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Que Dou 2021

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Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Case study

Sustainable concrete: Potency of sugarcane bagasse ash as a


cementitious material in the construction industry
Pritish Gupta Quedoua,*, Eric Wirquinb , Chandradeo Bokhoreec
a
Institut pour la Recherche et L’Innovation Interdisciplinaire, Université des Mascareignes, Rose Hill, Mauritius
b
Université de Lille, Institut Mines-Télécom, Université. Artois, Junia, ULR 4515 – LGCgE, Laboratoire de Génie Civil et géo-Environnement,
F-59000, Lille, France
c
School of Sustainable Development and Tourism, University of Technology, La Tour Koenig, Mauritius

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The aim of this research is to determine the mechanical and durability properties of
Received 28 January 2021 sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) as a partial replacement to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Received in revised form 25 March 2021 in concrete. The SCBA was partially replaced at the percentage of 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % by
Accepted 2 April 2021
weight of cement for a mean target strength of 27 MPa. A slump range of 130–150 mm was
maintained constant throughout the experiment procedures. A total of 120 cubes and 30
Keywords: rectangular beams were tested and the results were compared with control concrete. To
Sugarcane bagasse ash
evaluate the behaviour of SCBA on concrete, different tests were conducted on the concrete
Cement
Concrete
specimens namely, compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, water
Mix design penetration, carbonation and ultrasonic pulse velocity. The results demonstrated that at
Compressive strength 120 days of curing, compressive strength increased by 2.6 % and 1.7 % for 5 % and 10 %
Flexural strength replacement level. The water absorption increased by 255 %, 390 %, 438 % and 488 % for 5 %,
Water absorption 10 %, 15 % and 20 % replacement level. The other tests showed decreased flexural strength
Water penetration and ultrasonic pulse velocity and increased water penetration and carbonation depth. The
Carbonation study inferred that 10 % replacement of OPC by SCBA exhibited positive performances and
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
can be considered a suitable cementitious material in the construction industry.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Presently, concrete is the most widely used man-made construction materials in the World. Their recognition is due to
their availability, capacity to resist water and adaptability in various shapes and dimensions [1]. Concrete is often
manufactured with four primary components which are cement, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and water [2]. Cement,
which is considered a key element, is the second most-consumed substance on Earth after water [3]. As per [4], the global
cement consumption is expected to reach 4.42 billion tons by 2021. However, this value is predicted to increase to 5 billion
tons by 2050 [5]. Cement production has a pernicious effect on both humans and the environment. Its production process
plays an integral part in the greenhouse effect and is responsible for almost 10 % of the worldwide carbon dioxide emission
[6]. Therefore, to minimise the carbon dioxide gas emissions, many researchers have focused on alternative materials that
can replace cement as the main binding component in concrete.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P.G. Quedou), [email protected] (E. Wirquin), [email protected] (C. Bokhoree).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00545
2214-5095/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

