FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

FACILITATING
LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE

PONCIANO S. ABDON, MAEd

  Associate Professor V
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SECTION 1 ILO
DEMONSTRATE UNDERSTANDING OF LEARNER-CENTERED
THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THE TYPES OF LEARNING

SECTION 2 ILO
RELATE THE DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING IN
SELECTING EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES AND
METHODOLOGIES

SECTION 3 ILO
DESIGN LEARNING ACTIVITIES TO ADDRESS
THE DIVERSE NEEDS OF LEARNERS.

SECTION 4 ILO
DEVELOP MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR
EFFECTIVE LEARNER-CENTERED
LEARNING.

SECTION 5 ILO
DESIGN LEARNING ACTIVITIES TO
FACILITATE THE COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE PROCESS IN LEARNING.

 
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Module 1
Chapter 1
Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

Introduction
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that
comes to our mind is studying subjects or courses like
mathematics, science, and languages in school. In a
broader sense though, learning extends much more
beyond the confines of the classroom or the school.
People learn every day of their lives in various places and
conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it,
expectedly from a major part of the experiences for you
who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is
important for you to understand the nature of learning,
because you play a major role in the students’ learning.
Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts
will enable you to better develop teaching methodologies
and other interventions meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at large. Learning connotes
observed changes in a person because of environmental events and interventions. The process of education is
a deliberate effort to ensure that as student go up the educational ladder, developmental changes in their
personality are affected.
This has to do with improve and enhance physical, emotional, social, and cognitive skills, and
knowledge and other personality behaviors.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. analyze learner-centered theories of learning
2. define and explain learning
3. discuss the different types of learning
4. explain the learner-centered principles
5. classify the factors and how they would affect learning
6. identify some learner-centered instructional strategies which address learners’ needs.
7. discuss theories of learning that enable us to understand better complex phenomenon.

 
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PRE-TEST
Directions: Identify what each statement refers to. Write your answer before the
number.
__________ 1. This refers to a relatively permanent influence on behavior through experience.
__________ 2. This learning involves the use of spoken language as communication device.
__________ 3. It is a form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental processes.
__________ 4. It is a form of learning that maintains daily life activities.
__________ 5. This perspective focuses on individual learner.
__________ 6. An organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire knowledge.
__________ 7. This strategy emphasizes real-life problem solving.
__________ 8. This theory of learning was proposed by Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike.
__________ 9. The theory that pertains to preparing the individual to solve problem.
__________ 10. The study of emerging concerns about transforming the goals to meet new demands.

Check your answers here.

1. Learning
2. Verbal Learning
3. Concept Learning
4. Motor Learning
5. Learner-centered
6. Learning theory
7. Problem-Based Learning
8. Behaviorism
9. Social Constructivism
10. 21st Century learning skills

EVALUATION. Evaluate yourself as follows:

If your score is 10, then your work is excellent;

If your score is between 8-9 points, it is highly satisfactory;
If your score is between 6-7 points, it is satisfactory, but
If your score is 5 points or lower, it is unsatisfactory

