identified as part of the Filipino culture by similarities to other societies in the Philippines. Igorots
resist change from their traditional ways so as to preserve their identity.

Belief in their own culture - Members of all societies believe that their way of life are the best.
Individuals in the system tend to resist any types of change because new ideologies and sacrifices are
required.

Pride and dignity - People may be too proud to resist new ways in fishing unless they be looked
down upon.

Relative values - Rural people may value taste, appearance or some other factor more than the yield
of cash return for a different variety of fish; this prevents them from culturing a new and lucrative
variety of fish.

Unforeseen difficulties - In the Philippines, improved techniques in pond management are being
introduced by the extension workers. Some of these are stock manipulation, fertilization and pond
layout.

4.4.2 Social barriers to change

Responsibilities of the individual - Individuals within a society have their own responsibilities which
they are expected to carry out. Responsibility as a parent, godparent, or child of dependent parents
are examples of individual responsibility.

Traditional ceremonies - Ceremonies such as weddings, funerals, etc. can take up so much of the
farmer's time that he cannot work on his fishfarm to the maximum efficiency. He is, therefore,
unlikely to adopt new methods which might increase his income because he devotes more time to
other obligations than working in his farm.

Social structure - Extension workers should understand the structure of the society in which they
work to be able to recognize and seek the intercession of influential people to persuade the society to
accept changes. This is an underlying assumption that religion, culture, and other states of the human
soul cannot be radically changed without a redistribution of area of power, property and structure.

There is no community without structure and there can be no human community without culture.
Man's social structure is a good deal more variable than those of other species.

To see social structure in perspective, the whole context of the cultural growth and how the groups
achieve their vitality should be understood. It is also necessary to recognize official leaders who have
influence over the groups' activities.

4.4.3 Psychological barriers to change

Attitude toward government personnel - People sometimes regard government personnel as tax
collectors or law enforcers. Extension workers should not be involved in the collection of money,
taxes or repayment of loans, or in prosecuting people who break the law. The extension worker's job
is to teach the people better fish farming technologies to improve their quality of life.

Attitude toward gifts - People often think of gifts as things of little or no value, especially gifts from
the government otherwise why should anyone give them away? They think that a gift is given with
the purpose of gaining something in return.
14
 Ibid, p. 111
15
 Ibid, p. 1

5. EXTENSION PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

An extension program in aquaculture is a written plan with goals and objectives for the development
of the fishery resource. It is an embodiment of the teaching activities which will effect a planned
change. The goals are long-range in nature, about 5–25 years and the specific objectives are short-
range, usually attainable in a year's time. The aquaculture extension program is an integral part of the
overall Fisheries Extension Program which is committed to the upliftment of the socio-economic
status of the people dependent on fishfarming and fishing as a livelihood. The extension program is
for these people and for qualified extension workers to assist and guide them in the development of
the fishery resource. The extension program is carried out through the work plan which shows how
the extension worker proposes to attain the program objectives. The work plan states when, where,
and how extension activities will be carried out.

5.1 Program Planning

Writing and implementing an extension program requires planning. Extension program planning
involves a process of selecting the best course of action to accomplish an objective. It deals with an
individual extension worker's decision. The precise patterns vary considerably as situations differ
from one another, however, the following steps in planning should be taken into consideration:

5.1.1 Data gathering

The first step is to collect the facts. These can be divided into three groups:
Natural resources - These are the soil, rivers, streams, bays, forest, vegetation and the climate. Data
are gathered by means of ocular survey, interview of respondents.

Human resources - Data are about population, e.g., census on the number of fishing households. It
also includes social and cultural factors like social structure, composition of the community,
prejudices and taboos, attitude and preferences, etc.

Farming business - This concerns data on the size of farms in the area, production, management
practices, availability of inputs, market, etc.

5.1.2 Situation analysis

Next to collection of facts, is the analysis of the situation. With the available important and useful
facts, the prevailing situation is related to the desired situation. On the other hand, the relative
importance of each need is also analyzed. One problem might deserve more consideration than the
others.

5.1.3 Problem identification

Problems are identified after data are gathered and the prevailing situation is analyzed. Problems are
then prioritized according to relevance and meaning. They are also stated from the standpoint of the
community, the home, and the farm. And it should be emphasized that problems without adequate or
practical solution should never be included in the plan but, instead, be referred to research.

5.1.4 Objective setting

Each general objective will be analyzed. This is breaking down the general objective into a series of
simple steps which can be understood and applied by all concerned.