To minimise the cement utilisation in concrete, proposals have been made to use agricultural waste materials as a partial
substitution to cement. Many studies have demonstrated that agricultural wastes can indeed be used as an alternate
cementitious material. The focus on this waste has been proposed due to their availability and pozzolanic characteristics [7–
14]. Agricultural wastes such as rice husk ash and sugarcane bagasse ash are considered mineral admixtures with good
pozzolanic properties [15,16]. The effect of pozzolanic materials enhances the concrete properties in terms of materials
rheology, strength development and contribute to the final product's long-term durability. These characteristics of pozzolans
depend mostly on the type of ashes, the source, the processing stages and the temperatures at which these wastes are burnt
(Kalil et al. 2020 Edeh et al. [17] suggested that SCBA can be used as a suitable cementitious material in the construction
industry. Moreover, waste utilisation could contribute to foreign exchange gain and help mitigate solutions for a sound, clean
and pollution-free environment [18].
Sugar cane is one of the main crops grown in over 110 countries, and its total production is around 1500 million tons [19].
Brazil and India are the World’s leading sugarcane producing countries, with Brazil producing over 719 million tons of
sugarcane, which is represented as one-third of the World’s total sugarcane production [20]. India produced 300 million
tonnes of sugarcane per year and generated about 10 million tons of sugarcane bagasse ash [21]. In Mauritius, the bagasse
obtained from sugar cane is used for electricity production mainly during the sugarcane harvest period, and the amount of
bagasse used for the co-generation of electricity in 2015 was 198,450 Ton [22]. To be in line with the recycling of industrial
and agricultural wastage, the sugar cane bagasse ash is considered a potential material for the replacement of cement and
contributes to reducing the disposal problems. It is an ideal product, as sugarcane is one of the most substantial agricultural
plants that grow in hot regions. During the harvest period, sugarcane is crushed in sugar factories, and its juice is extracted,
the remaining fibrous matter obtained is known as the bagasse. Currently, the bagasse is used as a biomass fuel in boilers for
power generation in sugar factories. Burning of bagasse is conducted under controlled temperatures, and the residue
obtained is known as bagasse ash. However, bagasse ash has been considered a waste and is generally disposed of in landfills,
spilt over farms, or dumped in ash ponds.
The SCBA mineral proportions vary from one country to the other and Table 1 shows the works conducted by various
authors and the ratio of elements obtained in each sample of SCBA. This composition differs according to geographical
location, crop type, underground water, nature of soil etc. [23].
The formation of large quantities of amorphous silica is generally associated with the calcination of SCBA at temperature
ranging between 600  C and 700  C, and is the reason for its high pozzolanic activity. Consequently, SCBA reacts with the
portlandite produced during the cement hydration process and results in calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) formation, which
increases the mechanical properties of concrete [32]. Past studies have shown that the pozzolanic properties in SCBA can be
beneficial for concrete production, as the minerals present contributes to strength enhancement and durability safeguard.
In Mauritius, the sugar factories that generate electricity have earmarked large land areas to dispose of these unwanted
wastes. The region surrounding the land disposal cannot be developed due to the hazardous nature of these materials.
Soobadar and Ng Kee Kwong [33] stated that stowing of ash into the soil increases the soil's salt content. This increases the
electrical conductivity which may retard plant establishment growth and also affect the soil and groundwater quality. The
dumping of these wastes in the open lands could contaminate air and water bodies and have an irreversible impact on the
environment and human life [34]. It has been stated that people who are exposed to bagasse dust particles have a high
probability to develop lung diseases known as Bagassosis [35] Fig. 1.
Many studies on SCBA as a substitution material for cement have been conducted in the past. Most of the authors have
concentrated their effort on the mechanical properties of concrete however, experiments on durability have not been studied
in depth
From records, numerous researchers have experimented the utilisation of SCBA as a replacement to cement in concrete.
Dhengare et al. [21] studied the effect of replacing SCBA in concrete. The result showed that the maximum compressive
strength was achieved at 15 % replacement level. Nagpal and Saxena [36] studied the effect of partial replacement of cement

Table 1
Works conducted by different Authors.

Authors Countries Silicon Dioxide, Calcium Oxide, Iron (III) Oxide, Aluminium Oxide,
SiO2(%) CaO(%) Fe2O3(%) Al2O3(%)
Khan et al. [24] India 78.4 2.14 3.62 8.40
Loganayagan et al. [16] India 62 0.48 1.79 31.5
De A. Mello et al. [65] Brazil 75.58 1.79 9.91 2.50
Abbas et al. [25] Pakistan 80.45 2.73 2.38 7.19
Rodier et al. [26] Brazil 36.2 7.10 8.70 12.3
Rajasekar et al. [27] India 86.79 3.42 1.75 2.45
Zareei et al. [28] Iran 64.23 8.17 5.47 9.08
Rios-Parada et al. [29] Mexico 66.12 2.57 7.16 15.0
Ferreira et al. [30] Brazil 41.10 4.0 15.7 24.10
Patel and Raijiwala [19] India 58.62 1.92 12.25 14.95
Kawade et al. [31] India 66.89 1.92 – 29.18

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 1. Disposal of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash in the open environment.