 
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The Nature of Learning

According to Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in

Woolfolk, 2013 stated that learning is generally
defined as any change in the behavior of the
learner. The change can be deliberate or
unintentional, for better or for worse, correct, or
incorrect and conscious or unconscious. The following
are the terms to be qualified for learning:
 The change should be brought about by
experience or by interaction of the person with
the environment. (agent of social changes)
 This will no longer called learning if the change
is brought about maturation like maturation or
hair turning gray.
 Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue or
hunger are not also included as learning.
Changes generally signifies either in the direction of the positive or negative, it should be abided in
mind that for our purposes in education means a conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral changes
among learners in the positive directions. We should look to the goals and objectives of education as our guide
to successfully effect the desired learning outcomes. We should be thinking about improving and enhancing
learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills, and values, quantitatively and qualitatively speaking.
Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge,
and thinking skills that comes about through experience. It is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations because of experience. The best example for it is, children will change from being unable to
operate a computer into individuals who can (gradually learn) or said to be that experience is the best teacher.
There are some things an individual can do due to inherited capacities. An example of this is swallowing or
blinking of the eyes. If an individual develops new methods of study, works harder to solve problems, asks
better questions, then these are learning because of experience.
Here are the following elements that cover the definition of learning.
 It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
 The change is brought about experience.
 It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue, hunger, or
the like.
 It involves mental representation or association; presumably, it has its basis in the brain.
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with behavior including
both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions.
Learning is a process that brings together personal; and environmental experiences and influences for
acquiring, enriching, or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior, and world views
(“Education,” n.d.).
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This experience makes
him to change or modify his behavior to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behavior,
influenced by previous behavior. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests, and other
personality characteristics are all the result of learning.
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice
and experience”. This definition has three important elements.
a. Change in behavior, better or worse.
b. Change takes place through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation); and,
c. Behavior change must be relatively permanent and last for a fairy long time.
Ormrod (2015), “learning is a long-term change in mental representations or associations because of
experience.’’

 
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Types of Learning

There are different types of learning from activities that are learned from classroom activities. These
types of learning serve as the components to success in school. The following are the types of learning that the
schools preferred for the students to develop.

1. Motor Learning – It is a form of learning for one

maintain and go through daily life activities. Most of
our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor
activities as for example, walking, running, driving,
climbing, and the like. All these activities involve
muscular coordination.

2. Verbal Learning - This type of learning involves the

language we speak, the communication devices we
use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures,
sounds, and the like, are the tools used in such
activities. We use words for communication.

3. Concept Learning - It is the form of learning which

requires higher order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, intelligence, and the like, we learn
different concepts from childhood. For example,
when we see a ball and it is round and attach the
term ‘ball’, we learn that the word ball refers to a
thing. Concept learning involves two processes:
abstraction and generalization. This learning is
extremely useful in recognizing and identifying
things.

4. Discrimination Learning – This type of learning is

to differentiate between stimuli and showing an
appropriate response to these stimuli. Example,
sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and
ambulance. Another example of this learning is when
you hear the ice cream cart bell and you get
salivated; however, you do not salivate when the
doorbell ringing.

 
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5. Learning of Principles - Individuals learn certain

principles related to science, mathematics, grammar,
and the like to manage their work effectively. These
principles always show the relationship between two
or more concepts, some examples of which are
formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and the
like.

6. Problem Solving - This is a higher order learning

process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation,
imagination, generalization, and the like. This is
extremely useful to overcome difficult problems
encountered by the people.

7. Attitude Learning - Attitude is a predisposition

which determines and directs behavior. Learned
attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people,
objects, things, or ideas. This behavior may be
positive or negative depending upon the attitudes.
Example: attitudes of a teacher towards his
profession, students, and the like.

Theories of Learning

The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is difficult to visualize and
understand because it is an internal process. Hence it’s not easy to present or explain in concrete
terms what this complex process all about. Thus, there is a need to look at theories of learning to
enable one to better conceptualize and operationalize what learning is all about.
Learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain,
and recall knowledge. It also explains how people learn and why they learn. It is also explaining the
phenomenon of learning-its nature, and the conditions and the stimuli under which learning best
occurs. This consideration explained tentative.
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used differently by different
theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions of learning shifted from changes that
occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to changes in participation in ongoing activities with
other individuals, to changes in a person’s identity within group. (“Theories of Learning,” n.d.)

 
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Defining “Learner-Centered”

Focuses on individual learners -their heredity, experiences,

perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs.

Learner is seen as being

Learner is seen as having unique in meaningful ways.
unbounded potential— They have unique
potential that will unfold at its Learner-
backgrounds, circumstances,
own pace and in its own way. Centered
and starting points with
unique strengths, challenges,
interests, and aspirations.

Is seen as having an innate desire to learn. The job of the

education system is to unleash that desire learner.

