CHAPTER II

LITERATURE OF THEORIES

2.1 Grounded theory

A .Anxiety

1. The Definition of Anxiety

Anxiety and panic are a series of mind and body reactions that have experienced by
each people around the world especially when they speak in front of many people.
Anxiety is state of tension and expectation of disaster. Anxiety-ridden individuals are
continuously unhappy, worrisme and pesimistic, irrespective of existing or
nonexisting dangers (Benjamin Wolman & George Stricker,1994).
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines anxiety as “the state of feeling
nervous or worried that something bad is going to happen”, while based on Horwitz
(1986, 125) explain that “anxiety is subjective feeling of tension, apprehension,
nervousness and worry associated with an arousal of the automic nervous system”.
Spielberger (1970) state that anxiety is the subjective feeling of tension,
apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automic
system.
In summary, anxiety is a normal feeling of a human of being unease, nervous, afraid,
and worry in our mind when we are faced to something or we are in an unpleasant
situation that we think it is uncomfortable with us.

2. The Categories of Anxiety

K.T. Strongman (1995) writes in his academic journal “ Theories of
Anxiety” define that theories of anxiety divided into five categories,
namely: psychoanalytic, learning/behavioral, physiological,
phenomenological/ existential, and cognitive.
a. Physchoanalytic
The realistic anxiety that referred by real objects is everyday anxiety; this has often
been referred to as fear rather than anxiety. Although, neurotic anxiety as an
unconsious conflict within the individuals since the conflict was unconcious, the
person was not aware of the reason for their anxiety involve in a panic attack.
b. Learning/ behavioral
Hans Eysenck cited in Rofiatulumah develop the theory of anxiety that rests on more
fundamental personality theory, this theory depends on two major dimensions,
extroversion/ introversion and neuroticism. In this context, the neurotic individual is
particularly sensitive to anxiety-provoking stimuli, this sensitivity being based on the
automatic nervous system. So, from this perspective, anxietyproneness is inherited.
However, anxiety can also be learned.Traumatic events lead to unconditioned fear,
but can then become conditioned resulting in new stimuli producing the original
anxiety responses, anxiety is viewed as conditioned fear.
c. Physiological
This category based on an exposition of what parts of the central nervous system
might be involved in emotion in general and fear or panic or anxiety in particular. It
is rely on a model of human psychology which rests on natural science.
One of the most interesting physiological expositions of emotion comes from Gray
(1982, 1987) cited in K.T. Strongman (1995), it is one of substantial theory of
anxiety which should be dealt with under thephysiological heading. Gray regards the
behavioral inhibition system as foundation of anxiety. He argues that the behavioral
inhibition system suppresses any behavior that threatens as unwelcome outcome.
d. Phenomenological/ existential
Here anxiety is seen as a naturally occurring state of person.
The distinction between fear and anxiety is very similar; fear is
of specific object although anxiety is independent of any object, instead being a
necessary condition of choice. Anxiety only develops after the development of self
awareness allows a person also to form a self-hood. A fearful person moves away
from a feared object, whereas an anxious person is in conflict and unsure.
This is developed by Fischer (1970) cited in Rofiatulumah, there are five
components of terms of anxious experiencing, and they are:
1) There is an identity, which takes the form of milestones towards a way of
living. If any of these milestones are threatened so that they might be lost, then
anxiety results.
2) There is a world, which consist of a network of relations and involvement for
each milestone. If anything in this world seems insurmountable and the world thus
becomes threatened, then again anxiety may result.
3) There is motivation in which the world and the
person’s identity are perpetuated.
4) There is an action, which is involved in achieving a milestone and which
expresses being.
5) Finally, there is ability which is a lived evaluation of uncertain competence.
For Fischer, anxiety is both anxious experiencing and the experiencing of the self or
the other being anxious.
As should be obvious from this brief description,
Fischer’s conceptualization of anxiety is vague,
although it is experiential or phenomenological and he does not really success in
fitting all the other types of
formulation into the theory, even though the vagueness helps.
e. Cognitive
This theory follows that high and low anxiety of people will also differ in cognitive
appraisal of ambiguity. Moreover, a person might be more susceptible to stress and
anxiety in some stress situation than others.
Eysench point out that the evidence about the role of the cognitive system in
accounting for differences in susceptibility to stress is unclear but there are
differences in cognitive functioning. The important thing of the theory of (trait)
anxiety is that it draws attention to the importance of taking into account the
cognitive system as well as the physiological and the behavioral, Strongman (1995:4-
10) cited in Rofiatulumah.
3. Type of Anxiety
Anxiety is a normal part of life, and its an emotion that is familiar to all of us.
Anxiety can be catagorized as state anxiety, trait anxiety, and situation specific
anxiety.
Based on Zeidner & Matthews (2011:8) cited in Anshori, trait anxiety refers to being
anxiety-prone, that is a stable personality characteristic. Some individuals are more
easily made anxious than others and are said to be high in trait anxiety. Another
definition give by
Spielberger (1970:3), trait anxiety refers to “relatively stable individual differences
in anxiety-proneness”.
From the definition above, the researcher conclude that trait anxiety is kind of
anxiety which is come from the body of person and it is nature in their body. People
with trait anxiety always feel anxious when they have a problem, especially a
problem related to their emotional security. People with trait anxiety has condition
where the anxiousness is an inherent aspect of the personality which is exhibited in a
variety of situation even it is not dangerous.
The second type of anxiety is state anxiety, it is considered as an obstacle and
interruption of individual’s emotional equilibrium. Zeidner & Mathews (2011:8)
cited in Anshory suggest the state anxiety, which refers to the immediate feelings of
being anxious, such as nervousness and bodily tension. Spielberger (1970:3) states
that state anxiety is transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism
that is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feeling of tension and
apprehension and heightened automic nervous system activity. A person who
experienced a state anxiety is more likely to feel stress and nervousness or unable to
confront any event. In such moments, the person may feel nervous and can easily
react to external stimuli. From the definition above, the Researcher conclude that
state anxiety has the meaning as an unpleasant or uncomfortable feeling which can
disturb the individual’s ability to react positively to any situation and in a certain
environtment. It is nature in everybody, people will automatically or unconscious
they feel worried, scared and trained when they are in bad condition. When the
object or situation that is make someone anxious is goes away, the person is no
longer feel anxious. For example, when the person hears bad information about his
parents, he becomes so anxious, so that emotional equilibrium will be put into
question. Another simple example condition of state anxiety is when someone taking
a job interview, doing an important task, in a presentation, and any other condition
which is made someone feel pressured.
The third is situation specific anxiety. Situation specific anxiety based on
MacIntryre (cited in Toth 2010:5) situation specifid anxiety could be defined as a
personal predisposition or tendency to become anxious in one type of situation, that
is a trait of anxiety applied to particular context. Situation specific anxiety refers
from trait in that the former is applied to a single context or situation only while the
latter tends to manifest under any stuation. Moreover the situations specific anxiety
is suitable overtime but not necessary consistent across situations. The anxiousness
of this anxiety is persistent aroused by spesific situation and it is not lited by time.
The Researcher gives an example of this anxiety is public speaking, stage fright and
joint with foreign people.