by SCBA on fresh concrete. The results demonstrated that the addition of SCBA increased the workability of the concrete.
Finely grounded SCBA can successfully replace cement for higher compressive strength than traditional concrete. The latter
stated that the water-cement ratio (W/C) also depends on the cement's particle sizes, and inferred that finer the particle size,
the more workable the concrete will be. Srivastava et al. [37] analysed the effect of partially replacing cement with SCBA at
the ratio of 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 %. The latter concluded that SCBA in concrete could be replaced at a maximum limit of 10
%. Prasanna et al. [38] studied the mechanical and physical properties of concrete with an SCBA replacement ratio ranging
from 0 % to 30 % by weight of cement. The authors concluded that the compaction factor decreased with an increase in SCBA
content. For compressive strength, the results showed an increase in strength at 5 % of SCBA replacement. However, this
value decreased as SCBA content was increased above 5 %.
Rambabu et al. [34] examined the effect of sulphates on concrete with partial replacement of cement with SCBA at the
ratio of 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % by weight of cement. The results showed that the compressive strength increased with an
increase in SCBA content and prevented sulphates' attack. The authors concluded that SCBA could be replaced at 6 %, which is
the optimum value as per their findings. Lathamaheswari et al. [20] analysed the effect of replacing cement with SCBA at the
ratio of 2.50 %, 5.0 %, 7.50 %, 10 %, and 12.50 %. They stated that the workability was not affected by an increase in SCBA and
further inferred that the compressive strength, tension, flexure and modulus of elasticity were increased compared to
control concrete. The results concluded that SCBA could be replaced by 7.5 %. Quedou et al. [39] carried out the replacement
of SCBA by 0 %, 5 %, 10 % and 15 % with SCBA at a constant water-cement ratio of 0.53. They concluded that an optimum level of
10 % of SCBA replacement could yield a higher compressive strength of the concrete samples.
Jha et al. [40] explored the use of bagasse ash as a replacement to cement in the ratio ranging from 0 % to 20 %, and the
authors concluded that the slump values decreased as the percentage of SCBA were increased, and the compressive strength
and split tensile strength were found to be maximum at 10 % replacement. Chindaprasirt et al. [41] evaluated the use of
sugarcane bagasse ash as a partial replacement to cement in pavement concrete at the level ranging from 0 % to 60 %. The
authors opined that due to large bagasse ash particles, the pavement concrete properties were substantially affected. They
further pointed out that the mechanical properties, unit weight, thermal conductivity and surface abrasion decreased with
increased sugarcane bagasse ash content. Furthermore, the weight loss by sulphuric acid also decreased with an increase in
sugarcane bagasse ash. The authors also stated that increased sugarcane bagasse ash content increased the pavement
concrete's porosity, thus increasing water absorption. The authors pointed out that the pavement concrete containing 20 40
% of sugarcane bagasse ash exhibited good mechanical and durability properties.
Batool et al. [42] experimented the use of raw sugarcane bagasse ash in concrete and replace same with ratios from 5 % to
30 %. The authors concluded that the addition of SCBA increased the workability and, 10 % replacement was considered the
optimum amount for achieving high compressive strength, flexural strength and tensile strength. Praveenkumar et al. [43]
analysed the processing techniques used to produce treated bagasse ash (BA) and evaluated its properties on concrete. They
used up to 30 % of BA and studied its impact on the mechanical and durability properties of hardened concrete. They inferred
that BA used in the mix produced a higher strength activity index. Moreover, the specific gravity, workability and air content
decreased with a further addition of bagasse ash. The decrease was attributed due to the filler effect, the air content and
coefficient of permeability. The incorporation of bagasse ash up to 10 % reduced the water demand and enhanced the
compressive and flexural strength of cement mortar because of the high specific surface area, excessive percentage of
amorphous silica and calcium oxide satisfied the predominant requirements of pozzolanic material.
As mentioned, the literature seems to point a great deal on using SCBA on an experimental point of view, whereby most of
the works were conducted by maintaining the water/cement ratio as constant. This typical way of methodology gives an
overview of the viability of SCBA to act as pozzolanic material. The suitability of SCBA-concrete as a construction material can

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Table 2
Properties of OPC and SCBA.

Components OPC SCBA


SiO2 (%) 19.41 30.27
CaO (%) 62.88 1.69
Al2O3 (%) 5.26 23.80
Fe2O3 (%) 3.06 4.87
MgO (%) 3.22 1.37
Loss on Ignition (LoI) (%) 1.84 5.43
Specific Gravity (Kg/m3) 3710 2050
Colour Grey Light Brown

only be evaluable based on the outcome of the mechanical and durability properties with a constant slump range. This option
has not been explored by most of the researchers, albeit the fact that SCBA exhibit pozzolanic characteristics. Thus, this study
present an alternate methodology to use SCBA at 5%, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % replacement of cement in the production of concrete.
The main objective of this research is to evaluate the different behaviour of SCBA in the concrete samples. The mechanical
test is evaluated by the compressive and flexural strength, and durability test assessed by water absorption, water
penetration, carbonation and ultrasonic pulse velocity. The results obtained is compared with the control concrete samples
and impart information on the potency SCBA as a cementitious material. The use of SCBA will provide a sustainable and
reliable alternative to mitigate the impact of cement production globally by using readily available, and cheap alternatives.
Moreover, SCBA which is considered as a waste stream in many countries will contribute in reducing the environmental
impact and also protect the surrounding natural fauna.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

In the present experimental investigation, cement was partially replaced by sugarcane bagasse ash at different ratios and
characteristics on hardened concrete samples were The materials used in this research are as follows:

2.1.1. Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) conforming to EN 197-1:2000 CEM I 42.5 N was used in this experiment. The chemical
constituents and physical properties of OPC was obtained from the supplier’s certificate of analysis and is illustrated in
Table 2.
Fig. 2 shows the processed SCBA and the raw SCBA.