L
E
A They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
R
Focus on psychological factors primarily internal under the control of the
N
P learner
E Deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors
R
R I
- Seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation
N
C
C
Principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
I
E developmental, social, and individual differences factors related learning.
P
N L

T E These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in
S the educational system.
E
R
E
D

 
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Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cognitive factors in learning involve various cognitive components like attention, perception, executive
function, and reasoning. It also involves various strategies that one uses to learn something. On the other hand,
metacognitive factors involve the monitoring and evaluation of cognitive factors. Metacognition is the ability that
enables to implement the most effective and efficient strategy to learn.
1. Nature of the Learning Process – Learning of complex subject matter is most effective when
it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Example: A child learns how to clap hands by seeing someone else do it.
2. Goals of the Learning Process – The successful learner, over time, with support and
guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. These factors should
be considered the SMART.
Specific - Is it detailed enough?
Measurable - Is there a way to evaluate progress?
Achievable - Is it realistic?
Relevant - Does the student have reason to achieve the goal?
Time-based - When should it be done?

3. Construction of Knowledge – The learner can relate new information in meaningful ways. In
this process, students respond to some input like reading, a video, or a presentation from the
teacher, or a classroom peer. This may well have been ‘flipped learning’ done out of class by
creating one comment and one question.
In small groups or as a whole class each student takes a turn. The first student shares their
comment and asks their question. The second student either shares their comment, answers
the first question or poses their own question. This continues around the circle, usually there is
only time for one rotation in a whole class activity, but additional rotations are possible, and
encouraged in small groups, once students understand the process and can independently
manage it.
4. Strategic Thinking – The learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex goals.
Example: You make an effort, on a daily basis, to surround yourself with people, ideas, and
readings that are different and diverse so that you can be better informed when you are
called upon to make a decision or can think of new and innovative ways of doing things that
will involve others.
5. Thinking About Thinking – Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
According to the LD Online Glossary (2014), metacognition is the process of "thinking about
thinking.
Example: A good readers use metacognition before reading when they clarify their purpose
for reading and preview the text.
1. A student learns about what things help him or her to remember facts, names, and
events.
2. A student learns about his or her own style of learning.
3. A student learns about which strategies are most effective for solving problems.
6. Context of Learning – Learning content is presented with a direct instructional approach.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.
Example: The external learning environment including the quality of equipment and facilities
and the training level of the teacher.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning - Motivation is the force that energizes
and directs behavior. Motivation to learn is determined by many factors; emotional state,
beliefs, interests, goals, habits of thinking and the like. Understanding and encouraging certain
motivational states is key in determining a student’s success in the classroom. What and how
much is learned is influenced by the learner’s level of motivation. To be successful in the
classroom, students must believe

 
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that they are able to effectively and efficiently complete the tasks which are given to them.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn - Intrinsic motivation occurs when the students act without any
obvious external rewards. The students simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to
explore, learn, and actualize our potentials. It is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort -Motivation directs behavior toward goals. Motivation
determines the specific goals toward which people strive; thus, it affects the choices students
make. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without this motivation, willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless persuaded.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental Influences on Learning – As individuals develop, they encounter different

opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most effective
when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
considered. Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development claims that children are naturally curious
and use exploration to make sense of the world around them. They discover and adapt to the
world through exploration what is unfamiliar to them. Piaget believed that children’s cognitive
development was enriched because of this exploration and discovery, and this enrichment
brings them from lower to higher mental structures.
11. Social Influences on Learning - Social influence is the change in behavior that one person
causes in another, intentionally or unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed person
perceives themselves in relationship to the influencer, other people and society in general.
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning – Learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. It is important for
teachers to know variables such as physical characteristics, intelligence, perception, gender,
ability, learning styles, which are individual differences of the learners. An effective and
productive learning-teaching process can be planned by considering these individual
differences of the students.
13. Learning and Diversity – Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
social, and cultural backgrounds are considered.
1. Understanding and appreciating interdependence of humanity, cultures, and the natural
environment.
2. Practicing mutual respect for qualities and experiences that are different from our own.
3. Understanding that diversity includes not only ways of being but also ways of knowing.
4. Recognizing that personal, cultural, and institutionalized discrimination creates and sustains
privileges for some while creating and sustaining disadvantages for others.
5. Building alliances across differences so that we can work together to eradicate all forms of
discrimination.
14. Standard and Assessment – Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing he learner and learning progress-including diagnostic and outcome assessment are
integral part of the learning process.
a. choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.
b. developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.
c. administering, scoring, and interpreting the results of both externally produced and teacher-
produced assessment methods.
d. using assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning,
teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement.
e. developing valid pupil grading procedures that use pupil assessments.
f. communicating assessment results to students, parents, other lay audiences, and other
educators.
g. recognizing unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of
assessment information.