4. The Symptom of Anxiety

Symptom of anxiety is the most common from of psychoneurosis occuring among
individuals possessing above average intelligence and it also arise from the
overaction when someone meet a difficulties, stress, and strains of life.There are
several signs of anxiety that showed by anxiety symptomps involve in our body,
mind, and behavior. Dixon
(2012 : 22). These symptoms are :
1. Our Body
Someone who felt anxious to faced something usually visible by the signs :
a. Breathing becomes more rapid
b. Heart beat speeds up
c. Feel dizzy and light-headed
d. Get “butterflies” in stomach
e. Feel sick and need a toilet
f. The mouth becomes dry and it feels difficult to swallow
g. Feel sweat more
h. Feel “jittery” or “jumpy”
2. Our mind
a. Feel frightened
b. May tell ourselves that we are physically ill, having heart attack or a stroke or
a going mad
c. Think that people are looking at us
d. Worry that we may lose control and make a fool of ourselves in front of
others
e. Feel that we must escape and get to a safe place.
3. Our behaviour
a. Make excuses to avoid going out or doing things
b. Hurry out a places or situations where are feel anxious
c. Walk to avoid buses cross the street to avoid people.

In sumarry, symptom of anxiety is the reaction or sign which come from our body
and our mind when we are face something situations and make us uncomfortable.
The symptom of anxiety make the students losing their concentration on class,
espeacially when the student speak in front of the class.

