INTRODUCTION

TO RESEARCH
Issues...
◻ Why are we interested in research?
◻ What is research?

◻ Key concepts and issues

◻ Introduction to validity

Why must we understand research?

◻ help make informed decisions
◻ need to produce research in career

◻ evaluating research in the media

◻ assist in classes

Why is research a valued source of

knowledge?
◻ Common ways of knowing…
🞑 personal experience/intuition
🞑 experts/traditions/authority

🞑 scientific method
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
◻ Science…
🞑a body of established knowledge
🞑 the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon

usually the ultimate goal is theory

generation and verification
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
◻ Theory…
🞑a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that
specify relations among variables to explain and
predict phenomena
🞑 should be simple, consistent with observed
relationships, tentative and verifiable
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
◻ Scientific Method…
 🞑 involves the principles and processes regarded as
characteristic of or necessary for scientific
investigation
🞑 process or approach to generating valid and
trustworthy knowledge
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
◻ Research…
🞑 theapplication of the scientific method 🞑 a
systematic process of collecting and logically
analyzing information (data)
◻ Research Methods (Methodology)… 🞑 the
ways one collects and analyzes data 🞑 methods
developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable and valid procedures

Characteristics of Research
◻ objective
◻ precise

◻ verifiable

◻ parsimonious

◻ empirical
◻ logical
◻ probabilistic

Types of Research
◻ Trochim’s Classifications…
🞑 descriptive
■ e.g., percentage of regular exercisers
🞑 relational
■ e.g., link between age and exercise
🞑 causal
■ e.g., effect of behavior change intervention on exercise
 participation

Types of Research
◻ Other Common Classifications…
🞑 basicvs. applied vs. evaluation
🞑 experimental vs. non-experimental

🞑 analytical vs. descriptive vs. experimental vs.

qualitative
Key Concepts and Issues
◻ time in research
◻ variables
◻ types of relationships

◻ hypotheses

◻ types of data

◻ fallacies

◻ structure or research

◻ deduction and induction

◻ ethics

◻ validity

Time in Research
 cross-sectional vs.

longitudinalrepeated measures

time series

Variables
◻ variable…
🞑 any observation that can take on different
values ◻ attribute…
🞑a specific value on a variable
Examples
Variable Attribute age

Examples
Variable Attribute age 18, 19, 20,

etc...
Examples
Variable Attribute Gender or

sex

Examples
Variable Attribute Gender or sex

Male, female
Examples
Variable Attribute satisfaction

Examples
1
Variable Attribute satisfaction
= very satisfied
2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied
 4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

Types of Variables
◻ independent variable (IV)…
🞑 what you (or nature) manipulates in some
way ◻ dependent variable (DV)…
🞑 what you presume to be influenced by the IV
Examples
 IV DV

health status

attitude intervention

social support
exercise
participation
The purpose of the study was to…
 🞑 test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is
effective in promoting moral development in youth 🞑
examine the relationship between age and VO2max.
🞑 test whether there are gender differences the value
placed on sport participation
🞑 determine whether students’ perceptions of the
amount of positive, negative, and informational
feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of
their self-esteem and level of achievement

IV, DV?

Types of Relationships
◻ correlational vs. causal relationships

one variable
causes the other
variables perform in a
synchronized manner
variable

correlation does not imply

causation! (it’s necessary but not
 sufficient)
Types of Relationships
◻ patterns of relationships…
🞑 no relationship
🞑 positive relationship

🞑 negative relationship

🞑 curvilinear relationship
+

t
i

-
-+ resting HR
+

-
 -+ vocabulary

y
++
t

r
e

s
o

-
-
e
-+ HR
-+ arousal
Hypotheses
◻ hypothesis…
🞑a specific statement of
prediction ◻ types of hypotheses
🞑 alternative vs. null
🞑 one-tailed vs. two-tailed

Hypotheses
◻ alternative hypothesis (HA)…
🞑 An effect (that you predict) ◻
null hypothesis (HO) … 🞑 Null
effect