 
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Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which address learners’ needs. They
are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem solving. It exposes learners to authentic life
problems that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves small-group efforts to identify
problems and issues they wish to tackle and explore. This problem is what drives the motivation and
the learning.
 Examine and define the problem.
 Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
 Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools
necessary to solve the problem.
 Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
 Solve the problem.
 Report on their findings.

2. Essential Questions. Essential questions

are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is
followed by other questions, which motivate
the students to explore the questions and look
for answers. The purpose of this method is for
the students to explore and provoke their
curiosity. Example: How does where you
live influence how you lived?
3. Discovery Learning.
Discovery Learning was introduced by
Jerome Bruner and is a method of Inquiry-
Based Instruction. This popular theory
encourages learners to build on past
experiences and knowledge, use their
intuition, imagination and creativity, and
search for new information to discover facts,
correlations, and new truths. Learning does
not equal absorbing what was said or read,
but actively seeking for answers and
solutions. Teachers should guide and
motivate learners to seek for solutions by
combining existing and newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way,
learners are the driving force behind learning, take an active role and establish broader
applications for skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-solving and probing.

Learning Point: Theories of Learning

It must be noted that there are many theories of learning because of continuous study and
research, in search for the truth. It is the dynamic nature of theories that enable us to understand better a
complex phenomenon, as learning.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the

learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in the
early 1900s through the research efforts of Ivan Pavlov
and Edward Thorndike who made more objective
studies about learning as opposed to the studies on
learning which relied heavily on introspection.
Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on
objectively observable behaviors and discounts any
independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists

 
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define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. The
learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or
negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the
antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the
likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus;
Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the
learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans.
Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R). All behavior can be
explained without the need to consider the internal mental states or consciousness. Learning is promoted by
environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback, practice, or repetition (“Behaviorism,” n.d.).

The following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism:

a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to variety of animal species.
This is on the assumption that humans and other animals learn in similar ways.
b. Learning process can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and
responses.
c. Behaviorist principles of learning often describe a relationship between a stimulus and a response.
d. Internal process is largely excluded from scientific study.
e. Learning involves a behavior change.
f. Born as blank slates (tabula rasa)
g. Learning from environmental events.
The following are the areas of application of theories under behaviorism: (Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly,
September 2012).

1.   Drill work  7. Giving of rewards

   2.   Repetitive practice  8. Applying of punishments
3. Giving bonus points Behaviorism 9. Giving feedback
4. Giving participation points 10. Positive reinforcement
5. Verbal reinforcement 11. Token reinforcers
6. Establishing rules 12. Negative reinforcement

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

In this theory, the emphasis is placed on the student rather than

the teacher. Teachers are facilitators or coaches who assist
students construct their own conceptualizations and solutions to
problems. The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s
replaced behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for learning. The
human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is necessary to open
it for a better understanding of how people learn. The main ideas
underpinning constructivism learning theories are not new. They
began with the insights of Socrates who claimed that there are
basic conditions for learning that are in the cognition of the
individual (Kanuka & Anderson, 2015). But it was Piaget's theory
of intellectual growth that had the primary influence on the
development of current positions. Specifically, Piaget first
emphasized the processes of conceptual change as interactions
between existing cognitive structures and new experience. Mental
process such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning, and other processes need to be explored.
People are not seen as programmed beings that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is propounded in
behaviorism. It requires an active participation to learn and actions are a result of thinking. Cognitive
constructivism is based on two different senses of construction. First, on the idea that people learn by actively
constructing new knowledge, not by having information poured into their heads. The following are the elements
persuaded to cognitive constructivism:

 
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 Knowledge can be seen such as schema or symbolic.
 Changes in behavior are observed.
 The learner’s mind is compared to a computer for its lot of processing.
 Individuals are thought as an active learner.
 Actively seeking ways to understand and process information.
 Relate and receive what is already known and stored within memory.
 Learning is involving in the reorganization of experiences.