2.1.2. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA)


The sugarcane bagasse ash was collected from Medine Ltd waste disposal ground at Bambous located in the western part
of Mauritius. The SCBA was obtained from the burning of sugar cane bagasse, which was initially used for the co-generation
of electricity in Medine Ltd sugar cane factory. In this research, the black colour bagasse ash was burnt in the Université des
Mascareignes laboratory’s oven at a temperature of 240  C for 12 h. The material obtained was light brown in colour, and
much finer than the raw SCBA, as part of the remaining sugar cane fibres have been converted into ashes. The treated SCBA

Fig. 2. Processed SCBA on the left-hand side and raw SCBA on the right-hand side.

4
P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 3. Oxides composition for OPC and SCBA.

was then sieved as per BS 812 Part 103.1: 1985 with sieve size 75 mm. All materials passing through the 75 mm size was
collected for use in this experiment. The SCBA was used as a replacement for cement, and its properties are shown in Table 2.
The graph represented in Fig. 3 shows the different oxides composition of cement and SCBA. The process for retrieving the
SCBA from raw sugarcane bagasse ash in laboratory condition is illustrated in Fig. 4.

2.1.3. Natural coarse aggregates


The natural coarse aggregates (NCA) were obtained from our the local plant and consisted of crushed basaltic rocks. The
coarse aggregates were separated into two different gradings, which are 14 20 mm and 6 10 mm, and are shown in Table 3.

2.1.4. Natural fine aggregates


The natural fine aggregates (NFA) were supplied from the same local plant as natural coarse aggregates. The NFA size
varies from 0 4 mm, and its physical properties are represented in Table 4.

2.1.5. Water
Tap water was used for this experiment.

2.1.6. Admixture
The admixture of type Plastiment 900R MU from SIKA company Ltd was added to the concrete to improve workability and
retain the required slump over an extended period. The admixture was added with a proportion of 0.25 % by weight of binder
in each batch as per the product specification and requirements.

2.2. Concrete mix design

In this research, 120 cubes samples and 30 rectangular beams for all test were casted. The number of samples used in each
test are presented in Table 5.
The mix containing 100 % of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was defined as B1. The substitution of cement with SCBA
was experimented using 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % of treated SCBA in each batch. The concrete mix design was carried out
according to Teychenne et al. [44], which consisted of mix design calculations, tables and charts. The concrete was designed
for a target mean strength of 27 MPa at 28 days with a constant slump range of 130 150 mm. Table 6 shows the mix
proportion of 1 m3 of concrete on Saturated Surface Dry condition (SSD).
The concrete was mixed according to BS 1881: Part 125: 1986 with a drum mixer of wet mix capacity of 260 L in the
laboratory. The OPC and SCBA were mixed and used as one binder for batches No. 2, 3, 4 and 5. During the mixing process, half
of the coarse aggregates were added to the drum mixer, followed by fine aggregates and finally, the remaining half coarse
aggregates was added. The aggregates were mixed in the drum for 20 s. The mixing was continued and half of the water
content was added during the next 15 s. The whole batch was mixed for a total of 2.5 min and then stopped and the content in
the mixer was covered and left for another 10 min. The binder (OPC and SCBA) was added to the mixer's wet batch, and all the
materials were mixed for another 30 s. The remaining water was added over the following 30 s and mixing was continued for
2.5 min. Moreover, particular consideration was given to the high absorption value of SCBA and the final water required in the
mixing process of the concrete was adjusted according to the desired workability range (slump values). After the mixing was
completed, the concrete was off-loaded onto a clean non-adsorbent surface and mixed thoroughly using a hand tool to
ensure uniformity before sampling.

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 4. Process to recover the SCBA materials (a) raw bagasse ash from dumping zone (b) burning of raw bagasse ash in the oven for 12 h at 240  C and left to
cool (c) sieving of the SCBA (d) SCBA recovered after sieving through 75 mm aperture sieve.

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Table 3
Physical Properties of Natural Coarse Aggregates.

Test Properties 14/20 mm 6/10 mm


Specific Gravity (Kg/m3) 2750 2840
Water Absorption (%) 2.50 1.60
Bulk Density (Kg/m3) 1740 1780
Los Angeles Value (%) 32.7 34
Aggregate Crushing Values (%) 28.7 25

Table 4
Physical Properties of Natural Fine Aggregates (0-4 mm).

Tests Properties 0/4 mm


Specific Gravity (Kg/m3) 2910
Water Absorption (%) 2.50
Bulk Density (Kg/m3) 1765
Sand Equivalent Value (%) 84.0

Table 5
No.of Samples used in each testing.