5. The Sources of Language Anxiety

Shu Feng Tseng (2012:84) explain some important causes of anxiety among
language. The language learners in the present study as follows
:
1. Pressure by parents and teachers to get good grades at school in
English.
2. Lack of preparation in speaking English and lack of confidence in their
ability to learn English.
3. Fear of making mistakes and subsequent punishment or
ostracism, fear of losing face for not being perfect.
4. Fear of foreigners and their behavior. Because of the importance of English
on test for advancement in education and in society, parents and teachers press
students not only attain their potential, but to actually produce results beyond their
ability.

5. Conditioning in childhood to believe that English is an extremely difficult

language to learn.

Meanwhile, Kota Ohata (2005) state that language anxiety can arise from :
1. Personal and interpersonal anxieties
Commonly personal and interpersonal are most sources of anxiety, it was
investigated in correlation with other social and psychological constructs. For
example, people with low self-esteem may worry what their friends think, they are
afraid to get a negative response, result or evaluation. Thus, some of the performance
anxieties mentioned earlier might be categorized largely into one psychological
construct, those psychological phenomena, accompanied by low self-esteem and
competitiveness, can become the place for student language anxiety, as often directly
in the form of performance anxieties (Ohata, 2005).
Personal and interpersonal factor are important factor according to the researcher.
Anxieties come from the mind of the person. The researcher agree with the argument
from the expert above.
2. Learners’ beliefs about language learning
Learners beliefs about language learning also contribute to the student’s tension and
frustasion in the class (Horwitz, 1986:127). He presents various kinds of learner
beliefs, suggesting that some of them are taken from the learner’s unrealistic and
sometimes erroneous conceptions about language learning. He found some results as
follow:
a. Some learners were concerned about the correctness of their speech in
comparison to native-like accent or pronounciation.
b. Some believed that two years of language learning is enough to achieve a
native-like fluency.
c. Some expressed that language learning means learning how to translate.
d. Some others believed that succes of second language learning limited to a
few individuals who are gifted for language learning.
The researcher agree if learner beliefs about language learning become the factor of
anxiety. In Indonesia, English used as foreign language which learned in the school.
Much of the students interest in learning English. The teacher, sometimes give the
example which come from the native speaker. It inspire the students to mastery the
English more. The students learn about correctness in grammar, vocabulary, fluency
and more. It makes the students become anxious when they speak in front of people.
They are afraid if they are wrong in vocabulary grammatical, lost word, and others.
3. Instructors’ beliefs about language teaching
Instructors’ beliefs about language teaching can also become a source of creating
language anxiety among learners. The teacher’s assumption on the role of language
teachers may not always correspond to the student’s need or expectations toward the
teacher. The researcher gives an example, when a teacher believes that his role in
class is to constantly correct students’ errors. Some of the students might become
quite anxious about their class performance. As a good teachers, they should evaluate
their teaching style to create a comfortable class to reduce the student anxiety.
4. Instructor-learners interaction
There is an interaction between learning and the enviromental components in which
the student grew up, and both negative and positive experiences have a strong impact
on the success of language learning. The process of interaction between the
instructor (teacher) and learner (student) is regarded as factor causing anxiety for the
students. If the learner does not understand the teacher’s corrections or explanation,
this can be a cause for anxiety.
The Researcher argue that interaction between student and teacher is important factor
to make a low anxiety clasroom environment. When the class has low level anxiety
environment, the students automatically feel comfortable to receive and
understanding the explanation of the teacher.
5. Classroom procedures
Many learners feel that some error correction is necessary; the manner of error
correction is often said as provoking anxiety. Those studies that investigated
anxieties in relation to instructor-learner interactions show that students are more
concerned about how their mistakes are corrected rather than whether error
correction should be administrated in class.
In addition, some of the classroom activities in oral presentations in front of the class
are also causes as potential sources of anxiety
(Ohata, 2005)
6. Language testing
Language testing is one of the factor which contribute the anxiety to the students. It
would lead to other psychological stresses, such as the fear of losing self-confidence
or feeling inferior to others.
In addition, sometimes students felt pressured to think that they had
to organize their ideas in a short period of time while carring about grammar errors at
the same time.
The Researcher agree that language testing also contribute to the anxiety of the
students. In Indonesia, testing sometimes called as the technique to collect a score of
the students. All the students afraid if they get a bad score, it is important to the