Classifying information
A C
P O
P N Linking concepts
L S
I T
Providing structure
C OF R
A U
T C Real world examples
I T
O I
N V Discussions
I
S
M Problem-solving

Analogies

Imagery

Mnemonics

Social Constructivism

Knowledge is not a thing that can be simply

deposited by the teacher into the empty minds
of the learners. Rather, knowledge is
constructed by learners through an active,
mental process of development; learners are the
builders and creators of meaning and
knowledge. Their minds are not empty. Instead
their minds are full of ideas waiting to be
“midwifed” by the teacher with his/her skillful
facilitating skills. As a worldview or paradigm
that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits
that learning is an active constructive process.
The learner himself constructs knowledge.
Learning is seen as an active contextualized
process of constructing knowledge instead of
simply acquiring it. The following are the elements persuaded to social constructivism:
 Knowledge is based on the learners’ personal experiences and expectations of the environment.
 The person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a situation.

 
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 Each person may have a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.
 All knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge.
 Each person generates knowledge based on his previous experiences or knowledge.
 Individuals develop his own mental models to make sense of his experiences.
 Constructivists see to develop intrinsically motivated and independent learners.
 The constructivist classroom is interactive.
 Teachers provide data or experiences that allow them to hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects,
and invent.

The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Constructivism does not work when
results are expectedly fixed or consistent.

Applications of Social Constructivism

(Kelly, September 2012)

a. Case Studies: A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative
methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing, comparing, evaluating,
and understanding different aspects of a research problem.
b. Problem Solving: It is the capacity to engage in cognitive processing to understand and resolve
problem situation where a method of solution is not immediately obvious.
c. Research Projects: Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an
interpretive framework; to assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing them
in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further inquiries.
d. Brainstorming: It is designed to obtain the maximum number of ideas relating to a specific area or
interest. It is also a technique to maximize the ability to generate the new ideas.
e. Collaborative Learning: It provides a description of qualities necessary for a team to successfully
solve the problem. These include proper group dynamics, acceptance of value and worth of
individuals, conflict resolution and commitment.
f. Discovery Learning: It is a powerful instructional approach that guides and motivates learners to
explore information and concepts to generate new ideas, identify new relationships, and create new
models of thinking and behavior.
g. Simulations: It is a technique used to understand the impact of risk and uncertainty in prediction
and forecasting models.

 
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Salient Points

BEHAVIORISM COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTIVISM

View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of cognitive Knowledge is constructed

Knowledge repertoire of structures are actively constructed within social contexts
behavioral responses by learners based on cognitive through interactions with a
to environmental structures. knowledge community.
stimuli.

View of Passive absorption of Active assimilation and Integration of students into

Learning predefined body of accommodation of new information a knowledge community.
knowledge by the to existing cognitive structures. Collaborative assimilation
learner. Promoted by Discovery by learners. and accommodation of
repetition and positive new information.
reinforcement.

View of Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners set their own goals Intrinsic and extrinsic.
Motivation positive and negative and motivate themselves to learn. Learning goals and
reinforcement. motives are determined
both by learners and
extrinsic rewards provided
by the knowledge
community.

Implications for Correct behavioral Teacher facilitates learning by Collaborative learning is

Teaching responses are providing an environment that facilitated and guided by
transmitted by promotes discovery and the teacher.
teachers and assimilation/accommodation. Group work.
absorbed by students.