SN Tests Testing Days and No. of Samples Used (Cubes and Beams)

7 days 28 days 56 days 120 days


1 Compressive Strength 3 3 3 3
2 Flexural Strength 3 (Beams) 3 (Beams)
3 Water Absoprtion 3 3
4 Water Penetration 3 3
5 Carbonation Beam samples from flexural strength was used
6 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Prior to compressive strength test, the cubes samples were used for the ultrasonic pulse velocity test

Table 6
Mix Proportion of Materials.

Specimen Type % of SCBA Cement Content (Kg) SCBA Content (Kg) Fine Aggregates (Kg) Coarse Aggregates (Kg) Water Content (Kg)
B1 0 308.0 0.0 1010 932 176.5
B2 5 292.6 15.4 1010 932 187.7
B3 10 277.2 30.8 1010 932 192.0
B4 15 261.8 46.2 1010 932 197.9
B5 20 246.4 61.6 1010 932 206.9

The specimens under study consisted of 120 numbers of 150 mm cubes and 30 numbers of 150  150  600 mm
rectangular beams prisms and were divided into five batche. The specimens under test were de-moulded after 24 h and
cured in water until the testing date.

2.3. Testing methods

In view to understand the effect and behaviour of OPC-SCBA combination on the hardened properties of concrete,
mechanical and durability tests, namely compressive strength, flexural strength, absorption test, water penetration test,
rapid chloride penetration test, carbonation test and ultrasonic pulse velocity test were carried out on the samples. The
results were analysed and compared with the control concrete samples. These values were represented in the bar charts and
corresponded to the average results recorded.

2.3.1. Compressive strength test


The compressive strength test was conducted on all 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm cubes samples at 7, 28, 56 and 120 days
respectively and according to BS 1881: Part 116: 1983. The cube samples were centred on a compressive strength testing
machine plate and were ensured that load were uniformly applied on two opposite surfaces. The load was gradually
increased on the lower surface of the cube at a nominal rate of 0.3 N/mm2 per second. As the cube's failure was approached,

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 5. Compression Machine.

the rate decreased and the sample was removed and verified for uncommon failure. The load at failure point was recorded
from the compressive strength Fig. 5.

2.3.2. Flexural strength test


Flexural strength test was conducted on beams of dimensions 150 mm x 150 mm x 600 mm as per BS 1881: Part 118: 1983
for two-point loading on 28 and 56 days of water curing. The test specimens were placed in the flexural strength machine and
centred correctly with the sample's longitudinal axis at right angles to the rollers. The load was applied steadily at a rate of
0.06 N/mm2 per second until the specimen's failure occurred. The maximum breaking load was recorded Fig. 6.

2.3.3. Water absorption test


The water absorption test was conducted on 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm cubes samples which were water cured for 28
and 56 days and tested as per BS 1881: Part 122: 1983. Cores samples of diameter 50 mm were drilled, and were placed in an
oven for 72 h. After the drying process, the samples were removed and placed in a dry airtight vessel to cool. Each core was
weighed and immediately immersed in a water tank for 30 min with 25 mm of water over the top of the specimen. After 30
min., the cores were removed and dried with a cloth rapidly and weighed. The measured absorption of each specimen was
calculated as the increase in mass resulting from immersion denoted as a percentage of the dry sample's mass Fig. 7.

2.3.4. Water penetration test


The water penetration test was conducted on 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm cubes and cured in water for 28 and 56 days, as
per BS EN 12390: Part 8: 2009. The specimens were placed in an apparatus and a water pressure of 500 K Pa were applied for
72 h. After 72 h, the specimens were removed and cleaned to remove excess water. The sample was split into half
perpendicular to the face exposed, and the watermark was recorded. The maximum depth of water penetration on the
concrete cube was measured Fig. 8.

2.3.5. Carbonation test


The carbonation test was performed to analyse the reaction of hydrated cement minerals with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
presence of moisture. This was conducted by evaluating the depth of the carbonated zone in the concrete sample. This test
was performed in compliance with BS EN 14630:2006 at 180 and 365 days on cylindrical cores of diameter 50 mm which
were split into half. A solution of phenolphthalein indicator containing approximately 1 g phenolphthalein was dissolved in

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 6. Flexural strength testing apparatus.

Fig. 7. Absorption test on cylindrical samples immersed in water for 30 min.

70 mL ethyl alcohol and diluted with distilled water up to 100 mL. The solution was poured into a container fitted with a
nozzle. The drilled cores were then sprayed with phenolphthalein solution on the dust-free surface. The depth was recorded
within 30 s of spraying, starting from the edge of the sample to the pink/red purple colour Fig. 9.