student. For example of testing which make students anxious such as : a teacher
gives a test in short period will make students feel very anxious and pressured, the
teacher doing a test without notification to the students before (unprepared for the
students), the teacher gives unfamiliar and ambiguous test task and formats.
6. Students Strategies for Reducing Anxiety
If someone in a situation that feel difficult to do thing, one of the important thing that
need to do is relax. Normally, the feeling of fear of the situation causes panic or
become tense and flustered. Someone just need to calm down and relax in these
moment. This is the technique to relax, when someone in difficult situation, the body
will have started to react as if it is a dangerous or highly stressful situation and heart
rate will jump, someone will feel physical sign of tension and possibly start blushing.
The instinc will be to run and feel panicked. What someone want is reverse this and
feel confidence, calm, and in control.
David Shinji Kondo and Yan Ying-Ling (2004) write in academic journal about
strategies for reducing language anxiety. In their journal, there are five strategies can
used by students for reducing their anxiety to perform in front of class, namely:
preparation, relaxation, positive thinking, peer seeking and resignation.
1. Preparation
The first strategies is preparation. In this strategy, students attemps to control their
own self by improving learning and study strategies (examples: study hard, trying to
obtain good summaries of lecture notes). By using these strategies would be
expected to increase students’ subjectively estimated mastery of the subject
matter and reduce the anxiety associated with the language class.
The researcher argues that preparation is one of the effective strategy. Preparation is
effective because it traince our self to facing the potential condition. By using
preparation, we can prepare all the things we need in the side of material when facing
the problem (test/perform). Preparation also can combine with other technique to
support us from the side of emotion.
2. Relaxation
The second one is relaxation, the goal of this strategy for reducing somatic anxiety
symptoms. Making relax the body by doing something (example: take a deep breath
and try to calm down). The more one relaxes, the more anxiety loses. Sit comfortably
and straight in the classroom seat. Before class or during class, take long, slow
breaths, hold it for four or five seconds and release it slowly. Exercise turns nervous
energy into positive energy through a calming release of breath, Shu Feng Tseng
(2012:84)
Based on the observation, the Researcher include praying to the God into relaxation
technique. For the people who has religion and believe to the God, praying to their
God is also one of the technique to relaxing their mind. So, typical items or some
action to relax is by take a deep breath, try to calm down, drink water, close the eye,
praying to the God, and more (different person has different way to relax their body).
3. Positive Thinking
The third strategy is positive thinking, it is characterized by cooling down of pressure
problematic cognitive process that underlie students’ anxiety, think that everything
can be well. These strategies are intended to divert attention from the stressful
situation to positive and pleasant cues, and bring relief to the anxious student
(example: imagining oneself giving a great performance, trying to enjoy the tension).
It is necessary to think positive, to realize that everyone makes mistakes learning a
language and that making errors in an integral part of the language learning process.
It is also important to realize that perfection is an impossible goal and that is not a
requisite for success, Shu Feng Tseng (2012:84).
4. Peer Seeking
The fourth strategy is peer seeking, this strategy distinguished by students’
willingness to look for other students who seem to have trouble understanding the
class and/ or controlling their anxiety. For the anxious student, the realization that
others are having the same problem may serve as a source of emotional regulation by
social comparison.
5. Resignation
The last strategy is resignation. This is characterized by students to run from the
problem and they doesnot want to belong to the activity because minimizing the
impact of anxiety by refusing to face the problem. Some of the action in this
strategies are giving up, sleeping in class.
The Researcher argues that it is one of the extreme strategy. This may be because
“accepting the reality” is one of many ways to reduce stress and tension. They do not
want to try and re-try after failing because they are afraid of more stress. Resignation
seems to be one possible strategy choosen by the students. This strategy only offers a
temporary quick solution. Later, those students have to face greater problems. They
may not be able to acquire proper mastery of the second language and may also fail
in examinating.

7. Foreign Language Anxiety

Foreign language anxiety is widely used to describe the feeling of tension and
apprehension, which is specifically associated with foreign language learning
contexts including listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Mesri, 2012). Foreign
language anxiety is a situation specific from of anxiety that doesnot appear to bear a
strong relation to other forms of anxiety; that is, it is related to the language learning
context (Horwitz, 2001).
According to the researcher, foreign language anxiety can represent emotionally and
physically uncomfortable situation condition for some students in foreign language
classes. If the students are very anxious in class, they are probably not actively
involved in learning process.