Hypotheses

hypothesis there is a relationship between age and

exercise participation

HA there is a relationship
 HOthere is not a relationship

this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted
Hypotheses

hypothesis an incentive program will increase

exercise participation

HA participation will increase

 HO participation will not increase or will
decrease

this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted
Types of Data
◻ quantitative vs. qualitative
Research Fallacies
◻ fallacy…
 🞑 an error in reasoning (logic or premise)
◻ types of fallacies described by Trochim
🞑 ecological

🞑 exception

Structure of
Research
The
"hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions
 narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions

Deduction and Induction Deduction

 Induction

Ethics in Research
◻ balance between protecting participants vs. quest
for knowledge
◻ IRB provides one mechanism

🞑 informed consent/assent
🞑 confidentiality and anonymity

🞑 justification of procedures

🞑 right to services

🞑 http://www.rsp.ilstu.edu/policy/IRB/IRB_policy.pdf

Practice Questions
1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal? 2.
 Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal? 3.
What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses?

Note: Provide exhausted explanation(s) to your claims and support it with

Scientific literatures, studies, articles, etc.
Use APA style of citation.

Submit your answer to [email protected]

Practice Questions
A. The purpose of the study was to examine the link
between age and physical fitness levels in terms of
muscular strength and endurance. It was
hypothesized that older and younger adults would
demonstrate significantly different fitness levels.
Practice Questions
B. The purpose of the study was to determine
whether track athletes trained to use mental
imagery performed superior to athletes who did
not receive the mental imagery training. We
expected those athletes receiving the training
 would perform significantly better than the
untrained athletes.
Practice Questions
C. The study examined the effects of an acute bout of
resistance training on participants’ mood and
cognitive functioning at 1, 6 and 12 hours post
exercise. It was expected that the positive effects
on mood and cognitive function would decline
over time.
Practice Questions
D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon were
polled to determine their satisfaction with the
course. The race officials hoped for positive
reactions on the part of the runners.
Practice Questions
E. A researcher was interested in the role of caffeine
in sports performance. In cooperation with her
University’s baseball team, she randomly assigned
players to one of two conditions: (1) no caffeine or
(2) low dose (100mg). She then used performance
on a batting machine as a test. She speculated that
 caffeine would positively affect performance.
Introduction to Validity
◻ validity…
🞑 the best available approximation to the truth of a
given proposition, inference, or conclusion
Introduction to Validity
◻ types of validity…
🞑 conclusion

🞑 internal
 🞑 construct

🞑 external

types of validity are cumulative

Introduction to Validity
◻ for each type of validity there are typical threats,
and ways to reduce them
◻ this provides our framework for critiquing the

overall validity (= worth) of studies

 Additional Information
◻ Describing Refereed Articles
◻ Sharing Research Findings with Clients

T
he Validity Questions Are Cumulative...

T
he Validity Questions Are Cumulative...
 Is there a
In this study
relationship between
the
cause and effect?

T
he Validity Questions Are Cumulative...
 Is the

relationship causal? In this

Is there a relationship
studyConclusion
between
the cause and effect?

T
he Validity Questions Are Cumulative...
 In theory
Can we generalize to the
constructs?

Internal
Is the relationship causal?

Conclusion
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
The Validity

Questions

Are

Cumulative..

. Can we generalize
 In theory
to other persons, places, times?

Construc t Can we generalize to the

constructs?

Internal
Is the relationship causal?
Conclusion
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?

The
Validity
Question
s are
cumulativ
e...
 V
alidity

External
Can we generalize to other
persons, places, times?

Construct
Can we generalize to the
constructs?

Internal
Is the relationship causal?
Conclusion
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?

Validity
Questi
ons
are
Cumul
ative
 Validity

External
Can we generalize to other
persons, places, times?

Construct
Can we generalize to the
constructs?
 Internal
Is the relationship causal?

Conclusion
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?