2.3.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test


The ultrasonic pulse velocity test was performed to evaluate a concrete's quality by passing an ultrasonic pulse through a
specimen. The objective of this test is to evaluate the porosity and to detect cracks in a membrane. The test was conducted in
compliance with BS 1881: Part 203: 1986. The test was performed on concrete specimens that were cured at 7, 28 and 56
days. The cube samples were taken from the curing tank and the excess water from the surface were cleaned. A pair of
transducers were attached to the ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus for the testing procedures and calibrated accordingly. In

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 8. Water penetration test.

Fig. 9. Phenolphthalein indicator sprayed on cylindrical samples.

this experiment, the direct method was used and the transductors were held tightly against each side of the cube. The transit
time (ms) and velocity (m/s) were recorded Fig. 10.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Chemical and physical properties of SCBA

It is essential to distinguish the chemical properties of SCBA and its reaction with OPC when both materials are combined.
A few factors influenced the harden properties of concrete such as the water-cement ratio, chemical composition, types of
materials, type of binder, and quality control during the concrete's blending process. Table 3 shows the chemical and physical
properties of OPC and SCBA. In SCBA, the main components are silica (SiO2), CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO and other oxides, which

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 10. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test.

are presented in low quantities. High silica in the SCBA could be due to the absorption of silicic acid from the soil and deposit
in amorphous state in the plant [45]. According to ASTM C618 [46], if the total sum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 is above 50 % of the
total mass, then the matter can be considered as a pozzolanic material. As per Table 3, the sum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 for
SCBA amount to 58.94 %, which implies that SCBA can eventually be used as a pozzolana and could contribute to the strength
development process in concrete. These results were in agreement with the reporting from Rodier et al. [26]. Besides the
main oxides, SCBA also contain carbon and water expressed by loss on ignition [47]. The loss on ignition (LoI) content of SCBA
is 5.43 %, which is within the range of 0.42–21 % as specified by Chusilp et al. [48]. As per ASTM C618 [46], the LoI content of
5.43 % is approved for Class C pozzolana. Moreover, Siddique [49] reported that a higher LoI content revealed the presence of
unburnt carbon which could decrease the pozzolanic activity of the SCBA at a later stage
The physical properties are as important as the chemical properties and significantly impact the concrete's hardened
properties. The specific gravity of SCBA was noted to be lower than OPC, which suggested that the SCBA concrete density will
be lower compared to normal concrete [50]. This could imply that increase in SCBA content will decrease the density of the
concrete. It was also observed that the colour of SCBA was light brown after the samples were further burned in an oven at
240  C for 12 h. This could conclude that the carbon content in the SCBA has decreased. Katare and Madurwar [51] stated that
the colour of the SCBA depends on the completeness of the combustion process and the structural transformation of silica in
the ash.

3.2. Compressive strength test

The compressive strength of the concrete samples containing SCBA at different proportions and curing period is
illustrated in Fig. 11. The control concrete containing 100 % of OPC was compared to the other mixes containing SCBA. The
strength development of control concrete was relatively high at each curing period due to the high cement content.
Meanwhile, the combining mixtures of SCBA from 5 % to 20 % showed some interesting aspects, especially at 120 days of
curing.
From the results above, the trend showed increasing compressive strength with respect to the curing period. However, a
decrease in strength was noted when the SCBA content was increase. This was due to the decrease in the quantity of Ordinary
Portland Cement and the high porosity nature of the SCBA [52,53]. At 7 and 28 days, the decrease in compressive strength
recorded for 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 %, ranged between 9.4–49.4 % and 2.8–40 % respectively. The addition of SCBA caused the
volumetric weight of concrete to decrease due to the low density of the SCBA fines [54]. Moreover, the slow hydration
reaction, low reactivity of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) and the reduction in Calcium Oxide (CaO) contents [55] could also contribute
to the decrease in strength.
At 56 days of curing, the decrease was less substantial with a varying reduction range from 0.4 to 21.6 %. It was also noted
that with the incorporation of 5 %, 10 % and 15 % of SCBA, the strength was similar to the control mix. However, it was
interesting to note an increase in strength at 120 days of water curing. The increase was observed for 5 % and 10 % of SCBA
replacement with an increase in strength of 2.78 % and 1.80 % compared to control concrete. Though, at 15 % and 20 % addition
of SCBA, a decrease in strength was observed. The strength improvement at 120 days showed that pozzolanic hydration of

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 11. Compressive strength of OPC-SCBA concrete.

Fig. 12. Flexural strength of OPC-SCBA concrete.

SCBA increased progressively over time [56]. The above results paradigm was in agreement with the works of Le et al. [56]
Bachtiar et al. [57], and [41,58]. The low early strengths and the later strength development was the common feature of the
pozzolans [20,59], whereby high reactivity of the SCBA was observed as the curing period was increased.