8. Categorization of Language Anxiety

Foreign language anxiety is the feeling of worry and nervousness experienced by
those who are spoken English as a second language when learning and teaching
process. The feeling of anxiety in EFL interrupt the desire to develop speaking skill,
because of speaking skill can not be separated with presentation performance, we
need to spaek to communicate and convey any knowledge.
There are three related anxieties as components of foreign language anxiety :
communication apprehension (the fear of communicating with other people), test
anxiety (the fear of exam, quizzes, and other assignment), and fear of negative
evaluation (the worry about how others view the speaker). The primary sources of
language anxiety explicated by Horwitz (1986 :127) are communication
apprehension, fear of negative evaluation and test anxiety. Here are the explanation
of them :
1. Communication apprehension is an individual level of fear or anxiety
associated with either real or anticipated communication with either real or
anticipated communication with other person. Some of the students feel anxious and
fear to communicate and speak to other people in foreign language because of their
limited knowledge of the language target. For example is when a student ask or
discuss with the teacher in English, they may be anxious because they not understand
what the teacher is saying.
2. Test anxiety refers to the individual’s disposition to react with extensive
worry, intrusive thoughts, mental disorganization, tension, and physiological arousal
when exposed to evaluative contexts or situations (Spielberger et al in Zeidner 2010 :
22). Horwitz (1986) state that test-anxiety refers to a type of performance anxiety
stemming from a fear of failure. Test- anxious students often put unrealistic demands
on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect performance is a failure.
In other hand, test anxiety is an apprehension towards academic evaluation. It could
be defined as a fear of failing in test and an unpleasant experience held either
conciously or unconsiously by learners in many situations. The researcher think that
test or evaluation can make a student feel anxious because every students are afraid if
they are fail in a test and make they get a bad score.
3. Fear of negative evaluation. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) propose that fear
of negative evaluation is closely related to communication apprehension. When
students are unsure of what they are saying, fear of negative evaluation occurs and
they may doubt their ability to make a proper impression. The inability either to
express oneself or to comprehend another person leads to frustation and
apprehension. When students are unsure of what they are saying, fear of negative
evaluation occurs and they may doubt their ability to make a proper impression. The
inability either to express oneself or to comprehend another person leads to frustation
and apprehension.
In other hand, fear of negative evaluation is observed when foreign language learners
feel incapable of making the proper social impression and it is an apprehension
towards evaluations by others and avoidance of evaluative situations. The Researcher
give an example : a student fear and feel anxious to perform in front of the class
because he/she afraid that all of the students will laugh at her/him because of making
a mistake.

9. The Effect of Anxiety in Learning Language

Anxiety has debilitative and facilitative effects. The positive anxiety is called a
facilitating anxiety, and the negative anxiety is called debilitating. Ellis (2011:402)
cited in Rofiatulumah states that facilitating anxiety is level of anxiety (usually
relatively low) that rising performance and debilitation is anxiety sufficient intensity
that is interferes with performance, this is can motivate the student to learn and
succed. This type of anxiety helps students or learners to improve their knowledge
and performance.
Debilitating anxiety has a negative impact on students’ motivation and their
preparation before and during presentation or during speak in front of the class. For
example are nervous, tremble, blank mind, and other negative impact. In other hand,
facilitating anxiety keeps the student motivation and pushing students to do more
efforts to reduce the negative impact ofanxiety and to do the best they can do while
against their anxiety, (Scovel 1978) cited in Rofiatulumah.
The cognitive, affective, and physiological reactions accompanying language
learning anxiety are experienced by some learners on a nearly daily basis, and in
others are commonly observed in testing situations, when due to nervousness exam
takers forget earlier known information or make careless and otherwise preventable
mistakes (Paradowski et al 2015:34).
The researcher based on explanation above have a notion that anxiety become a
barrier in their speaking in speaking English language. Feeling of stress is considered
as the cognitive part of anxiety and have a negative effect on speaking. For example
when students have a high level of anxiety they will fear and afraid to speak in front
of the class and deliver their argument. It will make them have a problem in
developing their ability in speaking and problem in activity in the learning process.
The difficulty in speaking in class occurs especially in situations when students have
to deliver a speech they have not rehearsed earlier or to take part in spontaneous role-
play (Paradowski et al 2015:35).
To reduce the students anxiety the teachers who teach anxious students also has
important role, they can also do many things to help their students in overcoming
speaking anxiety. Providing a fun activity in the class is the way to help the students.
Therefore the researcher has a opinion that motivation and big effort to do the best in
each performance are needed by students to reduce their feeling of fail, anxious,
nervous, unconfident and feeling of shy with their ability by using the power of the
students’ self and supporting by the teacher and the condition of the class. All of
negative feeling should be remove from students’ mind and increase the positive way
to their confident in improving their motivation for doing better than before.