1. Social Learning Theory (ALBERT

BANDURA’s THEORY)

This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura

who works both cognitive and behaviorist
frameworks that embrace attention, memory,
and motivation. Bandura (1977) states:
“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform
them what to do. Fortunately, most human
behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Bandura put forward “reciprocal
determinism” that holds the view that a person’s behavior, environment, and personal qualities all

 
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Reciprocally influence each other.

Because it encompasses attention,
memory and motivation, social learning
theory spans both cognitive and
behavioral frameworks. Modeling on
learning is the most important positive
response on this theory.

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education

 Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
 Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
 Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate ones.
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.
 Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
 Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments.
 Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving behavior.

 Socio-constructivism
The constructivist view of learning was further changed by the perspective of “situated cognition and
learning”. It emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction in learning. Knowledge
was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. Vygotsky (1978),
believed that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the
environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. The
following are key goals on achieving socio-constructivism learning.
 1.To provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students determine how they
will learn). 2. To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation of
alternative solutions). 3. To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks). 4.To encourage
ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered learning). 5. To embed learning
in social experience (collaboration).

Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of Education

• Student interest and effort are more important than textbook content.
• It is sometimes better for teachers, not students, to decide what activities are to be done.
• Sense making and thinking are most important, not knowing content.
• Experimentation replaces rote learning.
• Teaching utilizes both skill-based and open-ended approaches.
• Motivation to learn is intrinsic rather than extrinsic (done for its own sake rather than for grades,
test scores or rewards).
• Learners often produce unique and personal knowledge.
• Naïve beliefs are used as the starting point for further discussion, exploration
and evaluation for development, rather than being discounted as ‘wrong’.
• Learning for transfer is important.
• Learners learn best through finding and generating their own knowledge.

 
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 Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning but situate
experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the way experiences, whether
first-or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning. Experiential learning theory differs
from cognitive and behavioral theories in that cognitive theories emphasize the role of mental
processes while behavioral theories ignore the possible role of subjective experience in the learning
process.
experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings
have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes:
(1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing
and making available learning resources, (4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of
learning, and (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating. He supports a
dynamic continuous process or change where new learning results in and affects learning
environments.

Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education

 Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the learners, which could
serve as inputs for related lessons.
 Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the students.
 Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’ learning.

 Multiple Intelligences (MI)

The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book “Frames of
Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines several distinct types of intellectual
competencies.
This theory implies the assumption in
many learning theories that learning
is a universal human process that all
individuals experience according to
the same principles. The MI theory
requires the teachers to come up with
a variety of instructional materials
and strategies, to make sure that the
needs of students with specific
intelligences or abilities are
addressed. Gardner introduced eight
different types of intelligences
consisting of: Logical/Mathematical,
Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Naturalist,
Interpersonal, And Intrapersonal. Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are
most typed valued in school and society. He also suggests that there may other “candidate” intelligences—such
as spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not believe these meet his
original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

 Situated Learning Theory

These concepts were developed by Jean Lave
and Ettiene Wenger. They believed
that situated learning recognizes that there is no
learning that is not situated. It emphasizes the
rational and negotiated character of knowledge.
Classroom learning activities which involve
knowledge which is abstract and out of context.
Social interaction is a critical component of
situated learning — learners become involved in
a “community of practice” which embodies
certain beliefs and behaviors tobe acquired.
Communities of practice are not confined only to

 
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schools but to cover other settings like workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand
both the structure of communities and how learning occurs on them (“Education,” n.d.).

 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of 21st
century learning or skills emerged
from the concerns about
transforming the goals and daily
practice of learning to meet the new
demands of the 21st century
characterized as knowledge and
technology driven. Twenty-first-
century learning embodies an
approach to teaching that marries
content to skill. Without skills,
students are left to memorize facts,
recall details for worksheets, and
relegate their educational experience
to passivity. Without content,
students may engage in problem-
solving or team-working experiences that fall into triviality, into relevance without rigor. Instead, the
21st-century learning paradigm offers an opportunity to synergize the margins of the content vs. skills
debate and bring it into a framework that disperses these contrasts.

Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry based collaborative work that addresses
world issues support the learning of the 21st Century Skills.