3.3. Flexural strength test

The flexural strength of the concrete samples with different combination of SCBA materials was shown in Fig. 12. The
comparison with control concrete was carried out and the flexural ability of the samples containing SCBA was evaluated with
curing periods at 28 and 56 days.
The graph showed the general decreasing trend of the flexural strength with respect to SCBA content in the mix.
Nevertheless, positive results were noted regarding the strength at later stages of curing. At 28 days, the decrease was around
1.15–20.7 % with increasing SCBA replacement level compared to the control mix. The replacement of cement by SCBA could
reduce the initial strength of the cementitious materials due to the cement's dilution effect at an early age [60]. It has been
further stated that cement composites with high silica content have continued to react with lime to form additional C-S-H gel
resulting in strength enhancement [61].
At 56 days, the trend was similar to that of compressive strength. However, the decrease was more significant with curing
time as the decrease was observed to be between 5.2–24.5 %. The decrease in strength was due to the high porosity content in
SCBA, which decreased the strength [52]. The increase in flexural strength at later stages was inferred to be attributed to the
increased in pozzolanic reactivity with increasing amounts of SCBA with time [62] and same was also supported by
Chindaprasirt et al. [41].
Fig. 13 shows the relationship between flexural strength and compressive strength of OPC-SCBA concrete at 28 days of
water curing. The flexural strength increased with increasing compressive strength and same was depicted by a high R-

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 13. Relationship between Flexural and Compressive strength of OPC-SCBA concrete at 28 days.

Fig. 14. Water Absorption of OPC-SCBA concrete.

square value (R2) of 0.9446. A similar work undertaken by Wongkeo et al. [63] concluded that flexural strength has a direct
relationship with compressive strength.

3.4. Water absorption test

The results of water absorption of concrete are demonstrated in Fig. 14. It showed an increasing trend of water absorption
with addition of SCBA in the mix. Moreover, it was observed that with increasing time, the water absorption rate decreased.
It was observed that the water absorption increased with increasing amount of SCBA materials and decreased with
increasing curing period. The increase at early days was between 389–476 % when compared to the control mix. This could be
explained by the fact that SCBA has a high absorption value due to the presence of pores in SCBA [52]. Nevertheless, this
increasing trend was seen to decrease at 56 days of curing period. The variation was noted to be ranging from 255 to 488 %
with respect to the control mix value. This was attributed to the dense and compact structure of the concrete samples that
decreased the water absorption [64]. Similar results were obtained from Zareei et al. [28]Chindaprasirt et al. [41] and Le et al.
[56], which ascribed the high absorption rate due to the increased amount of voids in the samples thus producing a more
porous specimen.

3.5. Water penetration test

The water penetration of the concrete mix was presented in Fig. 15. The chart showed the increasing pattern of the SCBA
concrete samples. Moreover, as per the results recorded, the trend was similar to that of water absorption (decrease in water
penetration with time).
At 28 days, the graph showed increasing water penetration as compared to control mix values. This was attributed to the
high porosity nature of the SCBA and voids availability to be filled with water. Nonetheless, this trend was observed to drop
with ageing period. The abate was between 23.8–112.7 % for 28 days of curing for 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % of SCBA replacement
level. This increase in water penetration could be well explained by the high porosity nature of SCBA material, which fill up all

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 15. Depth of water penetration with OPC-SCBA concrete.

Fig. 16. Measurement of water penetration in concrete sample.

the pores with water. Furthermore, at 56 days a diminution of 33.3–133.3 % was noted compared to the control mix. The
difference between 28 days and 56 days was not much significant and showed that with time, the concrete was much denser
and compact, therefore limiting the penetration of water [64]. The trend was comparable to that for water absorption
properties and was mainly due to voids in the samples. Fig. 16 shows the measurement of penetration depth in the concrete
sample.

3.6. Carbonation test

The evolution over time for carbonation depth for each concrete mixture is shown in Fig. 17. The carbonation process in
the OPC-SCBA blended samples showed an enhancing trend compared to the control concrete specimens.
The results demonstrated that the carbonation of the concrete samples increased with the curing period. At 180
days of curing, the carbonation depth tendency from the upper surface layer was increased by increasing SCBA
content. However, it was noted that at 5 % of SCBA replacement, the value was the same as compared to the control
concrete, whereas for 10 % and 15 %, the percentage was 100 % and that of 20 % SCBA replacement, the increase was
300 %. The high porosity of SCBA and slow pozzolanic reaction allowed the penetration of moisture easily into the
samples with increasing SCBA content. The reaction of hydrated cement component with humidity content took place
and the surface layer was carbonated. Fig. 18 depict the measurement of the carbonation depth in the concrete
sample.
With increasing age from 180 days to 365 days, the carbonation depth was almost thrice in depth values. The trend also
showed the same increasing pattern as that for 180 days which meant that the carbonation depth increased with increasing
SCBA content. At 5 % SCBA substitution, the value remained the same as that of the control concrete. However, at 10 % and 15
% of SCBA replacement, the depths have increased by 50 %. It was also observed that the carbonation depth was greater than
that for 180 days. The addition of SCBA in the mix resulted in decreased capillary pores due to C-S-H formation, which
decreased both the permeability and carbonation rate [32].