10. Previous Related Study

In this graduating paper, the researcher takes review from other thesis that related
with this graduating paper as principle or comparative of the case in this research.
The first previous study is from Lindy Woodrow (2006) with the title “Anxiety and
Speaking English as A Second Language”. This research show that speaking English
as second language can make the student feel anxious. In this research show that all
of the interview participants reported experiencing some anxiety when speaking in
English as a second language. “communication with native speakers” was the most
reffered to out-of-class stressor. Some of participants talked about some of the ways
they dealt with their speaking anxiety is to perseverance. To perseverance, this
students tries to use relaxation teachniques to deal with his anxiety. In this research
found that it is important to take into consideration communication both in and
outside the classroom and ensure that students have the necessary skills and practice
for everyday communication. This way can help to reduce the anxiety of students to
speak English.
The second previous study is from the thesis of Rofiatulumah (2014) with the title
“A Descriptive Analysis of Students’ Anxiety on Presentation Performance in
Teaching-Learning Process. English Department of Education Faculty State Islamic
Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga”. In this research, the researcher found that most
of the students are at mildly anxious level of anxiety; there are 14 students who have
mildy anxious level of anxiety. Meanwhile there are 6 students who have anxious
level of anxiety and there are 3 students who have relaxed level of anxity. The
researcher found that a half number of student feel anxiety caused by students’
beliefs about language learning. They feel afraid of making mistake, unconfident and
they have difficulties to speak English, and the other students caused by personal and
interpersonal anxiety, commonly they feel unconfident to speak in front of other and
they feel afraid when they unprepared the material well.
The third previous study is a research entitled “ A study of students anxiety in
speaking performance at the third semester of english education department in IAIN
Surakarta academic year 2015/2016. This research is conducted by Amirudin Aga
Anshori. The purpose of this research is to find out the factors or sources of students’
anxiety in speaking class in the third semester of IAIN Surakarta in academic year
2015/2016 and to find out students’ strategies to reduce the students’ anxiety in
speaking class in the third semester of IAIN Surakarta in academic year 2015/2016.
The method of collecting data are interview and observation. This research is
qualitative research. The result of the research showed that the students of the third
semester have factors in anxiety, that are lack of preparation, personal and
interpersonal factor, and fear of making mistake. The researcher also found strategies
that were used by students in reducing anxiety in speaking English like prepare the
material, take a deep breathing, and relaxation.
From the previous study above, there have been similarity and differences between
these studies. The similarity between this research and other research is same about
anxiety and speaking English Language. While the differences is the setting of the
research. In this research is conducted in MAN 4 Bantul in the academic year of
2017/2018
 B. Speaking

1. The Definition of Speaking

Speaking is used by everyone to communicate something in daily life. Through

the activity of speaking, people can convey the message, information, ideas, opinion,
and feelings orally.
Speaking is defined as the way to use or be able to use a language for vocal
communication which has variety of meaning (Richards, 1999:61). Brown
(2001:257) said that speaking is literary to say things, express thought aloud, and
uses the voice.
Speaking is not easy to express something orally. However, the students need to
acquire some speaking aspects to have a good speaking skill. Brown (2001:168)
stated that there are some components should berecognized by learner in learning
speaking:
a. Pronunciation
Thornburg (2005: 127) stated that pronunciation refers to the students' ability
to produce comprehensible utterances to fulfill the task requirements. It refers to the
production of individual sounds, the appropriate linking of words, and the use of
stress and intonation to convey the intended meaning.
b. Grammar
Harmer (2001:12) said that grammar of a language is the description of the
ways in which words can change their forms and combine into sentence in that
language. It helps the learners to combine the words, to produce sentence correctly.
In speaking, grammar could help the learners will to different the formal and
informal expression or polite and impolite expression.
c. Vocabulary
Vocabulary is one of important element in speaking. Without vocabulary,
learners cannot say something. The learners can make a sentence or communicate
effectively what they want to say. One cannot communicative effectly or express
 their idea both oral and written form if they do not have sufficient vocabulary. So,
vocabulary means the appropiate diction which used in communication.