Learning Activities 
Activity 1. Theories of Learning 

Name: __________________________________ Yr. & Sec. _________________ Date: ___________

Directions: Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the classroom. Identify
what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you think so.
Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied
1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize the
multiplication table.
2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about an effective
teacher to a group of teacher-trainees.
3. The teacher gave five algebra problems for students to solve.
4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on Philippine
history, after which he asked the students to answer recall
questions.
5. The teacher asked the students to memorize and recite
6. The teacher invited one resource person to give a lecture on
developing habits of cleanliness and hygiene. After the lecture,
the students were encouraged
7. In a science class, the teacher asked the students to do an
experiment and answer the questions based on the results of
the experiment
8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil who give correct
answers to her questions.
9. In a statistics class, the students were asked to interpret the
data illustrated in graphs.
10. The teacher asked the students to do interviews with local
officials. The purpose was to identify who among the local
officials are “good” and “effective” leaders based on a set of

 
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criteria.
11. The teacher asked the students to observe a chef on the
correct way of cooking a recipe.
12. In a coconut-growing locality, many of the topics in the course
had to do with coconuts. In TLE, lessons are on cooking
using coconut recipes. In science, lessons are on how to
improve the by-products of coconuts.
13. On a lesson on environmental conservation, students climbed
a mountain to study the kinds of topographical changes
taking place.
14. In an English (literature) class, the topic was Joyce Kilmer’s
poem, “Trees”. The teacher asked two students to write two
para graphs of their interpretation of the poem from a science
perspective. Two students were also asked to interpret the
poem in music form.
15. The topic under study is to study the use of computer
programs needed for different tasks in the workplace.

Activity 2. Test your Understanding

Name: __________________________________ Yr. & Sec. _________________ Date: ___________

Directions: Since you are done studying the lessons on module 1, answer the following items to test your
understanding on the different concepts.
A. Name two highlights of social constructivism.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
B. Describe two examples of classroom activities that are in keeping with social learning theory.

Example 1. 

Example 2. 

C. Name two important reasons why students should learn and develop 21st century skills.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

D. Given all the theories presented and learned in this chapter, what gives them the characteristics of being
learner-centered?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

 
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You will be graded using the given rubrics below.
10 8 6 4
Organization Extremely well Organized. Somewhat organized Poorly organized. A
organized. Order and Structure allows structure allows clear sense of
structure of reader to move reader to move direction is not
information is through content through some of the evident. Flow is
compelling and flows without confusion. content without frequently
smoothly Flows smoothly confusion. Flow is interrupted.
sometimes
interrupted.
Content Thorough and Complete Shows some Shows incomplete
insightful understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of content content materials
content
Application to able to apply learning usually finds occasionally relates no practical
the real world practical application to real life skills application
Ideas Insightful and well Ideas are Ideas are somewhat Ideas are unclear
considered ideas considered more on topic; make some few connections.
making multiple than one thoughtful connections
connections connection is made

ASSESS

Name: _________________________________ Year & Section: _________________ Date: ____________

Directions: Answer TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong.
________1. Learning is a process that brings environmental experiences.
________2. Motor learning is a form that requires higher-order mental processes.
________3. Problem solving requires a relationship between two or more concepts.
________4. Learning theory is an organized set of principles.
________5. Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on teacher’s capacities on learning.
________6. Attitude learning is a predisposition which determines and predicts behavior.
________7. Learning of principles is a learning to differentiate between two stimuli.
________8. The learner can create new information is part of Strategic Thinking.
________9. Context of learning is influenced by environmental factors.
________10. Problem-Based Learning exposes learners to authentic life problems.
________11. Developmental influences encounter same opportunities and experiences.
________12. Essential questions should be used to motivate the student’s exploration.
________13. Constructivism is a view that operates on the stimulus-response behavior.
________14. Drill is part of Behaviorism Theory.
________15. A simulation is used under Social Constructivism Theory.

 
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References:
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching by: Dalisay G. Brawner, Ed.D.
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-
theories-of-learning/652
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/
https://www.nap.edu/read/9853/chapter/5
https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-
theories-of-learning/652

 
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