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 17. Carbonation Depth of OPC-SCBA concrete.

Fig. 18. Measurement of Carbonation Depth in the concrete sample.

3.7. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

The results for ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) with increasing SCBA content is presented in Fig. 19. Generally, UPV
propagation through a solid material usually depends on its density and elastic properties. It is proven that a concrete
with higher UPV is possibly associated with higher compressive power, and vice versa, but not generally, with the same
proportion [56].
In this study, the results showed an increasing trend of the pulse velocity through the concrete specimens at an early age,
with a significant decrease in velocity with the continual addition of SCBA in the mix. At 7 days of curing, the pulse velocity
decreased as the amount of SCBA was increased. The percentage change in velocity for 5 % SCBA replacement was 3.8 %
compared to the control concrete. At 10 %, 15 % and 20 % SCBA replacement, the decrease was 9.7 %, 13.3 % and 17.9 %
respectively. This was attributed due to the low density and high porosity in SCBA. The presence of pores was the main
contributive factor for low velocity in the OPC-SCBA blended mix, and same was reported by Mulay et al. [64]Zareei et al. [28]
and Le et al. [56].

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Fig. 19. Effect of ultrasonic pulse velocity on OPC-SCBA concrete.

At 28 and 56 days of age, the concrete specimens showed the same tendency as that for 7 days. The pulse velocity
decreased with increasing SCBA content in the mix. The decrease at 28 days for 5%, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % of replacement of
SCBA were 4.1 %, 9.4 %, 11.2 % and 15.3 % respectively. At 56 days of curing, the velocity across the specimens decreased by
3.54 %, 9.0 %, 11.8 % and 14.6 %, respectively. The overall pulse velocity of the OPC-SCBA specimens have increased with
time. This demonstrated that with increasing concrete age, the concrete has become more compact, hence the reason for
high velocity [62].

4. Conclusions

The outcome of this study portrayed the properties of SCBA as a pozzolanic material and its ability to supplement cement
as the main binder in concrete production. The main conclusions of this research were based on the results obtained and
were as follows:

1 The compressive strength decreased at early days (7 and 28 days) with addition of SCBA. This was ascribed to the high
porosity of SCBA. The decrease was observed between 9.4–49.4 % for 28 days and 0.4–21.6 % for 56 days. Nevertheless, an
increased in strength was observed at 120 days for 5 % and 10 %. This was ascribed due to the pozzolanic hydration over
time I the concrete samples.
2 The flexural strength of the concrete decreased as the amount of SCBA was increased. This decreasing effect was due to the
dilution effect of cement which reduced the strength at early days.
3 The presence of pores enhanced the absorbent properties of the concrete, thus increasing the water absorption values. The
increase was between 389–476 % for 28 days and 255–488 % for 56 days. However, with increasing curing period, a
decrease in the absorption paradigm was noted. It was inferred that with increasing time period, the concrete matrix was
denser and more compact, thus slowing the absorption rate.
4 The water penetration increased with increasing SCBA content. The water penetration at 28 days for 5 % and 20 % were
measured at 13.0 mm and 22.3 mm respectively, which were high compared to control concrete (10.3 mm). This increase
in water penetration was suggested to be due to the high-water absorption nature of SCBA at an early age. However, these
values decreased with increasing curing time and was due to the concrete matrix compactness.
5 The carbonation test exhibited an increasing carbonation rate with increasing SCBA content. At 180 days and 365 of curing,
the carbonation depth for 5 % (1 mm) was similar to the control concrete value but gradually increased to 7 mm for 20 %
replacement level. The high porosity and the weak intergranular bonding of SCBA particles ease moisture permeation into
the concrete specimens.
6 The Ultrasonic pulse velocity increased with time, demonstrating positive characteristics and slow reaction at early stages.
This was due attributed to the low density and weak intergranular bonding. Furthermore, the velocity was observed to
decrease with an increase in SCBA content, which was illustrated by the compactness of the concrete matrix over time.

The outcome of this experiment showed that SCBA could be used as a surrogate material for cement in the production of
concrete. In view of the above discussion and considering strength and durability properties as viewpoints, the best
combination would be to use 10 % of SCBA for non-structural elements purposes. This optimum level will not only enhance
the performance of the cement blending but also contribute to preserving the environment.

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P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin and C. Bokhoree Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00545

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.

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