d. Fluency
Fluency is used to measure capable or incapable someone in using the
language. Fluency is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and
confidently, with few hesitations, or natural pauses, false start, word search, etc
(Nunan, 2003:55).
e. Comprehension
In learning English, comprehension is an ability to perceive and process
stretches of discourse, to formulate representations the meaning sentences (Brown,
2007:226). It requires someone can understand what other speakers say
automatically in oral communication.

Based on the theores above, it can be put forward that speaking is the activity in
utterring words or in using a language by making a speech in ordinary voice to
express the thought, the ideas, the feeling and the willingness. There are five
components of speaking skill namely, pronounciation, grammar, vocabulary,
fluency, and comprehension. In speaking, the speaker uses speech sound as the
signal to convey the message.

2. Element of Speaking Skill

This part is to review the related criteria of speaking ability to measure
speaking skills that are accuracy, fluency, and appropriateness.
1. Accuracy
Accuracy is one of the important criteria to measure someone’s linguistic
ability. According to Spratt, Pulverness, and Williams (2005:34), accuracy means the
use of correct forms of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. In other words,
accuracy in languae means grammatical accuracy only. In summary, speaking
 English accurately means doing without or with few errors on not only grammar but
also vocabulary and pronunciation.
2. Fluency
Fluency is also criterion to measure speaking competence.
Spratt, Pulverness, and Williams (2005: 34) defines fluency as “ speaking at a
normal speed, without hesitation, repetition, or self correction and with smooth use
the connected speech” more specifically, Thornbury (2005) points out the criteria for
assesing fluency. They are follows :
a. Lack of hesitation : students speak smoothly, at a natural speech. They do
not hesitate long and it is easy to follow what they are saying. In this criteria the
students speak natural as usual, not too slow not too fast.
b. Length : Students can put ideas together to form message or an argument.
They can make not only the simplest of sentence pattern but also complex ones to
complete the task. In this criteria the speaker speak of what he have to speak. It
means that he arrange the word, the sentence and say it as it needed.
c. Independence : Students are able to express ther ideas in a number of ways,
keep talking an ask questions, an many more to keep the conversation going.
In other word, fluency is the ability of someone when he/she is speaking to
express his/her argument and ideas and communicate with other people without stop
and wasting much time to think of his/her word.
3. Appropiateness
Appropiateness is related to the level of formality when someone speak to
other. Appropiateness is also used as a criterion to measure speaking competence.
According to Spratt, Pulverness, and williams (2005:18), appropiate in speaking
shows the different levels of formality that is more or less relaxes ways of saying
things.
The researcher argue that knowing the level of formality determine the word
which choosen by the speaker to make the sentence are appropiate or not and also
determine that the speaker is polite or not. In speaking activity, appropiateness is
very important to be mastered by the students. It is because it will indicate wheter the
 students really understand what they said or not, understand to whom they are
talking. The appropiateness in speaking in formal, informal, and neutral situations in
a conversation will show their ability in understanding the context and situations of
the conversation in English.
3. Type of Classroom Speaking Performance
In designing speaking activities or materials for second language or foreign-
language teaching, it is necessary to recognize the different functions speaking
performs in daily comunication and the different purposes for which the students
need speaking skill. Based on Brown (2000: 271-274), there are six types of
speaking. There are imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional, interpersonal, and
extensive.
1. Imitative
In imitative speaking performance, learners imitate or parrot back a word or
phrase or possibly a sentence. The purpose of imitation is not for meaningful
interaction but for focusing on some particular eleents of languae form. Drilling is
the example of imitative speaking performnce.
2. Intensive
An intensive speaking goes on step beyond imitative to include any speaking
performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of
language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can even form part of some
pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain forms of language.
3. Responsive
Responsive is short replies to teacher or student- initiated questions or comments.

4. Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging
specific information, is an extended form of responsive languge.
5. Interpersonal (Dialogue)
Interpersonal dialogue carried out more for the purpose of maintenanting social
relationship than for the tranmission of facts and information.
6. Extensive (monologue)
Students at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to give extended
monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speechs. Here
the register is more formal and deliberative. These monologues can be planned or
impromptu.
Thornbury (2005:89-110) suggest some activities to promote speaking. They
are discussion and debate; drama, role play, and simulation; presentation; classroom
conversation and casual chat; outside class speaking; and storytelling, joke, and
anecdote.
Discussion and debate tend to be difficult speaking activities and therefore
they are commonly suitable for higher level students (intermediate/ advance). Many
teachers would agree that discussion at class which arise students to talk
spontaneously is a good activity since it provokes the students to exchange
information.
Drama, role play and simulation are other speaking activities that active students’
imagination. Drama allows the learners to take an imaginative leap out of the
confines of the classroom, provides a useful springboard for real-life language use.
Just in areal theatre, a preparation stage including rehearsal is done for public
performance. Role play has appeal for students because it allows the students to be
creative and to put themselves in another person’s place for a while. The students can
play as a customer and buyer, teacher and student etc. In a simulation, on the other
hand, the students play themselves in a simulated situation for example they make a
simulation of what students should do when an earthquake strikes.
Presentation is a planned talk that is arranged systematically. It can be done
individually or in group. It is usually followed by a question session which is the
most chalenging stage of presentation. Classroom conversation and casual chat are
two different activities. Casual chat or talk is primarily interpersonl, unplanned
communication, and tends to be natural since it is spontaneous. But, not many
students can speak spontaneously with their friends. Many teachers then make a
 planned conversation called a classroom conversation to encourage the students to
speak English.
Outside-class speaking consist of some activities done outside the classroom.
These include (a) such as tape diaries which are the learners recording their voice
and submitting the recording to the teacher in order that they can get the feedback;
(b) video conferencing in which the learners communcative via a live audio or video
link over the internet; and (c) human computer interaction in which people talk by
responding to written input like using chat room at yahoo messenger and facebook.
The last speaking activity type includes storytelling, jokes, and anecdotes.
Storytelling is a universal function of language and one of the main ingredients of
casual conversation. Delivering jokes and anecdotes could be a funny rehearsal of
speaking.

4. Micro Skill and Macro Skill in Speaking

In speaking, there are two kinds of skill. Those are micro skill and macro skill.
Based on Brown (2003: 142-143), there are eleven micro skills and five macro skills
of oral communication as follows:
a. Micro Skill
1) Orally producing differences among the English phonemes and allophonic
variant.
2) Producing chuncks of language of different lengths.
3) Producing English stress pattern, word in stressed and unstressed positions,
rhythmic structure, and intonation contour.
4) Producing reduced forms of words and phrases.
5) Using an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish
pragmatic purposes.
6) Producing fluent speech at different rate of delivery.
7) Monitoring one’s own oral production and use various strategic devices-
pauses, fillers, self-correction, backtracking- to enhance the clarity of the message.
8) Using grammatical word classes (nouns, verb, etc), systems (e.g, tenses,
agreement, pluralisation), word order, patterns, rules and elliptical forms.
9) Producing speech in natural constituent in appropiate phrases, puse groups,
breath groups, and sentence
constituent.
10) Expressing a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
11) Using cohesive devices spoken is course.
b. Macro skill
1) Accomplising appropiately communicative functions
according to situations participants and goals.
2) Using appropiate registers, implicative, pragmatic, conventions,and other,
sociolinguistics features in face to face conversations.
3) Conveying links and connections between even and
communication such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given
information, generalization and explication.
4) Using facial features, kinesis, body language and other non verbal cues along
with verbal language to convey meanings.
5) Developing and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing
keyword, rephrasing, providing a context interpreting the meaning of word,
appealing for help and accurately assessing how well your instructor understands.
Based on the theories above, it can be put forward that they are to kind of skill in
speaking, namely ; micro skill and makro skill, macro skill are produce chunks of
language different lenghts, produce reduced form of word and phrases and use an
adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes. Micro
skill are appropritely accomplish communictive functions according to situtions,
prticipants and goals, convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other non
verbal cues along with verbal language.